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Civil Engineering Systems

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Civil engineering systems is the emerging discipline.[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] that promotes systems thinking to manage complexity and change in civil engineering within the wider context of other forms of engineering, as well as science, technology, mathematics, biology, ecology, social science, economics, law, politics and philosophy. It recognises that the proper development of civil engineering infrastructure requires a holistic, coherent understanding of the relationships between all of the important factors that contribute to successful projects whilst at the same time recognising the need to attend to technical detail. Its purpose is to help integrate the entire civil engineering project life cycle from conception, through planning, designing, making, operating to decommissioning.

History of key underpinning concepts[edit]

The key concepts have had a long gestation linking right back to the way the ancients thought about change [6]. Important ideas include the unity of the whole vis a vis the behaviour of its parts, sensemaking through layers of abstraction and interconnectedness. More recent influences have been cybernetics, operations research, general systems theory, systems dynamics, soft systems and critical systems thinking, complexity theory, action research, process philosophy, uncertainty and risk [1].

History of Civil Engineering Systems[edit]

Civil engineering systems is rooted in the meeting of Colin Brown (1929-2013) [7] and John (Ian) Munro [8] in the 1960s [4]. Munro was a structural engineer at Imperial College, London who specialised in shell theory but became interested in the mathematics of constrained optimisation based on linear programming and dynamic programming and information theory. He met Brown whilst on study leave in Berkeley where they both attended seminars led by Lotfi Zadeh on fuzzy sets. In the mid-1970s David Blockley [9]. at the University of Bristol, UK, published papers in which he used fuzzy sets to integrate measures of structural engineering safety on key subjective and objective criteria. He demonstrated his proposals by analysing a series of civil engineering failures. In the meantime Paul Jowitt became Munro’s first PhD student. Brown spent time at the University of Canterbury New Zealand where he met David Elms [10] who was also interested in using fuzzy sets to model structural engineering safety. Brown moved to a chair at Washington State University in Seattle and together with Munro founded the Journal of Civil and Environmental Systems [11] in 1983. Munro died prematurely in 1985. Jowitt is currently Editor in Chief after moving to a chair in civil engineering at Heriot Watt University in Edinburgh in 1987. He was president of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 2009 a position he used to campaign on global poverty and climate change. Modern contributors to the development of civil engineering systems include Priyan Dias [12] of the University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka who was a PhD student at Imperial College working on the design of reinforced concrete and went on to make important contributions to the philosophy of engineering. Mark Milke [13] at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand modelling resilience of infrastructure and Marc Maes [14] at the University of Calgary, Canada on risk. The community of researchers and practitioners of civil engineering systems is small but growing [15]. Patrick Godfrey [16] who was a Director at Halcrow has pioneered the use of systems thinking on projects such as the Second Severn Crossing and Heathrow Terminal 5. In 2006 he was appointed full professor and Director of the Systems Research Centre and the UK EPSRC Industrial Doctorate Centre in Systems at University of Bristol and University of Bath with over 100 graduates in the first 10 years [17].

Quite independently Andrew Templeman [18] at the University of Liverpool developed civil engineering applications of optimisation theory and in 1982 wrote one of the first texts on civil engineering systems [5]. Richard de Neufville earned a PhD from MIT in 1965 and subsequently, as a Professor of Engineering Systems, [19] developed his “flexibility in engineering design” model [2] which shifts focus from fixed specifications to system performance under a broad range of uncertain future scenarios.

Scope[edit]

There is no agreed formal definition of civil engineering systems. However there are some core strands that are shared but differently emphasised.

First [1] is the idea that civil engineering systems is not a subject like theory of structures or hydraulics but rather a philosophy of approach to the practice of civil engineering.

Second [2] [5] is the importance of control through feedback and feedforward.

Third, [3] [4] within that approach, there is a need to put the traditional hard systems techniques of engineering (seen by many as merely applied science) in a wider context that recognises the crucial role of soft systems. In other words to recognise the essential role of people in the art of civil engineering systems. Hard systems analyses leave people out of the model – soft systems make people central to the modelling. Civil engineering systems encourages an integrated approach. In practice this requires an explicit encouragement of collaboration and shared costs and benefits between stakeholders.

Fourth [1] [3] is to help recognise, understand and manage uncertainty better. This includes an understanding and identification of complexity in the relationship between what we know and what we do (how we act). It also includes deterministic chaos, systems interdependencies as well as the various ways in which disparate parts of the human population perceive and act when faced with risky decisions. The traditional pattern in civil engineering is to design to specifications set outside of the engineering process - by client wishes, design codes, technical standards or governmental regulations. The traditional engineering task is to optimize the technology so that it meets a set of criteria. Designing for uncertainty radically changes this approach.

Fifth [3] [4] is to understand and manage our choice of systems boundaries so that they are not as narrowly defined as has been the case in the past. Commensurate with this is the need to understand the influence and assumptions about the context of our decision models.

Sixth [1] is to recognise and understand better the relationship of engineering with social science and with political and corporate decision making. A requirement to achieve this is to develop a better philosophical understanding of terms such as subjective and objective and how such theories can be tested for dependability in the exercise of a professional duty of care.

Topics[edit]

Some of the topics covered include:

Structures:[5] [20] Structural quality, safety, risk and reliability [21]. Impact of earthquakes [22]. Energy use and conservation [23]. Site selection [24]

Water & waste: In 1965 [25] the Harvard Water Program set about finding new ways of improving multipurpose water resource systems. Tools such as simulation and risk modelling were combined with economics, cost-benefit analysis and the notion of defining systems boundaries to produce results which were embodied into US legislation. The work anticipated aspects of the Brundtland Commission definition of sustainable development [26]. Ofwat (the economic regulator of the water sector in England and Wales) [27] has called for a systems thinking approach [28] to provide resilient, reliable and sustainable water and wastewater services. The UN and the World Water Council have issued a white paper in 2018 on water accounting for water governance and sustainable development [29]. Other applications include abatement of pollution and acid rain, stream stability and scouring, use of sensors, desalination and salt water intrusion into aquifers.

Transport: includes transportation planning, the design, operation and management of facilities for any mode of transportation for safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people, goods and services [30] [31]. Other applications include traffic assignment, routing systems, road congestion, urban renewal, evaluating the condition of bridges, container traffic managing emergency services, queueing models and impacts of delays.

Geotechnical engineering and Geotechnics: Systems geology looks at geological information as a set of interacting objects and processes [32]. Geotechnics is about investigating subsurface conditions and materials to find physical/mechanical and chemical properties then designing earthworks, pavements and foundations, such as piles, for structures, monitoring ground conditions, evaluating the stability of slopes, assessing risks especially of dams [33]. Other applications include reliability and statistical modelling variations in groundwater flow, soil consolidation and settlement and controlling landfill and leakage [34].

Other: Remote sensing and GPS, sustainability and resilience [35]. Environmental impact assessment. Project planning, critical path scheduling and resource allocation [36].

Methodology[edit]

What decisions must be made with what criteria? How best to make them? Are they related and what are the external factors? Methods include mathematical programming, systems thinking, uncertainty, safety risk and resilience and design.

Mathematical programming for optimisation derives from operational research (OR). It is a hard systems methodology that addresses how to solve a problem with linear and non-linear methods such as dynamic, quadratic, convex, discrete and stochastic programming. Linear programming is a way of finding an optimum value for a linear mathematical function subject to linear constraints. It can find the amounts of cut and fill in road schemes, the minimum weight for a structure [37] and optimum solutions for other planning, routing, scheduling and assigning problems [38]. Non-linear programming is more difficult but serves the same purpose when the mathematical functions are not linear [39] [40] . Examples include strategies for managing infrastructure [41] transportation costs [30] structural design [42] and removing pollutants from water [43]. Process simulation and dynamic programming is applied to problems that can be broken down into a sequence of decision steps over time such that earlier results can be deduced from later ones by recursion. Applications include route assignment problems such as transport of goods, people or water [44].

Systems thinking attempts to integrate hard and soft systems [1] [45]. Its methods grew from a realisation that often things go wrong if engineers do not address questions of why before how [1]. By this thinking engineers need to address the purpose of a system before they address how to make it [1]. The reasons are many but include the need for everyone with a stake (including clients and the natural environment) to influence a common purpose that facilitates collaboration, to identify and understand interdependencies between activities, to share risks and benefits and to harmonise the ‘big picture’ with the detail[1]. Systems thinking necessarily requires careful consideration of system boundaries and the dependence on the context or meta-system. It is ‘joined-up’ thinking [46] - getting the right information (what) to the right people (who) at the right time (when) for the right purpose (why) in the right form (where) and in the right way (how) [1].

Uncertainty, Safety Risk and Resilience: Civil engineering failures and disasters (whether natural or man-made) are few [20] but when they do happen there may be large loss of life and resources. Lessons learned have driven changes in methodology [47]. One of the landmark emergent concepts of the 1960s was the application of Bayes’ theorem (developed by Thomas Bayes in 1763) [48]. Structural safety and reliability [21] assessment relied on simple safety factors until Alfred M Freudenthal [49] in the USA and Alfred Pugsley in the UK suggested the use of probabilistic methods. Alfred Pugsley realised the limitations of mathematical methods and was the driving force behind the formation of SCOSS [50] in the UK to report on all aspects of structural failure.

Design: Civil engineering design is traditionally narrowly understood as the planning of how to make what is to be made. It is not included in lists of creative industries - for example the UK Government 2001 Creative Industries Mapping document [51] which defines creative industries as those ‘’which have their origin in individual creativity, skill and talent and which have a potential for wealth and job creation through the generation and exploitation of intellectual property”. The American Society of Civil Engineers [52] state that ‘’The creativity and innovative spirit of civil engineers are showcased in the projects they have created throughout the world’’. W. B. Stouffer, Jeffrey Russel and Michael Oliva [53] use a definition of creativity by Torrance [54] as “the process of sensing problems or gaps in information, forming ideas of hypotheses, testing, and modifying these hypotheses, and communicating the results. This process may lead to any one of many kinds of products—verbal and nonverbal, concrete and abstract” to show that maintaining our infrastructure is creative and crucial for our collective futures. Civil engineering systems thinking emphasises that good practice requires decisions about why and how projects are to be performed to be intimately related. It depends crucially on where systems and sub-systems boundaries are drawn [1]. In the best modern practice civil engineers are involved in procurement from the very start of projects [55].

Relationships with other disciplines[edit]

Other forms of engineering: Systems engineering as defined by INCOSE grew out of a concern in the USA about the shortage of engineers who could think in terms of the total system rather than a specific discipline. The first participants were largely from the aerospace, defence and IT industries. Initial definitions of total were concerned with hard systems such as a whole aeroplane and not necessarily including wider soft systems such as operations. More recently Sillitto et al [56] have suggested that “Systems Engineering is a transdisciplinary approach and means, based on systems principles and concepts, to enable the realization of successful whole-system solutions”. INCOSE has more than 60 local chapters in three geographic sectors. There is little evidence of interactions with civil engineering systems.

Architecture: Civil engineering systems is closely related to architectural design in that it requires everyone involved to understand that building is a team activity. Systems boundaries are drawn so that at every stage the relevant inputs from the professional players are made so that thinking is joined-up and benefits, costs and risks are shared. The starchitects who take the limelight but do not credit publicly the creative input from engineers have little part to play in this kind of approach.

Social sciences: Systems thinking emphasise that engineering is done by people for people. Analysis of engineering failures [20] has shown that human behaviour is crucial – hence the need for a soft systems approach. Barry Turner demonstrated in the 1960s that man-made failures don’t just happen – they incubate – and the trick to prevent them from happening is to read the signs [57]

Politics, Law & Economics Governments at all levels are major procurers of civil engineering work. Consequently decisions are subject to the vagaries of political decision making and short-termism. Politicians often make decisions that frustrate engineers since changes invariable increase costs and incur delays[58]. The successful Olympic Games of London 2012 were an outstanding example of the type of benefit that can be accrued by using principles aligned with systems thinking [55]. David Howarth has written that law and engineering have much in common as both are concerned with producing devices useful for clients [59]. Alvin Roth argues that economists should use an engineering approach to design markets [60]

Philosophy Carl Mitcham [61] writes that philosophy has not paid sufficient attention to engineering and that despite common presumptions to the contrary, philosophy is important to engineering. Priyan Dias and David Blockley maintain that civil engineering is reflective practice [62] built on models of observation. Karl Popper wrote “Observation is always selective. It needs a chosen object, a definite task, an interest, a point of view, a problem. And its description presupposes a descriptive language, with property words; it presupposes similarity and classification, which in their turn presuppose interests, points of view, and problems” [63]. Dias and Blockley suggest that civil engineers need this kind of philosophical thinking to clarify our collective understanding of whether professional judgements are subjective, inter-subjective or objective and that ethics is central to taking a proper duty of care. Ethics is the set of moral principles governing or influencing conduct [64] [65].

See Also[edit]

References[edit]

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  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 de Neufville, R (1990). Applied Systems Analysis: Engineering Planning and Technology Management. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-016372-0. Search this book on
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Further Reading[edit]

  • McDonald Patrick H (2001 2nd Edition), Fundamentals of Infrastructure Engineering, Civil Engineering Systems, Marcel Dekker Inc, New York. ISBN 0-8247-0612-9 Search this book on .
  • Stark R M; Nichols R L. (1972) Mathematical Foundations for Design: Civil Engineering Systems. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, U.S.A. ISBN: 978-0070608573

External Links[edit]


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