Puerto Rican Health in NYC
Health Conditions Affecting NYC Puerto Ricans[edit]
Diabetes Mellitus[edit]
18% of NYC Puerto Ricans suffer from Diabetes mellitus, compared to 17% of all NYC Latino groups, and 10% of NYC non-Latinos.[1]. Diabetes is impacted by nutrition and lifestyle choices and affects the amount of insulin that your body produces. When there is a lack of insulin or your body stops producing insulin, too much sugar accumulates in the blood stream causing serious long term health problems such as vision loss, kidney disease and heart disease[2].
Asthma[edit]
The prevalence of Asthma is nearly three times as high among NYC Puerto Ricans compared with NYC non-Latinos[1]. Asthma is a fairly common disease that affects the lungs causing coughing, chest tightness, wheezing, and breathlessness[3]. Asthma is heavily influenced by the environment, which contains triggers that may precipitate asthma attacks. Asthma can be managed at home with medications and by avoiding triggers, but often this disease can lead to hospitalization when symptoms are exacerbated. Adequate knowledge on managing asthma and compliance to medication can improve quality of life[4].
Serious Psychological Distress[edit]
Serious psychological distress (SPD), a measurement of sadness, nervousness, restlessness, hopelessness, and low self-confidence, is relatively high among Puerto Ricans living in NYC[1]. 12% of NYC Puerto Ricans suffer from SPD, compared to 8% of NYC Latinos and 5% of NYC non-Latinos[1]. Mental health affects one's overall quality of life and can manifest as a variety of physical symptoms. Symptoms such as sadness can set limits on activities of daily living and prevent an individual from maintaining a healthy lifestyle.
Unintentional Drug Overdose[edit]
Unintentional drug overdose affect Puerto Ricans in great numbers compared to other Latino and non-Latino groups. Among Latinos who died of drug overdoes, almost two-thirds were Puerto Rican, and 80% of all the unintentional overdose deaths in NYC involved opioids[1]. Staggering statistics such as these indicate a serious addiction issue and excessive exposure to drugs.
Risk Factors Affecting Puerto Ricans[edit]
Obesity[edit]
38% of NYC Puerto Rican females and 35% of NYC Puerto Rican males are obese[1].Obesity can lead to serious health problems, including diabetes, high blood pressure and heart disease[1]. Obesity is directly linked to food consumption and lifestyle choices. Those who eat foods high in sugar and fats and live sedentary lifestyles are prone to gaining excess weight which leads to a variety of health issues. Knowing one's Body Mass Index can give a good sense of risk for obesity.
Smoking[edit]
The high smoking rate among Puerto Ricans is driving up the Puerto Rican death and disease rates[5]. The percentage of Puerto Ricans in NYC who smoke is much higher than that of NYC Latinos and NYC non-Latinos[1]. Smoking is directly linked to lung cancer as well as other health problems. Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of preventable disease in the United States accounting for 480,000 deaths every year, or every 1 in 5 deaths[6]
Hypertension[edit]
Hypertension is the leading risk factor for heart disease and stroke. 37% of NYC Puerto Ricans live with high blood pressure, compared to 33% of NYC Latinos and 27% of NYC non-Latinos[1].Uncontrolled hypertension damages and weakens the brain's blood vessels causing them to narrow, rupture or leak. High blood pressure can form blood clots in arteries and prevent oxygen from getting to the brain[7]. Hypertension has been also linked to diets high in sodium, cigarette smoking and excess stress, which is relevant to Puerto Ricans living in NYC.
Other factors[edit]
Housing Conditions
Cockroaches and mice are known asthma triggers[1]. Personal use of pesticides can be a signal that building owners are not adequately controlling pests. Among adults who use pesticides to control insects in their home, NYC Latinos are more likely than non-Latinos to use Tempo or insecticide chalk (15% vs. 6%), which are dangerous and not intended for personal use[1].
Intimate Partner Violence
Intimate Partner Violence is defined as ever fearing for one's own safety or the safety of others because of anger or threats from a current or former intimate partner.[1]. Among NYC Puerto Ricans, 6% have experienced intimate partner violence, which is a marginally higher statistic when compared with NYC non-Latinos who have experienced intimate partner abuse (4%)[1]
Condom Use
Regular condom use reduces the risk of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, and unintended pregnancies.[1]. Among NYC Latino High school students, 56% use condoms compared to 66% of NYC non-Latino High School students who use condoms[1]
Cultural Traditions Affecting Health[edit]
Nutrition[edit]
The Puerto Rican diet is generally high in calories, complex carbohydrates, fats, sodium, incomplete proteins, meats, and starchy vegetables[8]. Complex carbohydrates used in the Puerto Rican cuisine include breads, cereals, soda crackers, rice and corn meal[8]. Legumes, rice and beans are examples of incomplete carbohydrates used in their diet[8]. Many meats are used in the Puerto Rican cuisine and include chicken, pork sausage, turkey, beef, pork chops, spare ribs, and marinated pork[8]. Other meats such as fish is eaten, but in smaller amounts than other meats[8]. Starchy vegetables used include plantains, green bananas, taniers, white and yellow sweet potatoes, and chayote squash[8]. Among other non-starchy vegetables, lettuce and tomatoes are used[8]. Some calcium and milk products are used to make café con leche and flan[8]. Popular dishes in the Puerto Rican cuisine include arroz con pollo, tostones, and carne frita con cebolla[9].
A high sodium Puerto Rican diet can lead to troubling the kidneys with excess sodium in the bloodstream[10]. An increased blood volume may result from an increase in water retention[10]. The increased blood volume increases the heart work load and, over time, can lead to stiffened blood vessels, high blood pressure, heart failure, heart attack and stroke[10].
Starchy vegetables are high-carbohydrate rich foods[11]. The high amount of carbohydrates consumed by the Puerto Rican community is first metabolized into glucose and then stored as glycogen and fat[12]. Increased fat storage from carbohydrates and fats produce inflammatory proteins that can set the stage for Metabolic syndrome[13].
Many NYC Puerto Ricans live in the south Bronx[1], an area referred to as a Food desert[14]. The lack of access to healthy affordable foods influence the health of Puerto Ricans and other residents living in the neighborhood.
Health Beliefs[edit]
- The hot and cold theory of disease
- The hot and cold theory of disease attempts to achieve equilibrium among the four body humors.[15]. This system is derived historically from the Hippocratic humoral theories of disease, which affects the way many Puerto Ricans therapeutic regimes for health conditions, antepartum and postpartum care[16]. The four humors hold the secrets to health and include the following body fluids: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile[17]. Good health constitutes a proper mixing of the humors, and if there is any imbalance then it would result in characteristic patterns of disease[17] or illness that cause the individual to become dry, cold, hot, wet, or a combination of these states[18]. Food, drugs, herbs and other medications classified as wet or dry, or hot or cold, were used to treat imbalances and restore the body to its natural balance[17][18]. For example, in this system, "cold" diseases like arthritis can be cured by administering "hot" foods or medications[18]. "In the attempt to achieve equilibrium of the four body humors, Puerto Ricans will often disregard a physician's advice which does not conform to this theory"[15]
- Cultural phenomena of Espiritismo/ Spiritualism (beliefs)
- The cultural phenomena of spiritualism plays a significant role in the health of Puerto Ricans[15]. Espiritismo (Spiritism) is an "indigenous healing systems that is used by a significant number of Puerto Ricans as an alternative to the professional health system"[19]. Spiritualism acknowledges a spirit world that interacts with the "material world"[19]. The spirits in the spiritual world are classified according to a hierarchy of moral development where those at the bottom (ignorants) are interested in harming human beings, and those at the highest level ("spirits of light") protect people from the negative influences of the ignorant spirits[19]. Individuals who were involved in a process called "desarrollo de facultades" (development of faculties) are termed "mediums" and have capacities to communicate with the spirits in order to get help from them[19]. In this belief system, ignorant spirits are known to cause mental and physical illnesses, ranging from headaches to major illnesses[19]. If an illness is viewed as a possession by evil spirits, Puerto Ricans will consult a medium or curandero(a) for treatment instead of a physician[15].
- Machismo
- Evident within the Puerto Rican culture, machismo is the belief that men are superior to women[20]. It is a concept of male dominance and superiority that leads to a variety of health related problems. Disagreements with authority, feeling invincible or feelings of being emasculated are reasons why men have the tendency to avoid routine medical care such as yearly check-ups or prostate exams, even when access to care is not an issue[21][22]. Care might not be sought until they are sick[21]. Those who hold onto their machismo, often partake in risk behavior and are "more likely to have accidents and injuries, more likely to drive under the influence, and less likely to have protected sex"[21].
References[edit]
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- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 "Health of Latinos in NYC" (PDF). NYC Department of Health.
- ↑ "Basics | Diabetes | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2017-10-03. Retrieved 2017-11-18.
- ↑ "CDC Works 24/7". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2017-11-17. Retrieved 2017-11-18.
- ↑ "Asthma | CHEST Foundation". CHEST Foundation. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
- ↑ "Carl Campanile". New York Post. Retrieved 2017-11-17.
- ↑ Health, CDC's Office on Smoking and. "CDC - Fact Sheet - Adult Cigarette Smoking in the United States - Smoking & Tobacco Use". Smoking and Tobacco Use. Retrieved 2017-11-18.
- ↑ "High blood pressure dangers: Hypertension's effects on your body". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2017-11-18.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 "Cultural Diversity: Eating in America—Puerto-Rican". ohioline.osu.edu. Retrieved 2017-11-17.
- ↑ "Puerto Rico Culture: Food and Drinks". welcome.topuertorico.org. Retrieved 2017-11-17.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "Health Risks and Disease Related to Salt and Sodium". The Nutrition Source. 2013-07-18. Retrieved 2017-11-17.
- ↑ "Starchy Vegetables vs. Non-Starchy Vegetables". MD-Health.com. 2013-02-28. Retrieved 2017-11-17.
- ↑ Dave, Adam. "What Happens When Carbohydrates Are Digested?". LIVESTRONG.COM. Retrieved 2017-11-17.
- ↑ "How Does Body Fat Raise Heart Disease Risk?". WebMD. Retrieved 2017-11-17.
- ↑ Rivera, Migdalia (2016-03-10). "The Bronx: Dying from Lack of Nutritious Foods". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2017-11-18.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Galli, N. (January 1975). "The influence of cultural heritage on the health status of Puerto Ricans". The Journal of School Health. 45 (1): 10–16. ISSN 0022-4391. PMID 1037720.
- ↑ Harwood, Alan (1971-05-17). "The Hot-Cold Theory of Disease". JAMA. 216 (7): 1153–8. doi:10.1001/jama.1971.03180330029005. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 4325136.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 "Hippocrates & Galen - The Four Humors - PAEI - Structures of Concern". paei.wikidot.com. Retrieved 2017-11-17.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 "Hot-Cold Theory of Illness". Readings and Observations in Anthropology. 2011-09-18. Retrieved 2017-11-17.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Núñez Molina, Mario A. "Community healing among Puerto Ricans: Espiritismo as a therapy for the soul" (PDF).
- ↑ Levy, Patricia; Bahrawi, Nazry (2005). Puerto Rico. Marshall Cavendish. p. 68. ISBN 9780761419709. Search this book on
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 "Teaching Culture: The Effect of Machismo on Health and Well-being". Ayuda, doctor. 2013-08-01. Retrieved 2017-11-17.
- ↑ Cockey, Carolyn Davis (2003-06-01). "Machismo Affecting Men's Health". Nursing for Women's Health. 7 (3): 213. doi:10.1111/j.1552-6356.2003.tb00446.x. ISSN 1091-5923.
