EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki - User contributions [en]

Canada

2026-07-06T06:46:48Z

MapleSource:

{{short description|Country in North America}}
{{about|the country}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=July 2026}}
{{Coord|60|N|110|W|display=title}}

{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Canada
| common_name = Canada
| image_flag = Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg
| alt_flag = The Canadian flag: two red vertical bands with a red maple leaf on a white field.
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Canada.svg
| symbol_type = Coat of arms
| national_motto = ''A Mari Usque Ad Mare''<br />"From Sea to Sea"
| national_anthem = "[[O Canada]]"
| royal_anthem = "[[God Save the King]]"
| capital = [[Ottawa]]
| largest_city = [[Toronto]]
| official_languages = [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]]
| demonym = [[Canadians|Canadian]]
| government_type = [[Federalism|Federal]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]]
| leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of Canada|Monarch]]
| leader_name1 = [[Charles III]]
| leader_title2 = [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]
| leader_name2 = [[Louise Arbour]]<ref name="GG2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.gg.ca/en/governor-general/governor-general-louise-arbour |title=Governor General Louise Arbour |publisher=Governor General of Canada |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>
| leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name3 = [[Mark Carney]]<ref name="PM2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.pm.gc.ca/en/about |title=About the Prime Minister |publisher=Prime Minister of Canada |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>
| legislature = [[Parliament of Canada]]
| upper_house = [[Senate of Canada|Senate]]
| lower_house = [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]]
| established_event1 = [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]]
| established_date1 = July 1, 1867
| established_event2 = [[Statute of Westminster 1931]]
| established_date2 = December 11, 1931
| established_event3 = [[Canada Act 1982|Patriation]]
| established_date3 = April 17, 1982
| area_km2 = 9,984,670
| area_rank = 2nd
| population_estimate = 41,417,056<ref name="StatCanPop2026">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/260617/dq260617a-eng.htm |title=Canada's population estimates, first quarter 2026 |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=June 17, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = April 1, 2026
| population_density_km2 = 4.1
| currency = [[Canadian dollar]]
| currency_code = CAD
| time_zone = UTC−3.5 to UTC−8
| date_format = yyyy-mm-dd; dd/mm/yyyy; mm/dd/yyyy
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = +1
| cctld = [[.ca]]
}}

'''Canada''' is a country in northern [[North America]] made up of ten provinces and three territories. It extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean. By total area, it is the second-largest country in the world, while most of its population lives close to the border with the United States.<ref name="StatCanGeo">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-402-x/2011000/chap/geo/geo-eng.htm |title=Geography |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=January 17, 2018 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Canada is usually described as a stable, wealthy, democratic, polite, liberal, multicultural, and rights-based society. Much of this description is true. The country has functioning elections, public health insurance, high immigration, large natural resources, major universities, a peaceful constitutional order, and comparatively high living standards.

That image is also incomplete. Canada is a settler-colonial state whose prosperity was built through Indigenous dispossession, resource extraction, and dependence first on British imperial power and later on the United States. Its institutions are stable by global standards, but that stability has often protected incumbents more effectively than ordinary residents, tenants, Indigenous communities, migrants, small businesses, or consumers.

Modern Canada is defined by a gap between national branding and lived reality. It celebrates universal health care, but access is often rationed through delay. It promotes reconciliation, while some First Nations communities still lack reliable drinking water. It praises immigration, while many newcomers enter an unaffordable housing market. It claims competitive capitalism, while banking, telecom, groceries, rail, airlines, and media remain highly concentrated. It presents itself as kinder and more orderly than the United States, yet often uses that comparison to avoid confronting Canadian failures on their own terms.

Canada's capital is [[Ottawa]]. Its largest metropolitan areas are [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]], [[Vancouver]], [[Calgary]], [[Edmonton]], and [[Ottawa–Gatineau]]. English and French are the federal official languages, though the country is linguistically and culturally more complex than that constitutional formula suggests.

==Overview==
Canada is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The monarch is head of state, represented federally by the governor general. The prime minister and Cabinet exercise executive power while maintaining the confidence of the elected House of Commons.

The country is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G7, the G20, the Commonwealth, and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Its economy is deeply integrated with the United States through trade, defence, energy, finance, media, and supply chains.<ref name="IMFCanada2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2026/01/21/pr-26012-canada-imf-executive-board-concludes-2025-article-iv-consultation |title=IMF Executive Board Concludes 2025 Article IV Consultation with Canada |publisher=International Monetary Fund |date=January 21, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Canada's official self-image is built around constitutionalism, bilingualism, multiculturalism, public health care, immigration, peacekeeping, and moderate liberalism. Its internal problems are less flattering: long-standing Indigenous inequality, unaffordable housing, high household debt, weak productivity growth, corporate concentration, poor transport choices, slow courts, overloaded health systems, and a bureaucracy that often treats process as a substitute for justice.

The country is not simply a failed state or a uniquely bad society. It remains materially fortunate by global standards. The sharper criticism is that Canada often performs virtue better than it delivers accountability. It has many advantages, but it frequently uses those advantages to preserve a comfortable national myth rather than to solve obvious structural problems.

==Critical perspective==
A critical account of Canada does not require denying its advantages. The country is safer, richer, and freer than much of the world. Its public institutions usually function; elections are legitimate; ordinary political violence is rare; and many residents benefit from public education, public health insurance, relatively strong civil liberties, and peaceful social life.

The stronger criticism is that Canada often performs decency while normalizing avoidable failure. Its political class is skilled at naming harms, creating consultations, and announcing frameworks, but less successful at delivering results at scale. This pattern is visible in housing, Indigenous infrastructure, health-care access, military procurement, interprovincial trade, public transit, competition policy, disability support, and the cost of living.

Canada's establishment culture tends to prefer procedural legitimacy over practical justice. A policy may be lawful, bilingual, consultative, and administratively neat while still leaving people without housing, clean water, timely medical care, affordable telecommunications, or meaningful remedies against banks and large firms. For many residents, the problem is not a lack of Canadian values but the gap between Canadian values and Canadian delivery.

A more negative interpretation sees Canada as a comfortable insider state. It protects incumbents: homeowners over renters, large banks over consumers, supply-managed and regulated sectors over market entrants, provinces over national integration, professional gatekeepers over immigrants' credentials, and slow bureaucracies over citizens seeking accountability. This is not the same as authoritarianism. It is a softer form of institutional power: legally respectable, procedurally polite, and often very hard for ordinary people to challenge.

==Scope and critical framing==
This article is written as a broad country article rather than a narrow politics or criticism page. It covers Canada's geography, history, constitutional system, economy, society, culture, infrastructure, foreign relations, and public institutions. It also gives unusual weight to criticisms that are often softened in mainstream national summaries.

The critical emphasis is not that Canada is poor, lawless, or uniquely abusive. Canada is a wealthy liberal democracy with functioning public institutions. The criticism is that its official image is often more flattering than its measurable performance. Canada has high living standards, but also severe housing unaffordability, concentrated consumer markets, weak productivity, persistent Indigenous inequality, health-care delays, food insecurity, and a tendency toward bureaucratic delay rather than direct accountability.<ref name="CMHC2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/professionals/housing-markets-data-and-research/housing-research/research-reports/accelerate-supply/canadas-housing-supply-shortages-a-new-framework |title=Canada's Housing Supply Shortages: Moving to a New Framework |publisher=Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation |date=June 19, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref><ref name="BoCBigSix">{{cite report |url=https://www.bankofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/swp2025-1.pdf |title=The International Exposure of the Canadian Banking System |publisher=Bank of Canada |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref><ref name="CIHIWaits2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.cihi.ca/en/wait-times-for-priority-procedures-in-canada-2025 |title=Wait times for priority procedures in Canada, 2025 |publisher=Canadian Institute for Health Information |date=June 12, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref><ref name="ISCWater2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.sac-isc.gc.ca/eng/1614387410146/1614387435325 |title=Active long-term drinking water advisories |publisher=Indigenous Services Canada |date=June 9, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

A recurring theme is the gap between ''formal rights'' and ''practical remedies''. Canada often has laws, agencies, tribunals, ombuds offices, and complaint systems that appear respectable on paper. Ordinary residents may still find the process too slow, too expensive, too fragmented, or too deferential to large institutions. This is one of the main ways Canadian power operates: not usually through open brutality, but through procedure, delay, jurisdictional deflection, and professionalized gatekeeping.

==Name==
The name ''Canada'' is generally traced to the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word ''kanata'', meaning "village" or "settlement". French explorer Jacques Cartier used the word in the 16th century for the region around the St. Lawrence River. Over time it came to describe French colonial territory, then British colonial provinces, and finally the federal dominion created in 1867.

The older phrase "Dominion of Canada" remained common into the 20th century. It declined as Canada moved away from imperial British language and toward a separate national identity. The 1982 patriation of the Constitution left the country's legal name simply as ''Canada''.

==Geography==
Canada covers 9,984,670 square kilometres, including land and inland water. Statistics Canada has described it as the world's second-largest country by total area.<ref name="StatCanGeo" /> Its coastline is also the world's longest, measured at 243,042 kilometres, and its land border with the United States is the world's longest international border.<ref name="StatCanCoast">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-402-x/2012000/chap/geo/geo01-eng.htm |title=International perspective |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=October 7, 2016 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The country has three ocean frontages: Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic. Its geography includes the Canadian Shield, Interior Plains, Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands, Appalachian region, Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands, and Arctic Archipelago.<ref name="NRCanPhys">{{cite web |url=https://atlas.gc.ca/phys/en/index.html |title=Physiographic Regions |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The physical size of Canada can be misleading. Much of the northern landmass is sparsely populated, climatically difficult, expensive to service, and politically distant from decision-making centres in southern cities. The same geography that gives Canada resource wealth also creates high infrastructure costs and weak access to services in rural, northern, and Indigenous communities.

===Population corridor and empty-space mythology===
Canada's territory is vast, but its population is highly concentrated in the south. The country's self-image often emphasizes wilderness, northern reach, and ocean-to-ocean scale. Its practical political economy is far more southern, urban, and border-oriented. Most people live in a relatively narrow band near the United States, and the largest metropolitan areas dominate immigration, finance, media, higher education, and cultural production.

This produces an important distortion. Canada's landmass can make the country appear more geopolitically powerful than it is. A large map does not automatically create state capacity. Northern infrastructure, Arctic patrol capacity, housing construction, medical access, broadband, emergency response, ports, and all-weather transport links remain uneven. The state is territorially large but operationally thin in many places.

The mythology of empty space also obscures Indigenous sovereignty. The land was not empty before European settlement, and much of Canada still consists of treaty lands, unceded territories, disputed title areas, and Indigenous homelands. Treating geography as wilderness rather than political territory is one of the quiet ways settler nationalism reproduces itself.

===Regions===
Canada is commonly discussed through broad regions rather than as a uniform national space.

'''Atlantic Canada''' includes Newfoundland and Labrador, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. It has historic fishing, shipping, forestry, military, and energy economies. It also faces aging populations, weaker labour markets, and outmigration pressures.

'''Central Canada''' includes Quebec and Ontario. It contains the largest population centres, federal power, major universities, finance, manufacturing, media, and much of the country's political class.

'''The Prairies''' include Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. The region is central to agriculture, oil and gas, potash, uranium, pipeline politics, and western alienation.

'''British Columbia''' is oriented toward the Pacific, forestry, mining, ports, technology, film, tourism, and Asian immigration. It also contains some of Canada's most severe housing affordability problems.

'''The North''' includes Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. It is strategically important, resource-rich, and severely underbuilt compared with southern Canada.

These regional differences make Canada difficult to govern as a single policy space. Federal slogans collide with provincial authority, local geography, Indigenous jurisdiction, and resource politics.

===Climate===
Canada's climate ranges from temperate coastal climates in parts of British Columbia to continental prairie winters, humid summers in central Canada, Atlantic maritime weather, and Arctic conditions in the North. Climate change has increased the importance of wildfire, flood, heat, drought, coastal erosion, permafrost thaw, and northern infrastructure risk.

The climate also shapes inequality. Wealthier urban households can adapt through insurance, air conditioning, relocation, or better housing. Remote and northern communities often face higher food costs, weaker infrastructure, and fewer escape options.

===Settlement pattern and distance===
Canada's physical scale is central to both its strength and its weakness. The country has immense land, water, forests, minerals, farmland, and energy resources, yet most people live in a narrow southern corridor. Large areas of the North and interior are expensive to service and distant from political power.

This creates a recurring Canadian contradiction. Governments speak of national unity, northern sovereignty, and resource nationhood, but public services, transport links, broadband, medical access, housing supply, and emergency response are often uneven outside major urban regions. Geography is sometimes used as an excuse for underdelivery, even where the deeper problem is political choice, procurement weakness, or lack of sustained investment.

Canada's settlement pattern also reinforces dependence on the United States. The densest parts of the country are physically and economically oriented toward the American border. Many Canadian cities are closer to major American markets than to other Canadian regions. The result is a country that talks about east-west nationalism while often functioning north-south economically.<ref name="StatCanGeo" />

===Natural resources===
Canada has large reserves of oil, gas, uranium, potash, timber, hydroelectric power, freshwater, base metals, precious metals, and agricultural land. Resource wealth helped build the country and remains central to federal-provincial conflict.

The resource economy has also encouraged a political culture in which extraction is treated as national destiny. Critics argue that this makes Canada less innovative, more dependent on commodity cycles, and more willing to sacrifice Indigenous rights or environmental protection when major projects are at stake.

==Environment==
Canada presents itself internationally as environmentally responsible. It has large protected landscapes, extensive forests, major freshwater systems, and a public culture that often values wilderness. That image coexists with high per-capita consumption, automobile dependence, resource exports, oil and gas production, mining impacts, and slow climate policy.

The federal government reported that Canada's greenhouse gas emissions were 685 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent in 2024, down 0.3 percent from 2023 and 10.3 percent below 2005 levels, but still 12.6 percent above 1990 levels.<ref name="ECCCEmissions2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/environmental-indicators/greenhouse-gas-emissions.html |title=Greenhouse gas emissions |publisher=Environment and Climate Change Canada |date=April 15, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The contradiction is persistent. Canada wants the prestige of climate leadership while continuing to depend on oil, gas, mining, highways, aviation, suburban expansion, and long-distance trade. Environmental politics are therefore often less about whether Canada should decarbonize than about who pays, which regions lose jobs, and whether the country's promises are credible.

===Climate politics and credibility===
Canadian climate politics are shaped by a conflict between moral language and material dependence. The federal government and many provincial governments speak the language of transition, clean growth, and international responsibility. At the same time, oil and gas, mining, automobiles, aviation, suburban land development, highways, and long-distance supply chains remain central to the economy.

The result is not simply hypocrisy. It is a structural bind. Canada has built a high-consumption society in a cold, dispersed, resource-rich country. Decarbonizing such a society requires more than consumer virtue or symbolic targets. It requires electricity transmission, housing density, industrial policy, public transit, building retrofits, Indigenous consent, and hard choices about fossil-fuel exports.

Critics argue that Canada prefers climate branding to climate discipline. It can announce targets, carbon-pricing systems, clean-fuel rules, and green-investment plans while still expanding or defending high-emission economic activity. The country therefore occupies an ambiguous position: more climate-conscious than many petro-states, but less credible than its liberal image implies.

===Disasters and adaptation===
Wildfires, floods, heat waves, droughts, coastal risks, and permafrost thaw have made adaptation a practical issue rather than a distant environmental concern. British Columbia's 2021 heat dome and floods, repeated wildfire seasons, Atlantic storms, prairie drought, and northern infrastructure risks have shown that Canada is vulnerable to climate disruption.

The criticism is that adaptation remains fragmented. Insurance markets, municipal planning, emergency management, forest policy, Indigenous land management, federal disaster aid, and provincial infrastructure policy do not always align. Canada often pays after disasters rather than building enough resilience before them.

===Emissions, extraction, and moral branding===
Canada's climate politics are difficult because the country is both a high-income climate-policy state and a major fossil-fuel producer. Environment and Climate Change Canada reported that Canada's total greenhouse gas emissions were 685 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent in 2024, down 0.3 percent from 2023 and 10.3 percent below 2005 levels, but still 12.6 percent above 1990 levels.<ref name="ECCCEmissions2026" />

The negative interpretation is that Canada uses climate language to protect its reputation while moving more slowly than its moral posture suggests. The country can present carbon pricing, clean-technology funds, electric-vehicle incentives, methane rules, and emissions plans as evidence of seriousness, while oil and gas production, long commutes, suburban sprawl, aviation, mining, highway expansion, and high household consumption remain embedded in the economy.

This is not simply a matter of individual hypocrisy. It reflects the structure of a cold, dispersed, resource-exporting country that built prosperity around energy-intensive settlement and commodity extraction. Still, the structural difficulty does not excuse the branding gap. Canada frequently wants the international status of an environmental leader while preserving the economic comfort of an extractive state.

===Adaptation deficit===
Canada's climate challenge is not only emissions reduction. It is also adaptation. Wildfire smoke, floods, heat waves, drought, coastal risk, melting permafrost, and northern infrastructure damage have made climate risk visible. The problem is that adaptation is split among federal agencies, provinces, municipalities, insurers, utilities, Indigenous governments, private owners, and emergency-management systems.

This creates a pattern familiar across Canadian policy: everyone agrees the problem exists, but responsibility is dispersed. Governments announce funds and strategies, while local capacity, permitting, insurance, land-use planning, and infrastructure renewal lag behind the scale of risk. In practice, Canada often pays after disasters rather than preventing enough damage beforehand.

==History==
===Indigenous societies===
First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples have lived in what is now Canada for thousands of years. Their societies included trading networks, agriculture, permanent settlements, maritime economies, diplomacy, confederacies, spiritual traditions, and complex legal orders. The idea that Canada was an empty wilderness before Europeans arrived is a colonial myth.

Indigenous political authority was not merely cultural. It was territorial and legal. Treaties, alliances, and trade relations were often negotiated between Indigenous nations and European powers as relationships between political communities, even when later colonial governments interpreted them more narrowly.

===European contact and colonization===
Norse activity occurred in Newfoundland around the year 1000. Later European activity was led mainly by French and British fishers, traders, missionaries, soldiers, and settlers. Colonization transformed Indigenous societies through disease, warfare, missionary pressure, resource extraction, settlement, and legal displacement.

The fur trade depended heavily on Indigenous knowledge, routes, food systems, and diplomacy. Later Canadian national mythology often presented the fur trade as an adventurous origin story. It was also an early stage in the conversion of Indigenous land and labour into imperial wealth.

===New France and British North America===
France built settlements along the St. Lawrence River and elsewhere in northeastern North America. Britain expanded through Atlantic colonies, Hudson's Bay Company territory, and military rivalry with France. After the Seven Years' War, France ceded most of its North American colonies to Britain in 1763.

British rule preserved some French-language and Catholic institutions in Quebec while encouraging English-speaking settlement. Loyalist migration after the American Revolution and later immigration from Britain and Ireland reshaped the population. The foundations of Canadian bilingualism, regional tension, and colonial compromise were laid during this period.

===Confederation===
Canada was created by Confederation on July 1, 1867, when Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick formed a federal dominion. Confederation is often presented as a peaceful constitutional achievement. It was also a bargain among colonial elites concerned with defence, debt, railway building, economic integration, and British imperial strategy.

The new country did not emerge from a popular democratic revolution. It emerged through elite negotiation within the British Empire. This helped produce a political culture that values order, compromise, procedure, and institutional continuity, sometimes at the expense of democratic urgency.

===Western expansion and Indigenous dispossession===
Later expansion absorbed Rupert's Land, the North-Western Territory, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, Yukon, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Newfoundland and Labrador. Expansion was called nation-building, but it meant Canadian assertion over Indigenous land, Métis resistance, treaty pressure, railway capitalism, reserve policy, and state-backed settlement.

The Red River and North-West conflicts exposed the gap between Canadian constitutional order and the rights of Indigenous and Métis peoples. The country built a transcontinental state partly by making land available to settlers, railways, and capital while restricting Indigenous movement and autonomy.

===National memory and selective innocence===
Canadian history is often narrated as a peaceful alternative to American revolution and empire. This narrative contains some truth: Confederation was not a revolutionary war, and Canada did not become a global empire in the same way as Britain, France, Spain, or the United States. But the narrative also hides violence. The absence of a Canadian independence war does not mean the absence of coercion.

The Canadian state expanded through treaties, land transfer, reserve creation, police power, railway settlement, immigration selection, child removal, and the suppression of Indigenous and Métis political autonomy. The resulting country could describe itself as orderly because much of the disorder was imposed on those excluded from the constitutional bargain.

A critical history of Canada therefore treats moderation as a political style rather than proof of innocence. Canada has often preferred administrative coercion to spectacular violence. That makes it easier to overlook, not less important.

===Railways, settlement, and state capitalism===
Railways occupy a heroic place in Canadian national mythology, especially the idea that a transcontinental railway bound the country together. They also illustrate state-backed capitalism. Public guarantees, land grants, immigration policy, police authority, and Indigenous displacement helped produce the infrastructure of settlement and extraction.

This pattern has repeated in later forms. Canada often builds private wealth through public enabling: banks protected by regulation, pipelines supported by political intervention, real estate inflated by zoning scarcity and public infrastructure, universities supported by immigration policy, and resource projects dependent on state approval and policing. The country is not a pure free-market system; it is a state-shaped capitalism whose beneficiaries are often described as natural national champions.

===Residential schools and assimilation policy===
The Canadian state later used residential schools to remove Indigenous children from their families and communities. More than 150,000 First Nations, Inuit, and Métis children attended these institutions, and many never returned.<ref name="NCTRHistory">{{cite web |url=https://nctr.ca/education/residential-school-history/ |title=Residential School History |publisher=National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada described the residential school system as cultural genocide.<ref name="TRCReports">{{cite web |url=https://nctr.ca/publications-and-reports/reports/ |title=Truth and Reconciliation Commission Reports |publisher=National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

This history is not a marginal footnote. It is central to Canadian state formation. Canada became wealthy and territorially secure partly because Indigenous peoples were confined, displaced, regulated, and made dependent through law and administration.

===Exclusion and immigration policy===
Canada now promotes itself as an immigrant country. Historically, immigration policy was openly racial, selective, and assimilationist. Chinese head taxes, exclusionary immigration laws, restrictions on South Asian migrants, anti-Black settlement barriers, wartime internment, and discriminatory treatment of refugees and minorities are part of Canadian history.

The modern multicultural image did not erase that record. It replaced explicit racial exclusion with a more market-oriented system that selects, sorts, and disciplines migrants through points, credentials, temporary work, international tuition, employer dependence, and settlement barriers.

===World wars and autonomy===
Canada fought in both world wars as part of the British Empire and later as an increasingly autonomous state. The wars contributed to national identity, military sacrifice, industrialization, and international recognition. The Statute of Westminster in 1931 confirmed legislative independence in most matters.

The wars also produced coercive policies, including conscription crises and internment. Canada's democratic record during wartime was mixed: patriotic memory often coexists with the restriction of civil liberties.

===Postwar welfare state===
After the Second World War, Canada expanded social programs, immigration, suburban housing, public universities, pensions, labour protections, and public health insurance. Medicare became one of the country's strongest national symbols.

The postwar settlement also had limits. Indigenous peoples remained under federal control. Women, racialized communities, disabled people, and queer Canadians faced legal and social discrimination. Suburban growth was built around cars, cheap land, and household debt.

===Constitutional patriation and the Charter===
In 1982, Canada patriated its Constitution and adopted the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter strengthened rights litigation and became central to modern Canadian identity.

The Charter is important, but it is not magic. Rights can be expensive to enforce. Courts are slow. Governments can justify limits. Ordinary people often experience the legal system as intimidating, procedural, and financially inaccessible. Canada has a rights culture, but not always a rights reality.

===Late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries===
Late twentieth-century Canada was shaped by free trade, Quebec constitutional conflict, Indigenous litigation, neoliberal restructuring, globalization, and the growing importance of cities. The early twenty-first century added new pressures: housing inflation, financialization, climate disasters, opioid deaths, health-care strain, mass temporary migration, and declining trust in institutions.

Canada's central problem became less survival as a state and more credibility as a social model. It remained rich and democratic, but many younger residents began to experience it as expensive, bureaucratic, monopolistic, and less upwardly mobile than advertised.

===Pandemic and post-pandemic strain===
The COVID-19 pandemic exposed both the strengths and weaknesses of Canadian governance. Public income supports and vaccination programs showed state capacity. Long-term-care deaths, school disruptions, public-health inconsistency, border measures, and pressure on hospitals exposed fragility.

After the pandemic, Canada faced a new legitimacy problem. Many institutions asked for trust while delivering worse access, higher prices, longer queues, and more complicated rules. Inflation, housing costs, health-care backlogs, remote-work shifts, immigration surges, and labour shortages strained a system that had already relied heavily on delay and informal tolerance.

The post-pandemic period therefore intensified a broader question: whether Canada is a high-capacity welfare state or a low-capacity country with a good reputation. The answer differs by field. Canada can move large amounts of money quickly when politically necessary, but often struggles to build housing, transit, ships, military equipment, hospitals, prisons, court capacity, and digital public services on time and at reasonable cost.

==Government and politics==
===Constitutional monarchy===
Canada is formally a constitutional monarchy. The monarch is head of state and is represented federally by the governor general. In practice, elected ministers exercise political power, while the Crown performs constitutional, ceremonial, and reserve functions.

The monarchy is often defended as a neutral constitutional framework. Critics regard it as an inherited colonial institution that contradicts Canada's claim to full democratic modernity. Its practical power is limited, but its symbolism remains tied to British conquest, Indigenous treaty relationships, and Canada's gradual rather than revolutionary independence.

===Parliament===
The Parliament of Canada consists of the monarch, the Senate, and the House of Commons. The House of Commons is elected. The prime minister normally leads the party or coalition able to command confidence in the House.

Canada uses single-member plurality voting, often called first-past-the-post. This system can produce majority governments with less than a majority of the popular vote. It also rewards regional concentration and can distort representation.

===Senate===
The Senate is appointed rather than elected. It reviews legislation and can delay or amend bills. Supporters say it provides sober second thought and regional representation. Critics argue that an appointed upper chamber is undemocratic, especially in a country that lectures others about democratic values.

Senate reform has repeatedly failed because it raises difficult constitutional questions. As a result, Canada keeps an institution that many citizens dislike but few governments can easily replace.

===Federalism===
Canada is a federation. The Constitution divides authority between the federal government and provinces. Territories exercise delegated authority from Parliament and have less constitutional status than provinces.

Federalism protects regional autonomy and linguistic compromise. It also creates fragmented accountability. Health care, housing, policing, education, civil rights, immigration settlement, natural resources, municipalities, transportation, and environmental policy often involve overlapping responsibility. When systems fail, governments can blame each other.

===Blame-shifting federalism===
Canadian federalism protects regional diversity, but it also creates a convenient structure for blame-shifting. Federal politicians can blame provinces. Provinces can blame Ottawa. Municipalities can blame provincial law and funding. Regulators can blame statutes. Agencies can blame privacy, jurisdiction, procurement, staffing, or policy constraints.

This structure is especially visible in housing, health care, policing, mental health, addiction, infrastructure, Indigenous services, immigration settlement, and environmental approvals. Residents experience the failure as one system, but the system explains itself as many separate jurisdictions.

The result is an accountability gap. Canada has many governments, but ordinary people often struggle to identify which one is truly responsible for fixing a problem. Federalism becomes not only a constitutional arrangement but a political shield.

===Executive dominance and party discipline===
Canada's parliamentary system gives strong power to the prime minister, Cabinet, party leaders, and central agencies. Party discipline is usually strict, and backbench legislators have limited practical independence compared with the formal dignity of Parliament.

This makes Canadian democracy more controlled than it appears. Elections matter, but between elections much decision-making is concentrated in small circles of ministers, political staff, senior bureaucrats, and party leadership. Committees, consultations, and parliamentary debate can influence policy, but they often operate inside boundaries already set by the executive.

The risk is a managed democracy rather than a deliberative one. Canada does not usually suffer from chaotic institutional breakdown. Its weakness is the opposite: excessive control, message discipline, risk avoidance, and unwillingness to allow direct public accountability when large systems fail.

===Transparency and access to information===
Canada has access-to-information laws, auditors general, privacy commissioners, ombuds offices, legislative committees, and judicial review. These mechanisms are important, but they can be slow, narrow, legalistic, and underpowered.

The Information Commissioner of Canada reported that in 2024–2025 her office issued 375 orders, most of which related to delay complaints.<ref name="InfoCommissioner2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.oic-ci.gc.ca/en/resources/reports-publications/2024-2025-annual-report |title=2024-2025 Annual Report |publisher=Office of the Information Commissioner of Canada |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Delay is not a minor technical problem. In public accountability, information received years late can be politically useless.

Critics argue that Canadian transparency often functions as a maze. The state recognizes the public's right to know, then buries that right under exemptions, extensions, consultations, redactions, fees, privilege claims, record-management failures, and institutional delay. This is not the censorship of a dictatorship. It is the opacity of a bureaucracy that can outwait most citizens.

===Municipal government===
Municipalities are created by provinces, but they manage many of the services that most residents experience daily: local roads, zoning, policing, libraries, fire protection, parks, water, sewer, and transit. This gives cities heavy responsibility but limited constitutional power.

Canadian municipalities often depend on property taxes, development charges, provincial transfers, and federal infrastructure programs. This structure can make them cautious, slow, and heavily influenced by landowners and developers. Housing debates in Vancouver, Toronto, Montreal, Calgary, and other cities show how local process can block national goals.

===Quebec and national unity===
Quebec has a distinct francophone majority, civil-law tradition, political history, and nationalist movement. It has held major sovereignty referendums and continues to shape Canadian constitutional politics.

Quebec complicates simple stories about Canada. It is both a minority nation within an English-dominated continent and a provincial state that has its own internal conflicts over Indigenous rights, immigration, secularism, language, and minority protections. Canadian federalism has often survived by avoiding final answers to Quebec's constitutional status.

===Western alienation===
Western alienation refers to political resentment in parts of Western Canada, especially Alberta and Saskatchewan, over federal power, energy policy, equalization, environmental regulation, and perceived dominance by Ontario and Quebec.

This resentment is not simply regional whining. The West produces major export wealth but often feels culturally and politically managed by institutions located elsewhere. At the same time, western energy politics sometimes ignore Indigenous opposition, climate obligations, and the risks of dependence on fossil fuel revenues.

===Provinces and territories===
Canada's ten provinces have major authority over health care, education, municipalities, property law, civil rights, natural resources, and many labour matters. The three territories have important local governments but remain constitutionally different from provinces.

This division can be democratic when it allows local variation. It can also be frustrating when basic services differ sharply across the country. A Canadian's practical rights may depend heavily on province, postal code, language, income, and ability to navigate bureaucracy.

===Political parties===
Federal politics has historically been dominated by the Liberal Party and Conservative parties or their predecessors. The New Democratic Party has influenced social policy from the left, while the Bloc Québécois represents Quebec nationalist interests federally. The Green Party and other smaller parties have had more limited influence.

Canadian politics is often described as moderate. This can be accurate in tone but misleading in substance. The country has intense conflicts over language, pipelines, Indigenous rights, immigration, housing, taxation, guns, policing, religion, climate policy, and regional power. The moderation is often procedural rather than emotional.

===Bureaucracy and administrative power===
Canada relies heavily on administrative systems: tribunals, commissions, regulators, ministries, professional bodies, Crown corporations, and agencies. These institutions can be more accessible than courts, but they can also be slow, opaque, and hard for ordinary people to challenge.

A recurring criticism is that Canadian government often produces forms, consultations, promises, and strategies instead of results. The state is capable of sophisticated paperwork but frequently weak at execution, especially in housing, defence procurement, Indigenous infrastructure, health capacity, and public transit.

===Regulatory state and capture concerns===
Canada's regulatory state is extensive. It covers banking, telecom, broadcasting, airlines, railways, energy, environment, food, professional licensing, labour standards, securities, privacy, competition, immigration, and consumer protection. Regulation is often necessary in a large and complex economy, but it can also protect insiders.

A recurring criticism is that Canadian regulators are too close to the sectors they supervise or too cautious to challenge them aggressively. Even when regulators are formally independent, they often operate in small policy communities where government, industry, consultants, law firms, and former officials know one another well. This can produce moderation and expertise, but also complacency.

The result is a country where ordinary people may be told that a problem is regulated, without receiving meaningful protection. A bank, telecom provider, airline, landlord, insurer, college, or government agency may have a complaints process, an ombuds route, and a regulator, yet the practical burden still falls on the individual.

===Implementation gap===
Canadian politics is strong at announcements and weaker at implementation. Governments frequently release strategies, frameworks, action plans, road maps, accords, mandate letters, consultations, and funding envelopes. These documents create the impression of motion. They do not necessarily produce houses, doctors, clean water, court capacity, faster trains, military readiness, or better competition.

The implementation gap is especially visible where success requires coordination across jurisdictions. Housing requires federal finance, provincial statutes, municipal zoning, infrastructure, construction labour, developers, interest rates, and immigration planning. Health care requires provincial delivery, federal funding, colleges, unions, universities, hospitals, physicians, nurses, long-term care, and technology. It is easy for each actor to say the bottleneck is elsewhere.

This does not make Canadian government useless. It makes Canadian government often slow, fragmented, and hard to hold to account. A country can be legally sophisticated and operationally mediocre at the same time.

===Access-to-information culture===
Canada has access-to-information laws, but transparency remains a chronic weakness. Complaints, delays, exemptions, redactions, cabinet confidence, national-security claims, third-party consultation, under-resourced access offices, and document-management problems can all weaken the practical right to know. Parliamentary testimony in 2026 warned that fewer employees responding to access requests would lead to additional delays and more complaints.<ref name="CommonsATIP2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.ourcommons.ca/documentviewer/en/45-1/OGGO/meeting-25/evidence |title=Evidence, Standing Committee on Government Operations and Estimates, Meeting 25 |publisher=House of Commons of Canada |date=2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The negative view is that Canada often treats transparency as a managed process rather than a democratic obligation. Citizens may formally have the right to request records, but the state controls classification, timelines, interpretation, institutional memory, and litigation posture. Delay itself becomes a form of denial.

===Consultation state===
Consultation is central to Canadian governance. It can be valuable, especially where Indigenous rights, minority language rights, disability access, environmental assessment, labour relations, and local planning are involved. But consultation can also become a substitute for decision-making.

The consultation state allows governments to appear inclusive while postponing conflict. Reports are commissioned, stakeholders are invited, roundtables are held, and frameworks are drafted. The unresolved question is whether the people most affected gain power, or whether consultation merely legitimizes choices already preferred by officials and incumbents.

==Law and rights==
Canada's legal system is based mainly on common law, except in Quebec private law, which is rooted in civil law. The Supreme Court of Canada is the final court of appeal. The Constitution includes the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which protects rights such as expression, religion, equality, mobility, legal rights, and democratic participation.

The Charter is one of Canada's strongest institutions. It gives citizens and residents a language for challenging state power. However, access to justice remains poor for many people. Legal representation is expensive, courts are slow, and remedies can arrive too late to matter.

Canada also has human rights commissions and tribunals. These can address discrimination in employment, housing, services, and public administration. In practice, complaint systems can be slow and emotionally draining. The presence of a rights process does not always mean practical justice.

===Access to justice===
Rights in Canada are stronger on paper than in practical enforcement. Court proceedings are expensive, legal aid is limited, administrative systems are complex, and many disputes are too small for litigation but too serious for the people affected.

This creates a two-tier rights culture. Wealthier individuals, corporations, governments, and organized groups can litigate. Ordinary residents are often pushed toward complaint forms, ombuds offices, tribunal backlogs, or informal surrender. In housing, employment, consumer finance, immigration, family law, disability benefits, privacy, and policing, the cost of enforcing rights can be enough to defeat the right itself.

Canada's legalism can therefore hide inequality. A rule-bound system may appear fair because everyone theoretically has remedies, but remedies that require time, literacy, money, confidence, and persistence are not equally available.

===Rights without affordable remedies===
Canada's legal order gives residents many formal rights, but enforcing those rights is often expensive. The Department of Justice Canada describes the Canadian Legal Problems Survey as a tool for identifying serious legal problems and how people attempted to resolve them; related Justice Canada material has noted that 34 percent of Canadians experienced at least one legal problem in the three years before being surveyed, while only 33 percent involved the formal justice system in resolving it.<ref name="JusticeLegalProblems2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/jr/survey-enquete.html |title=The Canadian Legal Problems Survey |publisher=Department of Justice Canada |date=May 13, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref><ref name="JusticeLegalProblemsImmigrants2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/jr/qlslpfccgvvbc-eqpojgahcocrgvgvcb/introduction.html |title=Introduction - A Qualitative Look at Serious Legal Problems Faced by Immigrants in Victoria and Vancouver, British Columbia |publisher=Department of Justice Canada |date=November 24, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

This helps explain why Canadian rights can feel abstract. A person may technically have rights under the Charter, human rights codes, privacy law, tenancy law, employment standards, consumer law, or administrative law, but still lack money, time, literacy, documentation, or representation. Rights that require litigation are often rights for people who can afford delay.

===Administrative justice===
Much of Canadian justice is not delivered by courts. It is delivered by tribunals, boards, commissions, ombuds offices, professional colleges, insurance bodies, regulators, and internal complaint systems. This administrative state is necessary in a complex society, but it can also dilute accountability.

Administrative justice can be faster and cheaper than courts when it works. When it fails, it can be opaque, paper-heavy, deferential to institutions, and difficult for self-represented people. Canada's legal culture often confuses the existence of a process with the existence of a remedy.

===Policing and public order===
Policing in Canada is divided among municipal police, provincial forces, the RCMP, Indigenous police services, transit police, border agencies, and special enforcement bodies. Police are generally less militarized than in the United States, but Canadian policing still faces criticism over racial profiling, use of force, deaths in custody, protest policing, missing and murdered Indigenous women and girls, and treatment of people in mental-health crisis.

The RCMP has a national symbolic role, but it is also associated with colonial enforcement, labour repression, national-security surveillance, failures in sexual-harassment governance, and controversial responses to Indigenous land defence and protest. The red-serge image of Canadian order is therefore deeply contested.

===Prisons and overrepresentation===
Canada's imprisonment rate is not among the world's highest, but incarceration exposes severe inequality. Indigenous and Black people are overrepresented in custody, and Indigenous women in particular have been cited repeatedly by oversight bodies as facing extreme overrepresentation.

The Office of the Correctional Investigator describes Indigenous corrections as an area of systemic barriers and disparate outcomes for Indigenous people under federal sentence.<ref name="OCIIndigenousCorrections">{{cite web |url=https://oci-bec.gc.ca/en/topics/indigenous-corrections |title=Indigenous Corrections |publisher=Office of the Correctional Investigator |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> This weakens Canada's self-image as a rights-based country. A system can be formally governed by the Charter and still produce colonial outcomes.

==Indigenous peoples==
===Status and identity===
Indigenous peoples in Canada include First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples. According to the 2021 Census, more than 1.8 million people identified as Indigenous, representing 5.0 percent of Canada's population.<ref name="StatCanIndigenous2021">{{cite web |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/o1/en/plus/3920-canadas-indigenous-population |title=Canada's Indigenous population |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=June 21, 2023 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The Canadian Constitution recognizes existing Aboriginal and treaty rights. Recognition, however, has often required litigation. This means Indigenous nations frequently have to spend years in court to force governments to respect rights that Canada already claims to recognize.

===Treaties and sovereignty===
Treaties are central to Canada. Some are historic treaties; others are modern land claims or self-government agreements. The meaning of treaties remains contested because Indigenous signatories and Crown officials often understood them differently.

Canadian governments tend to treat Indigenous sovereignty as limited, delegated, or negotiable. Many Indigenous nations view their authority as inherent and continuing. This conflict is not merely symbolic. It affects land, water, child welfare, policing, taxation, resource development, and governance.

===Land, consent, and resource politics===
Indigenous land issues are not only historical. They shape pipelines, mines, hydroelectric projects, forestry, fisheries, ports, conservation, housing, taxation, policing, and local governance. Many conflicts involve competing legal orders: Crown title, Aboriginal title, treaty rights, provincial resource statutes, environmental review, and Indigenous law.

Canada's preferred language is partnership, consultation, and reconciliation. Critics argue that these words often mask a deeper asymmetry. Governments and companies usually control financing, timelines, permitting, police power, and public-relations machinery. Indigenous communities may be asked to participate in processes designed by others while carrying the burden of proving harm, title, or rights.

There are also divisions within and between Indigenous communities. Some support resource development for employment, revenue, and self-government. Others oppose projects as threats to land, water, and sovereignty. Canada's public debate often simplifies these disagreements, treating Indigenous peoples either as symbolic moral authorities or as obstacles to economic development, rather than as political nations with internal diversity.

===Water and infrastructure===
One of Canada's most visible failures is the persistence of unsafe drinking water in some First Nations communities. As of June 4, 2026, Indigenous Services Canada reported 38 active long-term drinking water advisories on public systems on reserve in 36 communities.<ref name="ISCWater2026" />

Progress has been made, but the continued existence of such advisories in a wealthy G7 country is a major indictment. It shows the difference between reconciliation as a speech and reconciliation as functioning pipes, trained operators, reliable funding, and enforceable rights.

===Housing on reserve===
Housing shortages and poor conditions in First Nations communities are another long-running failure. The Auditor General of Canada reported that closing the First Nations housing gap would require tens of thousands of new units and repairs to many existing homes, with an estimated cost of $44 billion based on Assembly of First Nations estimates.<ref name="OAGFirstNationsHousing">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/auditor-general/our-work/audit-reports/parl-oag-202403-02-e.html |title=Report 2—Housing in First Nations Communities |publisher=Office of the Auditor General of Canada |date=March 4, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Canada often treats such gaps as administrative backlogs rather than consequences of colonial policy. The result is a country with luxury real estate speculation in major cities and overcrowded or inadequate housing in some communities whose lands helped make that wealth possible.

===Child welfare and policing===
Indigenous children are overrepresented in child welfare systems, and Indigenous adults are overrepresented in correctional systems. Statistics Canada reported that in 2023/2024 Indigenous adults were incarcerated at a rate 10.2 times higher than non-Indigenous adults in the six reporting provinces with available data.<ref name="StatCanIncarceration2026">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/260114/dq260114b-eng.htm |title=Overrepresentation of Indigenous and Black adults in custody |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=January 14, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

This is one of the strongest pieces of evidence against Canada's self-image as a clean, fair, rights-based society. The country may use softer language than more openly punitive states, but its institutions still produce severe racial and colonial inequality.

===Child welfare as continuing colonial policy===
Residential schools are closed, but child removal remains central to Indigenous criticism of the Canadian state. The Canadian Human Rights Commission has described a landmark 2016 Canadian Human Rights Tribunal decision finding that Canada discriminated against First Nations children and families in the provision of services.<ref name="CHRCChildWelfare2022">{{cite web |url=https://www.chrc-ccdp.gc.ca/resources/newsroom/human-rights-justice-first-nations-children |title=Human rights justice for First Nations children |publisher=Canadian Human Rights Commission |date=January 5, 2022 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The deeper criticism is that Canada replaced one system of coercive child removal with other child-welfare and service-funding systems that can still separate families. Poverty, housing shortages, underfunded services, addiction, trauma, and jurisdictional disputes are then treated as parental failure rather than as state-produced conditions.

===The Indian Act problem===
The Indian Act remains a central symbol of Canadian colonial governance. It defines status, structures band governance, and reflects a history in which the federal state claimed authority over Indigenous identity and community life. The Canadian Human Rights Commission has stated that more substantial reform is necessary to eliminate discrimination in the Indian Act and that Indigenous peoples have called for Indigenous-specific human-rights mechanisms.<ref name="CHRCUNSubmission2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.chrc-ccdp.gc.ca/sites/default/files/documents/submission-hrc-canada-7th-periodic-review.pdf |title=Submission to the Human Rights Committee on Canada’s 7th periodic review |publisher=Canadian Human Rights Commission |date=2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

A critical view sees the Indian Act as evidence that Canada's constitutional order remains incomplete. The state can celebrate reconciliation while maintaining legal structures that many Indigenous people regard as colonial, paternalistic, and incompatible with self-determination.

===Urban invisibility===
Indigenous politics is often discussed through reserves, treaties, and northern communities. Urban Indigenous life is just as important. Many First Nations, Inuit, and Métis people live in cities, where they face housing insecurity, policing, health inequities, child-welfare involvement, employment barriers, and cultural disconnection.

Urban Indigenous residents challenge a common Canadian stereotype: that Indigenous issues are remote, rural, or historical. They are present in Vancouver, Winnipeg, Edmonton, Regina, Saskatoon, Toronto, Montreal, Ottawa, and smaller cities. Canadian colonialism is not only a northern or reserve issue; it is embedded in urban poverty, policing, shelter use, and service systems.

===Reconciliation===
Reconciliation is now a central public word in Canada. Governments, schools, corporations, universities, churches, and public bodies regularly acknowledge Indigenous land and history.

Land acknowledgements and symbolic gestures can matter, but they can also become substitutes for power sharing. Critics argue that reconciliation has become a managerial style: respectful language, commemorative days, consultation, and branding, while core issues of land, jurisdiction, water, housing, policing, and wealth remain unresolved.

===Urban Indigenous life===
Many Indigenous people live in cities and towns rather than on reserves or in northern communities. Urban Indigenous life complicates the common Canadian habit of treating Indigenous issues as remote, rural, or symbolic. Housing, policing, child welfare, education, employment, health care, homelessness, and cultural services in cities are all part of Indigenous policy.

Urban Indigenous organizations often do practical work that governments praise but underfund. This reflects a wider pattern: Canada is comfortable funding reconciliation language, commemorative projects, and short-term programs, but less reliable at providing stable institutional support for community-controlled services.

===Reconciliation as branding===
Reconciliation has become part of Canada's official identity. Land acknowledgements, commemorative days, public apologies, museum exhibits, school curriculum, and corporate statements are now common. Some of these changes are meaningful. They have made colonial history harder to ignore.

The criticism is that reconciliation can become reputational management. A government, university, bank, law firm, or company can acknowledge Indigenous territory while continuing practices that protect its own power. Symbolic recognition may make institutions look morally modern without transferring land, money, authority, or decision-making power.

==Demographics==
Canada's population was estimated at 41,417,056 on April 1, 2026.<ref name="StatCanPop2026" /> The population is concentrated in a narrow southern band near the United States. The largest urban regions dominate immigration, media, finance, higher education, and political influence.

Canada has an aging population, low fertility, and high dependence on immigration for labour force growth. These trends are not unique among wealthy countries, but Canada's response has been especially immigration-heavy.

===Immigration===
Canada has one of the world's highest immigrant shares among major developed countries. Immigration has contributed to population growth, labour supply, entrepreneurship, universities, urban culture, and international connections.

The system is also criticized for using immigrants and temporary residents to compensate for weak productivity, low wages in some sectors, and demographic aging without building enough housing, health-care capacity, schools, transit, and settlement support. The federal 2026–2028 Immigration Levels Plan reduced targets for new temporary residents and stabilized permanent resident admissions, reflecting political pressure over system capacity.<ref name="IRCCLevels2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/mandate/corporate-initiatives/levels.html |title=Canada's immigration levels |publisher=Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada |date=November 6, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Canada's immigration model often sells opportunity while externalizing risk onto newcomers. International students may pay high tuition and high rent. Temporary foreign workers may depend on employers. Skilled immigrants may face credential barriers and downward mobility. Permanent residents may be admitted into cities where ownership is unrealistic and rental markets are strained.

===Temporary-resident economy===
Canada's temporary-resident system became a major part of the labour market, education system, and housing debate. International students, post-graduate work permit holders, temporary foreign workers, asylum claimants, visitors, and other non-permanent residents contributed to population growth and economic activity, but also exposed weak planning.

The Parliamentary Budget Officer reported that the 2026–2028 Immigration Levels Plan set permanent-resident admission targets at 380,000 per year and reiterated the government's commitment to reduce the non-permanent resident population to less than 5 percent of Canada's total population by the end of 2027.<ref name="PBOImmigration2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbo-dpb.ca/en/publications/RP-2526-025-S--demographic-implications-2026-2028-immigration-levels-plan--implications-demographiques-plan-niveaux-immigration-2026-2028 |title=Demographic Implications of the 2026-2028 Immigration Levels Plan |publisher=Office of the Parliamentary Budget Officer |date=February 26, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The sharp political turn showed that Canada had treated population growth as an economic input without enough regard for absorptive capacity. Newcomers were often blamed for a crisis created by governments, colleges, employers, landlords, banks, and municipalities that benefited from growth while failing to build enough housing and services.

===Credential barriers and class sorting===
Canada recruits educated immigrants but often fails to use their skills. Credential recognition, Canadian-experience requirements, licensing barriers, language rules, provincial professional bodies, and employer bias can push newcomers into work below their qualifications.

This is economically wasteful and morally corrosive. Canada tells the world that it selects talent, then makes some of that talent repeat training, accept lower wages, or enter survival jobs. The resulting frustration is not a failure of immigrant effort. It is a failure of institutional design.

===Population policy reversal===
Canada's population policy changed sharply after the early-2020s surge in temporary residents. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada stated that the 2026–2028 Immigration Levels Plan stabilizes permanent resident targets and reduces new temporary resident arrival targets, with temporary resident arrivals set at 385,000 in 2026 and 370,000 in 2027 and 2028.<ref name="IRCCLevels2026" /><ref name="IRCCAnnual2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/annual-report-parliament-immigration-2025.html |title=2025 Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration |publisher=Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada |date=November 20, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Statistics Canada reported that the preliminary number of non-permanent residents decreased by 117,879 people in the first quarter of 2026, and that Canada’s total population estimate declined by 55,025 over the quarter.<ref name="StatCanPop2026" /> This was a significant reversal from the earlier political consensus that very high population growth could continue without first solving housing, health-care, school, transit, and labour-market capacity.

The critical point is not that immigration is bad. It is that Canada used immigration to compensate for weak productivity, aging demographics, labour shortages, university finances, and service-sector demand while underbuilding the physical and institutional capacity required to absorb people fairly.

===Newcomer disappointment===
Canada sells itself abroad as a country of stability, opportunity, fairness, and rule of law. Many immigrants do build successful lives. Others arrive into high rents, credential barriers, precarious work, weak transit, crowded housing, long health-care waits, and social isolation.

The disappointment can be especially sharp because Canada is marketed morally, not only economically. Newcomers are not merely told that Canada needs workers or students. They are told Canada is fair. When fairness becomes a call centre, a landlord bidding war, a closed professional body, or a survival job after years of education, the gap between image and reality becomes personal.

===Diaspora politics===
Canada's large immigrant communities connect the country to South Asia, East Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe, Latin America, and the Caribbean. This strengthens culture, trade, family networks, and foreign-policy awareness. It can also import overseas political conflicts into Canadian elections, protests, media, policing, and diplomatic disputes.

Canada's usual multicultural language often struggles with these tensions. Diversity is celebrated in festivals and food, but geopolitical conflict, caste, religion, language nationalism, foreign interference, diaspora intimidation, and transnational repression are harder to discuss. The result is sometimes a shallow multiculturalism that praises heritage while avoiding power.

===Racialized communities===
Canada is increasingly diverse. Statistics Canada reported that in 2021, one in four people in Canada were part of the racialized population, twice the share in 2001.<ref name="StatCanRacialized2021">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/36-28-0001/2023008/article/00001-eng.htm |title=Changing demographics of racialized people in Canada |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=August 23, 2023 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Diversity is often used as proof of Canadian virtue. It is also a source of contradiction. Racialized Canadians can be celebrated in public branding while facing discrimination in housing, policing, employment, credential recognition, school streaming, and health care.

===Urbanization===
Canada is highly urban. Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Ottawa–Gatineau, Winnipeg, Quebec City, Hamilton, Kitchener-Waterloo, and Halifax shape much of national life.

Urban Canada is dynamic, diverse, and economically powerful. It is also expensive, congested, and increasingly unequal. The country's most successful cities have become places where service workers, young families, and new immigrants often struggle to live near opportunity.

==Language==
English and French are the federal official languages. Federal bilingualism reflects the historic compromise between English-speaking and French-speaking colonial societies, especially the place of Quebec.

In practice, Canada is multilingual. Indigenous languages, Punjabi, Mandarin, Cantonese, Tagalog, Arabic, Spanish, Hindi, Urdu, Italian, German, Ukrainian, and many other languages are spoken across the country.

Language politics are especially important in Quebec, where French is protected through provincial law and national identity. Outside Quebec, French-language services vary widely. Indigenous languages face the deepest threat because colonization and residential schools deliberately disrupted their transmission.

Canada's official bilingualism can therefore be both meaningful and incomplete. It protects English-French constitutional compromise more effectively than it repairs the damage done to Indigenous languages or reflects the full linguistic reality of modern cities.

==Religion and secularism==
Canada has Christian institutional roots, including Catholic and Protestant influence in education, hospitals, social services, and colonial administration. Religious affiliation has declined, and many Canadians now identify with no religion.

The country generally presents itself as pluralist and tolerant. Religious freedom is protected by the Charter. At the same time, debates over Quebec secularism, religious symbols, Islamophobia, antisemitism, Christian privilege, and accommodation show that Canadian secularism is contested rather than neutral.

==Economy==
Canada has a high-income mixed economy based on services, natural resources, real estate, construction, manufacturing, agriculture, technology, finance, and trade with the United States. It is a member of the G7 and G20 and has large energy, mining, forestry, banking, insurance, pension, and telecommunications industries.

The economy is often praised for stability. That stability can also reflect protection of incumbents. Canada has relatively concentrated sectors in banking, groceries, telecom, airlines, rail, media, and insurance. These structures can support national champions and financial resilience, but they can also reduce consumer choice, keep prices high, and make regulation dependent on a small number of powerful firms.

===Protected capitalism===
Canada's economy is capitalist, but not especially open or competitive in many everyday sectors. It is better understood as a mixed economy with strong protected incumbents. Banking, telecom, groceries, airlines, railways, ports, insurance, dairy and poultry supply management, professional licensing, utilities, and media all contain barriers to entry or concentrated power.

This arrangement can produce stability. It can also produce high prices, slow innovation, weak customer service, and a culture in which large firms expect government consultation before competition. Canadians often pay more not because the country lacks markets, but because many markets are small, protected, geographically difficult, or politically managed.

The deeper problem is that Canada often confuses stability with success. A stable oligopoly may avoid dramatic failure, but it can still drain consumers quietly year after year.

===Internal trade barriers===
Canada is one country, but its internal market is fragmented by provincial and territorial rules. Differences in product standards, procurement, trucking rules, alcohol distribution, professional licensing, securities regulation, construction rules, and labour mobility reduce economic integration.

The OECD has described Canada's interprovincial trade barriers as compromising efficient resource allocation and reducing the effective size of Canada's internal market.<ref name="OECDInternalTrade2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2025/05/oecd-economic-surveys-canada-2025_ee18a269/full-report/raising-business-sector-productivity_443bcd88.html |title=OECD Economic Surveys: Canada 2025 - Raising business sector productivity |publisher=OECD |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> The federal government has stated that eliminating internal trade barriers could boost GDP by as much as $200 billion, equivalent to $5,100 per person.<ref name="CanadaInternalTrade2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/intergovernmental-affairs/services/internal-trade/federal-investments-internal-trade.html |title=Advancing internal trade |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The criticism is straightforward: a country that cannot easily trade with itself should be more modest about its economic sophistication. Canadian federalism often protects provincial turf at the expense of national productivity and consumer welfare.

===Trade and dependence on the United States===
Canada's economic relationship with the United States is central. The United States is Canada's largest trading partner, main security partner, and dominant cultural neighbour. Canadian prosperity depends heavily on access to the American market.

This dependence limits sovereignty. Canada can criticize American politics, but its economy, defence posture, technology ecosystem, media environment, and supply chains remain deeply tied to the United States. Much of Canadian nationalism is therefore symbolic: flags, hockey, health care, monarchy, and politeness, while the material economy remains continental.

===Productivity===
Canada has a long-standing productivity problem. The OECD reported that in 2023 Canada's workforce generated USD 74.7 in goods and services per hour worked, measured in purchasing power parity terms, compared with USD 97.0 in the United States and USD 89.3 in France.<ref name="OECDProductivity2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2025/05/oecd-economic-surveys-canada-2025_ee18a269/full-report/raising-business-sector-productivity_443bcd88.html |title=OECD Economic Surveys: Canada 2025 - Raising business sector productivity |publisher=OECD |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Weak productivity matters because it makes wages, public services, and affordability harder to improve. It also undermines the idea that Canada can rely on immigration, housing wealth, and resource extraction forever. A country can look rich on paper while becoming less dynamic underneath.

===Business investment and risk aversion===
Weak productivity is linked to low business investment, limited competition, risk aversion, and a tendency to rely on real estate and resource rents. Canadian firms often invest less in machinery, intellectual property, research, scaling, and export growth than counterparts in more dynamic economies.

A common criticism is that Canada rewards asset ownership more than enterprise. Housing appreciation, land scarcity, bank profits, and regulated sectors can offer safer returns than building globally competitive firms. This weakens the country's long-term wage growth and makes public finances more dependent on population growth, commodity cycles, and household borrowing.

===Small business and entrepreneurship===
Canada celebrates small business, but many entrepreneurs face high rents, payroll costs, taxes, regulatory complexity, payment-processing fees, bank caution, insurance costs, and limited domestic scale. The result is a country full of small businesses that often operate as survival enterprises rather than high-growth firms.

Entrepreneurship is also shaped by immigration. Newcomers frequently start businesses, but may do so because credential barriers or labour-market discrimination block professional advancement. Canada then praises immigrant entrepreneurship while ignoring the institutional waste that made entrepreneurship the fallback.

===Per-capita stagnation===
Canada's headline economic growth has often depended on population growth. The OECD's 2025 Canada survey stated that recent growth had been supported by strong population growth while per-capita growth remained weak.<ref name="OECDCanada2025Macro">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-economic-surveys-canada-2025_28f9e02c-en/full-report/macroeconomic-developments-and-policy-challenges_fc10c1ae.html |title=OECD Economic Surveys: Canada 2025 - Macroeconomic developments and policy challenges |publisher=OECD |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

This is one of the most serious criticisms of the Canadian model. A country can increase total GDP by adding people, but if housing, infrastructure, capital investment, productivity, and public services do not keep pace, residents may become worse off in lived terms. More aggregate output does not automatically mean more prosperity per person.

===Internal market failure===
Canada's internal-trade problem is unusually embarrassing for a country that depends on trade diplomacy. The International Monetary Fund argued in 2026 that fully eliminating non-geographic internal trade barriers could raise Canada's real GDP by nearly 7 percent over the long run, roughly C$210 billion in current terms.<ref name="IMFInternalTrade2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2026/01/27/cf-canada-can-grow-faster-by-unlocking-its-own-market |title=Canada Can Grow Faster by Unlocking Its Own Market |publisher=International Monetary Fund |date=January 27, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The criticism is not only economic. Internal barriers reveal a political culture where provinces guard jurisdiction even when ordinary residents pay the price. Canada often claims the benefits of national unity while tolerating a fragmented domestic market.

===Competition and productivity===
Statistics Canada has noted that Canada's persistently weak productivity growth over the past 25 years has renewed attention on competition policy as a lever for long-term growth.<ref name="StatCanCompetitionProductivity2026">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11f0019m/11f0019m2026002-eng.htm |title=The Impact of Competition Intensity on Labour Productivity Growth |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=March 30, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

This connects consumer complaints to national prosperity. High prices, weak competition, protected incumbents, and low productivity are not separate issues. They are part of the same structure. A country that protects incumbents may get stability, but it also gets fewer incentives to invest, innovate, and treat customers well.

===Housing as macroeconomic trap===
Housing is not just a social issue in Canada. It is a macroeconomic trap. High home values support household wealth, municipal revenue, bank lending, retirement planning, and political comfort for owners. The same prices weaken mobility, fertility, entrepreneurship, newcomer settlement, and intergenerational fairness.

CMHC's estimate that Canada would need roughly 430,000 to 480,000 housing starts per year until 2035 to restore affordability shows the scale of the problem.<ref name="CMHC2025" /> A country that requires near-doubling of housing starts for a decade is not facing a minor market correction. It is facing a structural failure.

===Resource economy===
Oil, gas, mining, forestry, hydroelectricity, agriculture, and fisheries are central to Canadian wealth. Alberta oil, Saskatchewan potash and uranium, Quebec and British Columbia hydro power, Ontario minerals, Atlantic offshore energy, and northern resources all contribute to the economy.

Resource wealth creates both prosperity and conflict. Pipelines, mines, logging, fisheries, hydro projects, and ports raise questions about Indigenous consent, climate policy, local employment, foreign ownership, and regional fairness.

===Agriculture and food system===
Canada is a major agricultural producer, with wheat, canola, pulses, beef, pork, dairy, poultry, greenhouse vegetables, fruit, and seafood all forming part of the food economy. Prairie agriculture is especially important to exports, while supply-managed dairy, poultry, and eggs are major domestic policy issues.

Food policy shows another Canadian tension. The country can export grain and meat, yet many households struggle with grocery costs. Canada has productive land and modern logistics, but the retail food system is concentrated and prices remain a political issue.

===Mining and critical minerals===
Mining has been central to Canada since colonization and remains important in Ontario, Quebec, British Columbia, Saskatchewan, the North, and Atlantic Canada. Gold, nickel, copper, potash, uranium, lithium, rare earths, diamonds, iron ore, and other minerals connect Canada to global energy, defence, and technology supply chains.

The critical minerals agenda is presented as a clean-economy opportunity. It can also reproduce older extraction patterns: outside capital, environmental damage, boom-bust towns, and pressure on Indigenous lands. Calling a mine strategic does not automatically make it just.

===Manufacturing and technology===
Canada has manufacturing strengths in automobiles, aerospace, food processing, machinery, chemicals, and advanced materials. It also has technology clusters in Toronto, Waterloo, Vancouver, Montreal, Ottawa, Edmonton, and other cities.

However, Canada has often struggled to scale domestic firms into global champions. Critics argue that the country produces talent but sells companies early, underinvests in machinery and intellectual property, and allows protected domestic oligopolies to earn safe returns without enough competitive pressure.

===Technology, artificial intelligence, and data===
Canada has strong research communities in artificial intelligence, machine learning, quantum technologies, cybersecurity, health sciences, and clean technology. Toronto, Montreal, Waterloo, Vancouver, Ottawa, and Edmonton are important technology centres.

The weakness is commercialization. Canadian research often becomes foreign-owned intellectual property, branch-plant employment, or acquisition targets. The country trains talent but does not always keep the profits, platforms, or headquarters that talent creates.

Digital government is also uneven. Canada can produce ambitious strategies, but ordinary residents still encounter outdated portals, long processing times, call-centre barriers, and fragmented federal-provincial systems. The digital state often looks modern in announcements and clumsy in use.

===Banking and finance===
The Canadian banking sector is highly concentrated. The Bank of Canada has described the domestic systemically important banks, commonly called the Big Six, as accounting for more than 93 percent of Canadian banking system assets.<ref name="BoCBigSix" />

Supporters argue that this concentration makes Canadian banking stable and resilient. Critics argue that it gives large banks unusual power over fees, lending, small-business finance, account access, mortgages, credit cards, investment products, and capital markets.

===Household debt and financial fragility===
Canada's household economy is highly exposed to real estate and debt. Statistics Canada reported that household credit-market debt reached $1.75 for every dollar of household disposable income in the second quarter of 2025.<ref name="StatCanDebt2025">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/250911/dq250911a-eng.htm |title=National balance sheet and financial flow accounts, second quarter 2025 |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=September 11, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

High household debt is not just a personal-finance issue. It reflects a national growth model. Expensive housing, large mortgages, home-equity borrowing, bank profitability, and household consumption have supported the economy while making families vulnerable to interest-rate shocks, job loss, divorce, illness, and retirement insecurity.

This model benefits banks, existing homeowners, real-estate professionals, municipal tax bases, and governments that prefer asset inflation to productivity reform. It is less friendly to renters, younger workers, newcomers, disabled people, and anyone trying to build a life without inherited housing wealth.

===Debanking and account closure===
Debanking refers to the closure or denial of banking services. In Canada, banks and credit unions may close accounts for risk, compliance, commercial, fraud, reputational, or relationship reasons, subject to legal and regulatory constraints.

A major criticism is that Canadian consumers often have weak practical rights when a financial institution decides to end a relationship. Notice may be given without a detailed rationale. Appeal routes can be confusing. Privacy requests may provide partial records, but they do not necessarily force a bank to explain its risk judgment. The result is a system where access to basic financial infrastructure can be controlled by concentrated private institutions with limited transparency.

This issue matters because banking is no longer optional. Rent, payroll, benefits, taxes, credit, business operations, and everyday payments depend on account access. A country that treats banking as essential infrastructure while allowing opaque account closures creates a serious accountability gap.

===Real estate and household wealth===
Real estate is one of the defining features of modern Canada. Home ownership has been treated as retirement planning, middle-class security, local government tax base, immigration infrastructure, bank collateral, and speculative investment.

This made homeowners wealthier but created intergenerational inequality. Younger workers, renters, newcomers, single-income households, and people without family wealth face a much harder path. Housing policy became distorted because governments wanted affordability without meaningfully lowering the asset values of existing owners.

===Housing supply and affordability===
Housing has become one of Canada's most serious domestic policy failures. Toronto, Vancouver, and several smaller markets experienced extreme increases in home prices and rents, while population growth, limited construction capacity, investor demand, local zoning, low interest-rate periods, infrastructure constraints, and slow approvals pushed ownership out of reach for many residents.

Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation estimated in 2025 that housing starts would need to nearly double to roughly 430,000 to 480,000 units per year until 2035 to meet projected demand under its framework.<ref name="CMHC2025" />

The housing crisis weakened Canada's claim to be a broadly middle-class country. A society cannot credibly call itself fair when ordinary wages no longer buy ordinary shelter in many of its most productive cities.

===Corporate concentration===
Canadian consumers often face limited competition in essential sectors. The Competition Bureau's grocery market study concluded that Canada needs more grocery competition and recommended measures to make entry and expansion easier.<ref name="GroceryCompetition">{{cite web |url=https://competition-bureau.canada.ca/en/how-we-foster-competition/education-and-outreach/canada-needs-more-grocery-competition |title=Canada Needs More Grocery Competition |publisher=Competition Bureau Canada |date=June 27, 2023 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

In telecommunications, the CRTC identifies the top three operators for mobile and Internet services as Bell, Rogers, and TELUS, including their flanker brands and acquired providers.<ref name="CRTC2026">{{cite web |url=https://crtc.gc.ca/eng/publications/reports/policymonitoring/2026/ctmr.htm |title=Canadian Telecommunications Market Report 2026 |publisher=Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission |date=February 24, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

This structure contributes to a common criticism of Canada: the country is not a free-market paradise or a strong social democracy, but a system of regulated oligopolies. Consumers may receive reliable services, but often with high prices, limited bargaining power, complex complaints processes, and weak practical remedies.

===Consumer rights and complaint culture===
Canadian consumer protection often looks stronger in theory than in practice. Many sectors have ombuds offices, regulators, complaint portals, call-centre escalation teams, privacy offices, and standard-form notices. These structures can help, but they also move the burden onto the customer.

A person harmed by a bank account closure, telecom billing error, airline disruption, insurance denial, credit-reporting problem, landlord dispute, or government-benefit mistake may face a process that is technically available but practically exhausting. The individual must document, wait, escalate, repeat the story, and interpret rules. The institution has staff, templates, lawyers, and time.

This is a distinctively Canadian form of unfairness: polite, documented, procedural, and slow. It rarely looks abusive in a single interaction, but it can become abusive through accumulation.

===Airlines, rail, and national champions===
Canada's transportation markets are shaped by geography and concentration. Air travel is expensive for many routes, passenger rail outside the Quebec City–Windsor corridor is limited, freight rail is dominated by a small number of large firms, and regional transport options are often poor.

National-champion logic can protect domestic capacity, but it can also make consumers captive. In a country as large as Canada, weak transport competition is not merely inconvenient. It limits mobility, regional integration, tourism, labour-market flexibility, and family connection.

===Labour market===
Canada has professional, service, construction, resource, public-sector, logistics, agricultural, care, and gig-economy labour markets. It also has significant credential barriers, regional mismatches, and reliance on temporary workers.

The labour market is often presented as open and meritocratic. In practice, family wealth, housing location, immigration status, language, professional licensing, networks, and childcare shape opportunity. Many workers are productive enough to keep the country running but not paid enough to live comfortably in the regions where their labour is needed.

===Grocery concentration and food prices===
The Competition Bureau's grocery market study stated that Canada's grocery industry is concentrated and that most Canadians buy groceries in stores owned by a handful of grocery giants. The Bureau reported that in 2022 the three largest grocers—Loblaw, Sobeys, and Metro—collectively reported more than $100 billion in sales and more than $3.6 billion in profits.<ref name="GroceryCompetition" />

The critical issue is not whether grocers are solely responsible for food inflation. Supply chains, wages, transport, exchange rates, energy, rent, and global commodity prices matter. The issue is that concentrated markets reduce trust. When food becomes unaffordable, consumers are less likely to believe that a small group of dominant firms and regulators are acting in their interest.

===Telecommunications as regulated oligopoly===
The CRTC's 2026 telecommunications market report identified Bell, Rogers, and TELUS as the top three operators for mobile and Internet services by revenues and subscribers, including their flanker brands and acquired providers.<ref name="CRTC2026" />

This helps explain why telecommunications is one of the most common symbols of Canadian consumer frustration. The country has advanced networks in many areas, but consumers often experience high prices, confusing plans, loyalty bargaining, weak rural service, and a market where apparent brand variety may still trace back to a few dominant owners.

===Banking stability and customer power===
Canada's banking system is internationally respected for stability. That stability is real. The negative side is customer dependency. When a small number of major banks dominate deposits, lending, payments, mortgages, credit cards, investment distribution, and small-business finance, consumers and businesses have limited practical alternatives.

This is especially important for debanking, account freezes, credit decisions, and risk-based exits. A bank account is not a luxury good. It is infrastructure for participating in modern life. If access is denied or removed without meaningful explanation, the harm can be severe even when the bank is acting within its risk policies.

==Public finance and taxation==
Canada funds public services through federal, provincial, and municipal taxation. Income taxes, sales taxes, payroll contributions, corporate taxes, property taxes, excise taxes, royalties, and fees all matter.

The country has a redistributive state, but not always an efficient one. Public money is spread across multiple governments and agencies. This can create duplication, gaps, and blame-shifting. Residents may pay high combined taxes and still face poor transit, long medical waits, expensive housing, childcare shortages, or inadequate disability support.

Municipal finance is a particular weakness. Cities are responsible for major infrastructure and services but depend heavily on property taxes, development charges, and transfers. This has encouraged growth politics that are often reactive, debt-heavy, and biased toward real estate interests.

===Value for money===
Canada is not a low-tax country by North American standards, but many residents feel they do not receive commensurate service quality. Health care is public but slow. Housing policy is expensive but ineffective. Transit projects are costly and delayed. Defence procurement is slow. Courts are backlogged. Public websites and call centres can be frustrating. Infrastructure gaps remain visible.

The issue is not simply the level of taxation. It is state capacity. A competent high-tax state can justify its burden by delivering housing, transit, child care, health care, defence, education, and digital services efficiently. Canada's problem is that it often combines high expectations, moderate-to-high taxation, and uneven execution.

===Transfers and hidden rationing===
Canadian public policy often relies on transfers, credits, rebates, and negotiated federal-provincial funding. These tools are politically attractive because they can be announced quickly and targeted. They are less effective when the underlying problem is physical scarcity.

A rent benefit does not build enough homes. A health transfer does not automatically create doctors, nurses, operating rooms, or diagnostic capacity. A climate rebate does not by itself produce transit or retrofits. A grocery rebate does not fix market concentration. Canada frequently sends money into systems whose structure remains unreformed.

===Fiscal comfort and deferred costs===
Canada is often praised for fiscal prudence compared with some peer countries. The OECD noted in its 2025 survey that Canada's net general government debt was low by international comparison, while gross debt was 107 percent of GDP in 2024.<ref name="OECDDebt2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-economic-surveys-canada-2025_28f9e02c-en.html |title=OECD Economic Surveys: Canada 2025 |publisher=OECD |date=May 26, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The criticism is that fiscal aggregates can hide deferred costs. Underbuilt housing, delayed health care, aging infrastructure, weak defence procurement, climate adaptation, Indigenous infrastructure, disability poverty, and homelessness all represent liabilities even when they do not appear as conventional debt. Canada may look fiscally moderate while allowing expensive social and infrastructure deficits to accumulate.

===Tax complexity===
Canadian tax policy relies heavily on credits, benefits, rebates, exemptions, special programs, federal-provincial interaction, and targeted relief. This can improve equity, but it also creates complexity. Households may need to understand multiple benefits and deadlines, while businesses navigate payroll, sales taxes, corporate tax, carbon pricing, excise rules, property tax, and sector-specific regulation.

Complexity favours accountants, lawyers, large firms, and sophisticated households. It disadvantages people who are poor, disabled, elderly, new to Canada, self-employed, low-literacy, or administratively overwhelmed. A benefit that exists but is difficult to claim is not as generous as it appears.

==Health care==
Canada's publicly funded health care system is a major source of national pride and provides important protection against catastrophic medical bills. Medically necessary hospital and physician services are generally publicly insured.

The system's weaknesses are also serious. Access is uneven across provinces and regions. Primary care shortages leave many residents without a family doctor. Emergency rooms can be overcrowded. Specialist referrals can take months. Rural, northern, elderly, disabled, Indigenous, and low-income residents are especially exposed to service gaps.

The Canadian Institute for Health Information reported in 2025 that wait times for surgery and diagnostic imaging remained a priority issue across the country, with health systems facing an aging and growing population, rising demand, and workforce shortages.<ref name="CIHIWaits2025" /> Statistics Canada also reported that close to 3 million Canadians aged 15 and older in the provinces had unmet health-care needs in 2022.<ref name="StatCanHealthAccess">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/82-570-x/2024001/section4-eng.htm |title=Health of Canadians: Access to health care |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=March 11, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The result is a two-sided reality. Canada avoids many financial cruelties of private insurance systems, but it often rations care through delay, geography, and scarcity. National pride in medicare sometimes prevents honest discussion of poor access.

===Primary care and emergency pressure===
Primary care is one of the weakest points in the Canadian health system. Statistics Canada reported that 82.8 percent of Canadians had a regular health-care provider in 2023, down from 85.8 percent in 2022, with younger adults much less likely than seniors to have one.<ref name="StatCanHealthAccess" />

When primary care is weak, emergency departments become default access points. This creates overcrowding, hallway medicine, ambulance offload delays, and worse experiences for patients and staff. The universal system still exists, but the practical question becomes whether a person can access the right care at the right time.

===Public system, private pressure===
Canada's health-care debate is often trapped between slogans. One side defends public medicare as a moral achievement. Another emphasizes delays and argues for private delivery or payment. The reality is that Canada already has a mixed system: public insurance for medically necessary hospital and physician services, private or employment-linked coverage for many drugs, dental care, mental-health services, physiotherapy, and other needs.

The criticism is that Canada protects the symbol of medicare more consistently than the patient experience. A system can be public and still fail through delay, rationing, poor coordination, underuse of technology, bad workforce planning, and weak accountability.

===Mental health and addiction care===
Mental-health and addiction care reveal the limits of Canadian universalism. Many services are difficult to access, not fully publicly covered, or available only after long waits. Families often deal with crisis through emergency departments, police calls, private counselling, charity programs, or informal care.

The opioid crisis has made these gaps visible. Canada can debate safe supply, enforcement, treatment, housing, and harm reduction, but people in crisis often encounter a fragmented system. The result is a policy argument over ideology while families and communities experience practical abandonment.

===Wait-time rationing===
Canada does not usually ration medically necessary hospital and physician care through direct billing at the point of use. It often rations through time. CIHI's 2026 wait-times material reported that between 2018–2019 and 2024–2025, emergency department patients had more urgent conditions and overall emergency wait times increased, reflecting pressures across primary care, inpatient care, home care, and long-term care.<ref name="CIHIWaits2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.cihi.ca/en/wait-times-in-canada-2026 |title=Wait times in Canada, 2026 |publisher=Canadian Institute for Health Information |date=June 25, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

CIHI also reported that in 2024–2025, there were more than 16.1 million reported unscheduled emergency department visits, up from almost 15.5 million in 2023–2024; for patients admitted to hospital, 9 out of 10 emergency department visits were completed within 48.5 hours.<ref name="CIHIED2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.cihi.ca/en/nacrs-emergency-department-visits-and-lengths-of-stay |title=NACRS emergency department visits and lengths of stay |publisher=Canadian Institute for Health Information |date=2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The criticism is that Canadian health care often avoids financial catastrophe but normalizes uncertainty. A person may not receive a bill, but they may wait in pain, remain off work, go undiagnosed, use emergency rooms as primary care, or depend on family advocacy. Universal coverage is morally important, but access delayed can still be access denied.

===Provider scarcity and professional bottlenecks===
Physicians, nurses, pharmacists, technologists, care aides, social workers, paramedics, and mental-health workers are all part of the access problem. Canada cannot solve health care only by increasing funding if professional training, credential recognition, working conditions, technology, scopes of practice, and administrative design remain bottlenecks.

Professional regulation protects safety, but it can also restrict supply. The same country that recruits internationally trained health workers may then make it difficult for them to practise. This contradiction is particularly damaging in rural areas, long-term care, family medicine, and mental-health services.

===Two-tier pressure by stealth===
Canada officially defends public medicine, but private pressure appears through employer benefits, out-of-pocket dentistry and drugs, private counselling, paid virtual care, private imaging in some contexts, travel for care, and private support services. The result is not a fully American system, but a quiet stratification of access.

People with money, flexible jobs, private insurance, language skills, family support, and digital literacy can navigate the system better. People without those advantages wait, deteriorate, or give up. Canadian medicare remains a major achievement, but its universality is thinner outside the core hospital-and-physician model.

==Education==
Education in Canada is mainly provincial. Public elementary and secondary schooling is widely available, and Canada has major universities, colleges, and research institutions.

The system has strengths, including relatively high educational attainment and international student demand. It also has inequalities. Funding, class size, special education, rural access, Indigenous education, language rights, and school infrastructure vary by province and district.

Post-secondary education has become more market-oriented. International students have been used as a funding source by institutions and governments. This creates ethical problems when students are recruited into high tuition, weak housing, precarious work, and uncertain immigration pathways.

===Universities and the international-student model===
Canadian universities and colleges are major institutions in research, professional training, regional economies, and immigration pathways. They also became financially dependent in some cases on high-fee international students.

This model brought revenue and diversity, but it also created perverse incentives. Some institutions and private partners expanded enrolment faster than housing, transit, mental-health supports, labour-market outcomes, or academic quality could support. Students were sold Canadian opportunity while absorbing high tuition, high rent, and uncertain immigration outcomes.

The later tightening of temporary-resident policy exposed how much of the system had relied on growth rather than planning. Colleges, landlords, employers, and governments benefited from international students, but students carried much of the risk.

===K-12 inequality===
Public schooling is widely available, but educational experience varies by neighbourhood, province, family income, language, disability, and Indigenous status. Schools are asked to handle poverty, special needs, mental health, newcomer integration, food insecurity, technology gaps, and social conflict, often without enough staff or specialist support.

Canada's school system therefore mirrors the wider welfare state. It is broad and publicly legitimate, but stretched. Middle-class families can supplement it through tutoring, stable housing, devices, extracurriculars, and parental advocacy. Poorer families are more dependent on the system's weakest points.

===Post-secondary finance and student extraction===
Canadian universities and colleges are public or publicly regulated institutions, but many became financially dependent on high tuition from international students. Immigration policy, provincial underfunding, institutional expansion, and local housing shortages combined to create a system in which students could be treated as revenue, labour supply, and future immigrants at the same time.

This model damaged trust. Some institutions provided strong education and settlement support. Others appeared to sell access to Canada more than education itself. When governments later restricted study permits and temporary residents, students and colleges absorbed the shock of a policy system that had encouraged expansion before admitting it was unsustainable.<ref name="IRCCLevels2026" />

===Credential inflation===
Canada is a credential-heavy society. Degrees, diplomas, licences, certificates, background checks, language tests, Canadian experience, and professional memberships shape access to work. This can protect quality, but it also raises the cost of entry and creates barriers for capable people without the right paperwork.

Credential inflation is especially harsh for immigrants and working-class Canadians. It allows institutions to speak about merit while preserving class advantage. A job market that constantly demands credentials can become less about skill and more about gatekeeping.

==Science and research==
Canada has strong universities, public laboratories, medical research networks, astronomy facilities, Arctic research, agricultural science, and private-sector research in selected fields. It has produced influential work in medicine, physics, computing, artificial intelligence, ecology, and social science.

The recurring weakness is scale and continuity. Research funding can be competitive but thin, commercialization can be weak, and talented graduates often leave for larger markets. Canada likes the prestige of research but does not always fund or protect the industrial ecosystem needed to convert ideas into domestic power.

===Commercialization gap===
Canada produces strong academic research, especially in fields such as medicine, artificial intelligence, physics, climate science, engineering, agriculture, and social science. The harder task is turning research into large domestic firms, productivity gains, and widely shared prosperity.

A common criticism is that Canada educates talent and develops ideas, but too often lets the highest-value commercialization happen elsewhere. Researchers, founders, and skilled workers may move to the United States or sell to foreign buyers because domestic capital, scale, procurement, and risk tolerance are limited.

The result is a country proud of its universities but less successful at building world-leading companies from publicly supported knowledge.

==Housing, poverty, and cost of living==
Canada is wealthy, but affordability has become a national fracture. Housing, groceries, transportation, insurance, telecom bills, tuition, childcare, and debt servicing have strained households.

Food insecurity has become a significant warning sign. Researchers at the University of Toronto's PROOF program reported that in 2024, 25.5 percent of people in the ten provinces lived in a food-insecure household, amounting to approximately 10 million people.<ref name="PROOFFood2024">{{cite web |url=https://proof.utoronto.ca/2025/new-data-on-household-food-insecurity-in-2024/ |title=New data on household food insecurity in 2024 |publisher=PROOF, University of Toronto |date=May 5, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

This undermines the image of Canada as a comfortable middle-class country. A state can have public health care, human rights codes, and immigration targets while still allowing large numbers of households to struggle with food and rent.

===Food insecurity as national embarrassment===
Statistics Canada reported that in 2024 approximately 9.8 million people, or 24.0 percent of Canadians, lived in households that reported some form of food insecurity.<ref name="StatCanFood2024">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/260429/dq260429a-eng.htm |title=Canadian Income Survey, 2024 |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=April 29, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Food Banks Canada's HungerCount reported nearly 2.2 million food-bank visits in March 2025, the highest number in its history, and said usage had doubled since March 2019.<ref name="FoodBanksHunger2025">{{cite web |url=https://foodbankscanada.ca/hunger-in-canada/hungercount/overall-findings/ |title=HungerCount 2025 - Overall findings |publisher=Food Banks Canada |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

This is one of the starkest contradictions in Canadian society. A G7 country with large farmland, grocery giants, public benefits, and advanced logistics should not have food insecurity at this scale. The problem exposes the limits of national wealth when housing, wages, disability supports, welfare rates, grocery prices, and debt leave households with too little cash.

===Homelessness and shelter dependency===
Statistics Canada's Dimensions of Poverty Hub reported that chronic homelessness among shelter users rose from 28,900 people in 2017 to 36,058 in 2024.<ref name="StatCanHomeless2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/topics-start/poverty |title=Dimensions of Poverty Hub |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=April 29, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Homelessness is often discussed as a mental-health or addiction issue. Those factors matter, but the broader cause is a housing system that does not provide enough deeply affordable units, supportive housing, rent protection, income support, and discharge planning from hospitals, prisons, foster care, and shelters. In a wealthy country, homelessness is not only personal tragedy. It is policy failure made visible.

===Opioids and poisoned supply===
The Public Health Agency of Canada's substance-related harms data reported 56,631 apparent opioid toxicity deaths from January 2016 to December 2025, including 5,630 deaths in 2025, 96 percent of which were accidental.<ref name="PHACOpioids2026">{{cite web |url=https://health-infobase.canada.ca/substance-related-harms/opioids-stimulants/ |title=Key findings: Opioid- and Stimulant-related Harms in Canada |publisher=Public Health Agency of Canada |date=June 15, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Canada's overdose crisis reveals the limits of polite policy language. Governments speak of prevention, treatment, harm reduction, and enforcement, but people continue to die at mass scale. The crisis is tied to trauma, housing, poverty, drug supply toxicity, criminalization, mental health, pain treatment, and fragmented services.

===Renters and the intergenerational divide===
Housing has become a class divider. Older owners and investors benefited from decades of appreciation, low interest-rate periods, and constrained land supply. Younger workers, renters, newcomers, single people, disabled people, and lower-income families face high rents and distant ownership.

This has changed the meaning of work. A stable job once offered a plausible path to household formation in many Canadian cities. In expensive markets, wages no longer perform that function. The result is delayed marriage, delayed children, longer commutes, overcrowding, basement suites, adult children living with parents, and migration away from high-opportunity regions.

Canada's housing crisis is therefore not only an affordability issue. It is a social-order issue. It determines who can form a family, who can leave a bad relationship, who can live near work, who can retire, and who inherits security.

===Food insecurity===
Food insecurity is a blunt measure of whether Canadian prosperity reaches households. A Public Health Agency of Canada article reported that household food insecurity affected 25.5 percent of people in the provinces and 37.4 percent of people in the territories in 2024.<ref name="PHACFood2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/reports-publications/health-promotion-chronic-disease-prevention-canada-research-policy-practice/vol-45-no-9-2025/evidence-is-in-accountability-needs-injected-policy-making-process-household-food-insecurity-reduction.html |title=The evidence is in: accountability needs to be injected into the policy-making process for household food insecurity reduction |publisher=Public Health Agency of Canada |date=September 25, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

This is damaging to Canada's self-image. A country can have a high GDP, respected universities, and progressive slogans while a large share of residents cannot reliably afford food. Food banks and charities reduce harm, but they also allow governments to tolerate poverty that should be treated as a policy failure.

===Homelessness===
Homelessness is visible in large cities and increasingly present in smaller communities. It is linked to housing costs, poverty, mental health, addiction, family violence, disability, incarceration, foster care history, and weak social assistance.

Canada's homelessness problem is especially damaging to its self-image because it exists beside enormous real estate wealth. Encampments near luxury towers capture the contradiction of a country that can generate asset inflation faster than shelter.

===Disability and social assistance===
Disability policy is divided across federal, provincial, territorial, municipal, health, education, and employment systems. Many disabled Canadians face low income, difficult paperwork, medical gatekeeping, and poor service coordination.

Canada's treatment of disability reveals the limits of its compassion narrative. Public language is inclusive, but benefits can be inadequate and hard to access. People with complex needs often become experts in bureaucracy because the system requires them to prove hardship repeatedly.

===Working poverty===
Canada's cost-of-living crisis has weakened the old distinction between employment and poverty. In expensive regions, full-time work may not cover rent, transport, food, insurance, telecom, debt, and child costs. Multiple jobs, gig work, shared housing, and family support have become normal survival strategies.

This is socially corrosive because Canada still speaks as if work automatically produces independence. When wages and housing costs diverge, employment becomes necessary but insufficient. The result is resentment, burnout, declining trust, and a sense that the economy is organized for asset owners rather than workers.

===Disability poverty===
Disability support in Canada is fragmented across federal, provincial, territorial, private-insurance, workers' compensation, tax-credit, and charity systems. Benefits are often low, eligibility can be intrusive, and recipients may be punished for work, savings, marriage, or family support.

The criticism is that Canada treats disability as an administrative category rather than a citizenship issue. A society that prides itself on inclusion should not require disabled people to navigate poverty-level benefits, medical paperwork, inaccessible housing, and long waits for services.

===Mental health and drugs===
Mental health care is widely discussed but often poorly integrated into the public health system. Counselling, psychotherapy, addiction treatment, crisis care, supportive housing, and long-term psychiatric support remain uneven.

The opioid crisis has exposed failures in health care, housing, policing, drug policy, and social support. Canada has moved toward harm reduction in some jurisdictions, but public debate remains polarized between treatment, enforcement, safer supply, involuntary care, and housing-first approaches.

===Elder care===
Canada's aging population has placed pressure on hospitals, home care, long-term care, pensions, and family caregivers. The COVID-19 pandemic exposed severe weaknesses in long-term care, especially staffing, infection control, oversight, and profit incentives.

Elder care receives less national mythology than medicare, but it is one of the clearest tests of social values. A country can claim universal care while leaving families to navigate fragmented support when people become frail, cognitively impaired, or unable to live independently.

==Infrastructure==
Canada's infrastructure reflects its geography and political compromises. Roads, railways, ports, airports, pipelines, hydroelectric systems, telecommunications networks, and public transit are essential to national cohesion.

Yet infrastructure is uneven. Southern urban regions are congested. Suburbs are car-dependent. Rural areas may lack transit and medical access. Northern communities face high costs, unreliable transportation, and climate vulnerability. Indigenous infrastructure deficits remain severe.

A recurring Canadian failure is underbuilding until a crisis becomes undeniable. Housing, transit, water systems, defence equipment, ports, rail capacity, and health infrastructure all show the cost of delayed execution.

===Procurement and delivery failure===
Canada's infrastructure weakness is not only a funding problem. It is also a delivery problem. Major public projects can be slowed by procurement rules, litigation risk, consultation requirements, environmental review, utility relocation, labour shortages, intergovernmental bargaining, and political redesign.

Some of these safeguards are legitimate. The criticism is that Canada often lacks the institutional discipline to deliver quickly while still protecting public interests. Transit lines, hospitals, military equipment, ferries, ships, housing programs, and digital systems can become case studies in delay.

A country with Canada's wealth should be better at building. The fact that it often is not has become one of the clearest signs of state-capacity decline.

===Digital government===
Canadian digital public services are uneven. Some tax, benefit, immigration, and provincial service portals work well. Others are confusing, outdated, slow, or fragmented. Residents may need separate accounts, paper forms, mailed codes, call-centre queues, and repeated identity verification across different systems.

Digital weakness matters because bureaucracy is increasingly experienced online. A poor website, broken authentication process, or unreachable call centre can deny access as effectively as a closed office.

===Procurement as national weakness===
Procurement failure is a recurring Canadian problem. Defence equipment, ships, aircraft, information technology, transit projects, health infrastructure, and public buildings often face delays, cost overruns, changing specifications, and political risk avoidance.

The issue is not merely waste. Procurement weakness reduces sovereignty and service quality. A country that cannot buy ships, build transit, modernize digital systems, or deliver infrastructure predictably becomes dependent on allies, consultants, legacy systems, and emergency fixes.

===Consultants and hollow capacity===
Canada's public sector often relies on consultants for strategy, implementation, technology, procurement, and program review. Consultants can provide expertise, but heavy reliance may hollow out internal capacity. Government then pays external firms to tell it how to deliver services it should have retained the competence to deliver.

This is another version of the Canadian process problem. The state can produce reports and procurement documents, but not always durable operational capability. In the long run, contracting out competence can become more expensive than building it.

==Transportation==
Canada is heavily automobile-dependent. Major cities have public transit, but service quality varies. Intercity passenger rail is limited outside a few corridors. Air travel is often expensive, and remote communities may depend on costly flights.

Freight rail and trucking are central to the economy. Ports in Vancouver, Prince Rupert, Montreal, Halifax, and elsewhere connect Canada to global trade. Pipelines remain politically contentious because they connect resource regions to export markets while raising climate and Indigenous rights concerns.

The transportation system reveals a broader Canadian pattern: vast geography, protected incumbents, slow public investment, and high consumer costs.

===Car dependence===
Many Canadian cities were built around low-density suburbs, highways, parking, and long commutes. This has made cars close to mandatory in large parts of the country. Public transit is often useful in dense urban corridors but weak in suburbs, smaller cities, industrial areas, and rural communities.

Car dependence increases household costs through vehicle purchase, insurance, fuel, maintenance, parking, and time. It also worsens emissions, traffic deaths, congestion, and land consumption. Canada often debates affordability while ignoring how much suburban form forces households to buy mobility privately.

===Intercity rail and buses===
Passenger rail is limited for a country of Canada's size and wealth. Outside selected corridors, travel between cities often depends on driving or flying. Intercity bus service weakened in many regions after private operators withdrew from unprofitable routes.

This creates isolation for seniors, students, low-income residents, disabled people, rural communities, and people without cars. Canada's transport system reflects a wider pattern: national scale without national service.

==Telecommunications and media==
Telecommunications are essential in a large, cold, urban-rural country. Canada has advanced networks in major centres, but affordability and competition remain persistent concerns.

The CRTC's identification of Bell, Rogers, and TELUS as the top three operators for mobile and Internet services illustrates how concentrated the sector is.<ref name="CRTC2026" /> This concentration affects phone bills, Internet access, media ownership, sports broadcasting, and political lobbying.

Canadian media also faces pressure from American platforms, shrinking local journalism, public broadcasting debates, and ownership concentration. Canada worries about cultural sovereignty, but many Canadians consume American news, entertainment, technology, and social media every day.

===Digital divide===
Canada's telecom problem is not only price. It is also geography and dependency. Rural, northern, remote, and Indigenous communities often face poorer service, fewer providers, higher repair costs, and weaker redundancy. A broadband outage, tower failure, or satellite limitation can affect education, business, emergency response, health care, and family contact.

The digital divide undermines the claim that Canada is a modern knowledge economy. Connectivity is now basic infrastructure. Treating it as a premium consumer service leaves some communities structurally disadvantaged.

===Media concentration and local news decline===
Canadian media is shaped by a small number of large companies, public broadcasting, government policy, advertising decline, platform dependence, and the collapse of many local-news business models. Local journalism has weakened in numerous communities, reducing scrutiny of councils, police boards, school boards, courts, local landlords, and regional employers.

A national conversation dominated by a few metropolitan outlets can miss local suffering. Canada's media culture is often sophisticated at federal politics and identity debates, but weaker at sustained accountability reporting outside major centres.

===Platform dependence and Canadian content policy===
Canadian media policy has long tried to protect domestic culture from larger foreign markets, especially the United States. Broadcasting rules, public funding, tax credits, the CBC/Radio-Canada, and Canadian-content requirements are part of this strategy.

The digital era made this harder. News, entertainment, advertising, music, video, podcasts, and political debate now move through global platforms. Canada wants cultural sovereignty, but its creators and publishers depend heavily on American-owned infrastructure. Policy then oscillates between subsidy, regulation, bargaining with platforms, and moral panic about misinformation.

===Speech culture===
Canada generally protects expression, but its speech culture is cautious, professionalized, and institutionally managed. Universities, public agencies, employers, professional bodies, and media organizations often favour reputational risk management. This can reduce open debate even where formal censorship is absent.

The Canadian tendency is not usually crude banning. It is softer: codes, training, moderation, grant conditions, reputational pressure, HR processes, and institutional statements. Supporters see this as civility and inclusion. Critics see it as managerial control over public discourse.

==Energy==
Canada is an energy superpower. It produces oil, gas, hydroelectricity, uranium, wind, solar, and biomass. Energy politics vary sharply by region. Alberta and Saskatchewan often prioritize oil and gas; Quebec and British Columbia have large hydro resources; Ontario has nuclear power and manufacturing-linked electricity demand.

Energy is also one of Canada's biggest contradictions. The country wants to be seen as green, but it is also a major fossil fuel producer. It wants Indigenous partnership, but major projects often trigger disputes over consent, benefits, and land protection. It wants cheap energy, but decarbonization requires expensive infrastructure.

===Energy federalism===
Energy policy exposes Canada's regional contradictions. Alberta, Saskatchewan, Newfoundland and Labrador, British Columbia, Quebec, Ontario, and the Atlantic provinces have different energy systems, fiscal interests, and political identities. Hydroelectric provinces, oil-producing provinces, nuclear-dependent regions, and import-dependent communities experience climate policy differently.

This makes national energy strategy difficult. The federal government wants climate credibility, export revenue, Indigenous partnership, affordable power, industrial investment, and regional peace. These goals frequently conflict.

Critics argue that Canada avoids honest trade-offs. It wants to be an energy superpower, a climate leader, a reconciliation state, a cheap-power economy, and a resource-exporting country all at once.

==Foreign relations==
Canada is closely aligned with the United States and other Western powers. It is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G7, the G20, the Commonwealth, and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.

Canada's foreign policy includes sanctions, development assistance, Arctic sovereignty claims, trade diplomacy, refugee policy, human rights rhetoric, and military cooperation. It often speaks in moral language, but its actual influence is limited by military weakness, dependence on the United States, and modest diplomatic capacity.

The country benefits from being perceived as reasonable and non-threatening. That brand can be useful. It can also hide passivity, underinvestment, and a tendency to confuse good reputation with actual leverage.

===Moral language and limited capacity===
Canadian foreign policy often uses moral language: human rights, rules-based order, peacekeeping, feminism, democracy, development, and multilateralism. These themes are not meaningless, but they can exceed Canada's actual capacity and willingness to act.

Canada's diplomatic, military, and aid resources are limited compared with its rhetoric. The country often supports allied positions, issues statements, contributes funding, imposes sanctions, and participates in coalitions, but rarely has independent strategic weight comparable to its self-image.

The criticism is not that Canada should be a great power. It is that Canada should be more honest about being a middle power dependent on the United States and allied systems.

===Trade vulnerability===
Canada's dependence on the United States creates recurring vulnerability. American tariffs, border delays, Buy American rules, political instability, energy disputes, softwood lumber conflicts, automotive rules, and security demands can quickly affect Canadian workers and firms.

Canadian governments repeatedly promise diversification, but geography and existing integration keep the U.S. central. This makes Canadian sovereignty more limited in practice than in patriotic language.

==Defence==
Canada's defence policy is shaped by geography, NATO commitments, NORAD, Arctic sovereignty, procurement problems, and reliance on the United States. The Canadian Armed Forces have served in world wars, Korea, NATO missions, Afghanistan, peacekeeping operations, disaster response, and domestic emergencies.

Defence procurement is a chronic weakness. Ships, aircraft, equipment, infrastructure, recruitment, and readiness have repeatedly lagged behind political promises. Canada benefits from American protection while maintaining a separate national image.

This creates an uncomfortable contradiction. Canada wants the status of a serious allied democracy, but often avoids paying the full cost of military capability.

===Procurement and readiness===
Defence procurement is one of Canada's most criticized state-capacity failures. Ships, aircraft, vehicles, communications systems, Arctic equipment, and base infrastructure have often been delayed, over budget, or trapped in political and bureaucratic cycles.

The Parliamentary Budget Officer noted in 2026 that Canada had committed to a new NATO defence-spending target of 5 percent of GDP by 2035, including 3.5 percent for core defence spending and up to 1.5 percent for defence- and security-related spending, while detailed supporting projections had not been published.<ref name="PBONATO2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.pbo-dpb.ca/en/publications/RP-2526-022-S--fiscal-implications-meeting-nato-5-commitment--repercussions-financieres-atteinte-cible-5-otan |title=Fiscal Implications of Meeting NATO's 5% Commitment |publisher=Office of the Parliamentary Budget Officer |date=February 5, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The criticism is that Canada repeatedly announces ambition without proving delivery. Spending targets matter less if the procurement system cannot convert money into usable capability.

===Military personnel and civil-military gap===
The Canadian Armed Forces also face recruitment, retention, housing, equipment, misconduct, and morale issues. Military service is respected symbolically, but the armed forces are often politically peripheral outside crises, ceremonies, and allied summits.

This produces a civil-military gap. Canada wants international respect, Arctic control, NATO credibility, disaster response, and defence industrial benefits, but many citizens and politicians are detached from the practical requirements of military readiness.

==Arctic and northern sovereignty==
The Arctic is increasingly important because of climate change, shipping, minerals, military strategy, and Indigenous rights. Canada claims sovereignty over northern waters and territory, but practical control depends on infrastructure, surveillance, search and rescue, ports, airfields, icebreakers, housing, and local partnership.

Northern sovereignty is not only about flags on maps. It is about whether people living in the North have decent housing, transport, food security, telecommunications, health care, and political power. Canada cannot credibly claim the Arctic while neglecting Arctic communities.

===NATO commitments and credibility===
Canada's defence credibility has been questioned for years. The Parliamentary Budget Officer reported in 2026 that Budget 2025 stated Canada would meet NATO's 2 percent of GDP core defence-spending target in that year, while the government had not published supporting projection details for a path to NATO's newer 5 percent commitment by 2035.<ref name="PBONATO2026" /> NATO's Hague commitment includes 3.5 percent of GDP for core defence requirements and up to 1.5 percent for broader defence- and security-related spending by 2035.<ref name="NATOHague2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.nato.int/en/about-us/official-texts-and-resources/official-texts/2025/06/25/the-hague-summit-declaration |title=The Hague Summit Declaration |publisher=NATO |date=June 25, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The critical view is that Canada long enjoyed the security umbrella of the United States while cultivating a softer international image. This allowed the country to underinvest in hard power, procurement, ammunition, Arctic surveillance, personnel, and readiness. The new geopolitical environment makes that bargain less sustainable.

===Arctic rhetoric and material limits===
Canada asserts Arctic sovereignty, but sovereignty requires more than maps and statements. Transport Canada describes the $1 billion Arctic Infrastructure Fund as supporting dual-use transportation infrastructure that strengthens sovereignty, defence readiness, economic growth, and community resilience.<ref name="ArcticInfrastructure2026">{{cite web |url=https://tc.canada.ca/en/programs/funding-programs/arctic-infrastructure-fund |title=Arctic Infrastructure Fund |publisher=Transport Canada |date=March 19, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

The fact that such investments are needed illustrates the gap between claim and capacity. The North is central to Canadian identity, but northern communities often face high costs, housing shortages, limited transport, health-service gaps, and climate vulnerability. Arctic sovereignty cannot be credible if northern residents experience the state mainly as distant and underbuilt.

==Culture==
Canadian culture reflects Indigenous, French, British, immigrant, regional, and American influences. Hockey, winter sports, public broadcasting, literature, music, film, comedy, food, multicultural cities, and regional identities all contribute to national culture.

Canada's cultural insecurity is longstanding. The country is close to the United States, shares a language with American media, and often defines itself by what it is not. This produces both creativity and anxiety. Canadian culture is real, but it is often forced to justify itself against a much larger neighbour.

===Sport===
Ice hockey is the most famous Canadian sport and a major part of national identity. Lacrosse has official historical status. Basketball, soccer, baseball, football, cricket, curling, skiing, skating, combat sports, and Indigenous sports are also important.

Sport is one area where Canada feels confident. Yet even here, the national image can be selective. Hockey culture has faced criticism over cost barriers, hazing, racism, sexual misconduct, and exclusion of lower-income families.

===Food and everyday culture===
Canadian food culture includes Indigenous foods, Quebec cuisine, Atlantic seafood, prairie agriculture, immigrant cuisines, poutine, butter tarts, maple products, Nanaimo bars, bannock, smoked meat, and regional dishes.

Everyday Canadian culture is often practical and understated. Politeness is valued, but critics argue that politeness can become avoidance. Conflict may be hidden under procedure, complaints systems, passive aggression, and institutional language.

==Everyday life==
===Cost of normal adulthood===
For many younger and lower-income Canadians, the cost of ordinary adulthood has risen sharply. Renting a decent home, buying a first property, having children, paying for transportation, saving for retirement, and staying near family can be difficult in major urban regions.

This has cultural consequences. Canada still presents itself as a middle-class country, but the entry price for middle-class stability has increased. A person may have a degree, a full-time job, and no extravagant lifestyle and still feel unable to form a household. That is a deep legitimacy problem for a society built around moderation and quiet aspiration.

===Commuting and time poverty===
Canadian cities often combine expensive core housing with car-dependent suburbs and weak regional transit. The result is time poverty. Long commutes, childcare logistics, winter travel, congestion, transit gaps, and multiple-job households reduce quality of life even where income looks adequate.

Time poverty is rarely treated as seriously as income poverty, but it is part of the affordability crisis. If people must live far from work because housing is unaffordable, then pay for vehicles, fuel, insurance, parking, and hours of commuting, the apparent savings of suburban or exurban life may be partly illusory.

===Service culture===
Canada's everyday service culture is often polite but bureaucratic. Banks, telecom companies, airlines, insurers, government agencies, universities, hospitals, and landlords may all have formal complaint channels. The problem is that the channels often require persistence beyond what ordinary people can sustain.

This creates a class divide between people who know how to escalate and people who do not. Those with language skills, documentation habits, legal knowledge, social confidence, and free time can force better outcomes. Those without them accept worse treatment. In this sense, Canadian politeness can hide unequal administrative power.

===Family and elder care===
An aging population increases pressure on families. Long-term care, home care, disability support, dementia care, hospital discharge, and unpaid caregiving are major stress points. Statistics Canada reported unmet home-care needs among Canadian adults in its Health of Canadians access-to-care material.<ref name="StatCanHealthAccess" />

Canada's welfare state often assumes family backup. When family backup is absent, distant, poor, elderly, disabled, estranged, or overworked, the gaps become visible. The system is more dependent on unpaid labour than its public image admits.

==National identity==
Canada's national identity is often built by comparison with the United States. Canadians commonly describe themselves as more peaceful, polite, tolerant, orderly, multicultural, and socially responsible.

Some of that comparison is fair. Canada has lower political temperature in many areas, less private medical bankruptcy, stronger gun controls, and a less revolutionary political tradition. But the comparison can also become lazy. Being less dysfunctional than the United States does not mean Canadian systems are good.

The strongest criticism of Canadian identity is that it often mistakes moderation for morality. A problem expressed quietly is still a problem. Bureaucratic harm is still harm. Oligopoly is still market failure. Colonialism is still colonialism when accompanied by land acknowledgements.

===The peacekeeping myth===
Peacekeeping is central to Canada's international self-image. It reflects real historical contributions, but it can also become a nostalgic substitute for current capability. Canadians often remember a country that helped stabilize conflicts under United Nations flags, while paying less attention to reduced contemporary military capacity and the complexity of modern peace operations.

The myth persists because it is emotionally useful. It lets Canada imagine itself as helpful, neutral, and morally clean. In reality, Canada is an allied Western state, a NATO member, an arms exporter, a resource power, and a country with strategic interests.

===Politeness as social control===
Canadian politeness is often real. Everyday interactions can be orderly and considerate. But politeness can also discipline dissent. People who criticize institutions too bluntly may be treated as unreasonable, even when the facts support them.

This gives Canadian power a soft texture. Harm is often expressed through delay, silence, forms, eligibility rules, ignored complaints, professional language, and passive exclusion rather than open aggression. The tone is mild; the consequences may not be.

==Social problems==
Canada's social problems include housing unaffordability, homelessness, opioid deaths, food insecurity, racial inequality, Indigenous inequality, domestic violence, mental health gaps, disability poverty, elder care failures, and regional inequality.

The country often responds to these problems with task forces, pilot projects, grants, slogans, and complex jurisdictional arrangements. Some programs help. Others produce paperwork, photo opportunities, and slow implementation.

A recurring pattern is that Canada recognizes problems before it solves them. It can name inequality, produce excellent reports, and still leave people waiting years for tangible change.

===Loneliness and social fragmentation===
Canada's social problems are not only material. Loneliness, weak community ties, long commutes, housing instability, digital life, family separation, elder isolation, and immigrant settlement stress all shape daily life. A country can be peaceful yet socially thin.

Suburban design often privatizes life into houses, cars, shopping plazas, and workplaces. High rents force frequent moves. Newcomers may arrive without extended family. Seniors may age in homes far from services. Young adults may remain in childhood bedrooms because independent housing is unaffordable.

These patterns are rarely framed as national failures, but they affect fertility, mental health, civic life, and trust.

===Administrative harm===
Administrative harm occurs when institutions injure people through delay, error, complexity, indifference, or rigid rule-following. Examples include benefit delays, immigration backlogs, mistaken account closures, inaccessible disability programs, tribunal waits, child-welfare mistakes, housing bureaucracy, and health-system referrals that never arrive.

Canada is especially prone to this because its institutions often look humane at the level of language but are difficult to navigate in practice. The system apologizes, reviews, consults, and promises improvement. The individual still loses time, money, housing, health, or dignity.

==Crime and public safety==
Canada has lower violent crime than many countries, but public safety varies by region and community. Police-reported crime, rural crime, organized crime, intimate partner violence, hate crimes, fraud, cybercrime, and drug-related harm all shape public debate.

Statistics Canada reported a national Crime Severity Index of 77.89 for 2024, down from 81.20 in 2023, while the violent Crime Severity Index remained a major public concern.<ref name="StatCanCrime2024">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3510002601 |title=Crime severity index and weighted clearance rates, Canada, provinces, territories and Census Metropolitan Areas |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Canada's criminal justice system is criticized from multiple directions. Some argue it is too lenient and slow. Others argue it is punitive, colonial, and discriminatory. Both critiques can be partly true because the system is often ineffective at prevention, slow at adjudication, harsh for marginalized groups, and unsatisfying for victims.

==International reputation==
Canada's international reputation is generally positive. It is associated with stability, natural beauty, immigration, public health care, peacekeeping, politeness, and liberal democracy.

The reputation is useful but overstates capacity. Canada has often failed to meet defence expectations, struggled with Indigenous rights, lagged on productivity, protected corporate incumbents, and used moral language abroad while avoiding hard trade-offs at home.

The gap between brand and reality is not accidental. Canada has been unusually successful at exporting a soft image of itself. That image can make criticism seem rude, extreme, or ungrateful, even when the criticism is supported by evidence.

===Brand Canada===
"Brand Canada" is powerful. It combines mountains, forests, hockey, multicultural cities, public health care, politeness, immigration, and constitutional democracy into a marketable national identity. This brand helps tourism, education, diplomacy, immigration recruitment, and soft power.

The danger is that the brand becomes a substitute for inspection. Foreign observers may praise Canada without understanding housing stress, Indigenous conditions, oligopoly pricing, health waits, weak transit, credential barriers, or the legal difficulty of challenging institutions.

Canadians themselves can also become consumers of the brand. National pride becomes defensive: criticism is treated as betrayal, exaggeration, or Americanization. A healthier patriotism would demand more from a country with so many advantages.

==Media, public debate, and censorship concerns==
Canada has a mixture of public, private, independent, local, ethnic, and digital media. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation/Radio-Canada is a major public broadcaster. Private media ownership is concentrated, and local journalism has weakened.

Canadian public debate is often polite in form but constrained by institutional caution. Critics argue that controversial issues can be managed through reputational pressure, bureaucratic language, funding dependence, professional discipline, or platform moderation rather than open confrontation.

This does not mean Canada lacks free speech. It means the culture of speech is often indirect. Canadians may be legally free to criticize institutions while socially or professionally discouraged from being blunt.

==Comparison with the United States==
Canada is frequently compared with the United States. The comparison flatters Canada on health insurance, gun violence, political stability, and social tone. It also makes Canada intellectually lazy.

The United States is not the only benchmark. A country with Canada's wealth should compare itself with the best-performing democracies, not merely with American dysfunction. On housing, productivity, telecom competition, infrastructure delivery, Indigenous conditions, and health access, Canada often performs worse than its self-image suggests.

Canadian nationalism can therefore become defensive rather than ambitious. It says "at least we are not America" when the better question is why a country with so many advantages still accepts obvious failures.

==Canadian model in crisis==
===The bargain that weakened===
For much of the late twentieth century, Canada's social bargain was plausible: stable jobs, attainable housing, public health insurance, expanding education, immigration opportunity, moderate politics, and a sense of upward mobility. That bargain has weakened.

Housing is less attainable. Health care is slower. Public services feel more strained. The labour market is more credentialed and precarious. Younger people carry more debt. Newcomers face higher entry costs. The country remains rich, but its promise feels less reliable.

===Insider advantage===
Modern Canada increasingly rewards insiders. Homeowners, pensioned public-sector workers, regulated professionals, bank shareholders, protected firms, established landlords, and people with inherited wealth often benefit from the system's stability. Renters, newcomers, temporary residents, disabled people, small entrepreneurs, and younger workers face the costs.

The insider-outsider divide is politically dangerous because it is not always visible as ideology. Many insiders believe they are simply prudent, educated, and law-abiding. Many outsiders are told to work harder, budget better, retrain, or move. The structural transfer of security from outsiders to insiders is then misdescribed as personal responsibility.

===Virtue as substitute for reform===
Canada's national language is rich in virtue: diversity, reconciliation, inclusion, sustainability, affordability, fairness, safety, and compassion. The criticism is that these words are often easier to deploy than the reforms needed to honour them.

A country that says housing is a human right must build and preserve enough housing. A country that says reconciliation matters must transfer land, money, jurisdiction, and power. A country that says health care is universal must ensure timely access. A country that says competition matters must confront oligopoly. A country that says it is sovereign must pay for defence and northern capacity.

===Managerial liberalism===
Canada's governing ideology can be described as managerial liberalism. It is not revolutionary, socialist, libertarian, or strongly nationalist. It prefers professional administration, regulated markets, incremental reform, diversity language, social programs, expert consultation, and risk management.

Managerial liberalism can prevent extremes. It can also become complacent, moralizing, and slow. Its weakness is that it often turns political conflict into process. People ask for homes, doctors, safety, clean water, and accountability; institutions respond with frameworks, eligibility rules, portals, and advisory panels.

==Structural criticisms==
===Oligopoly democracy===
One of the most important structural criticisms of Canada is that it operates as an oligopoly democracy. Political rights are real, but many essential markets are dominated by a few large firms or protected professional and regional interests. Consumers can vote, speak, and complain, but they often cannot easily switch providers, enforce remedies, or obtain competitive prices.

This does not make Canada corrupt in the crude sense. The system is mostly legal and respectable. The problem is that legality does not guarantee fairness. Oligopoly can be fully regulated, fully disclosed, and still harmful.

===Real-estate state===
Canada can also be interpreted as a real-estate state. Housing is not merely a place to live; it is a retirement plan, bank collateral, municipal tax base, construction engine, immigration absorber, family wealth strategy, and political third rail.

This makes reform difficult. Policies that would restore affordability may threaten existing owners, lenders, investors, developers, municipalities, and provincial revenues. Governments therefore promise affordability while trying not to reduce the wealth of homeowners too sharply. The contradiction is obvious but rarely admitted.

===Consultation state===
Canada is skilled at consultation. Governments create panels, roundtables, engagement processes, advisory bodies, action plans, and strategies. Consultation is necessary in a diverse democracy, but it can become a substitute for decision.

The consultation state is especially frustrating for people facing urgent needs. A person without housing, clean water, income support, surgery, or legal resolution may not need another engagement process. They need delivery.

===Credential and gatekeeping state===
Canada relies heavily on credentials, licences, certifications, background checks, professional bodies, regulatory colleges, and employer screening. These systems protect safety and standards, but they also preserve insider advantage.

Immigrants, workers changing provinces, internationally trained professionals, people with criminal records, disabled people, and those without elite networks can be blocked by gatekeeping. The country then complains about labour shortages while making mobility harder than necessary.

===Polite austerity===
Canada's austerity is often indirect. Instead of openly denying services, institutions ration through wait lists, eligibility rules, underfunded offices, limited hours, paperwork, and narrow program design. This allows governments to claim universal principles while limiting actual access.

Polite austerity is politically effective because the harm is dispersed. No single decision looks catastrophic, but the combined effect can be severe: a person waits for a doctor, cannot find housing, pays high bills, receives delayed benefits, and is told each system is doing its best.

==Selected evidence-based criticisms==
The following examples illustrate why a critical account of Canada can be grounded in documented facts rather than mere pessimism:

* Canada still had 38 active long-term drinking-water advisories on public systems on reserve in 36 communities as of June 4, 2026, according to Indigenous Services Canada.<ref name="ISCWater2026" />
* CMHC estimated that restoring 2019 affordability by 2035 would require roughly 430,000 to 480,000 housing starts per year, nearly double the recent construction pace.<ref name="CMHC2025" />
* The Bank of Canada has described the Big Six banks as accounting for more than 93 percent of Canadian banking-system assets.<ref name="BoCBigSix" />
* The CRTC identified Bell, Rogers, and TELUS as the top three operators for mobile and Internet services by revenues and subscribers in its 2026 telecommunications market report.<ref name="CRTC2026" />
* Statistics Canada reported that 24.0 percent of Canadians lived in households with some form of food insecurity in 2024.<ref name="StatCanFood2024" />
* Food Banks Canada reported nearly 2.2 million food-bank visits in March 2025, the highest level in its history.<ref name="FoodBanksHunger2025" />
* CIHI reported increased emergency department pressure between 2018–2019 and 2024–2025, reflecting wider stress across the health system.<ref name="CIHIWaits2026" />
* The Public Health Agency of Canada reported 56,631 apparent opioid toxicity deaths from January 2016 to December 2025.<ref name="PHACOpioids2026" />
* Statistics Canada reported that in 2023/2024 Indigenous adults were incarcerated at a rate 10.2 times higher than non-Indigenous adults in six reporting provinces.<ref name="StatCanIncarceration2026" />
* The IMF argued that eliminating non-geographic internal trade barriers could raise Canada's real GDP by nearly 7 percent over the long run.<ref name="IMFInternalTrade2026" />

These examples do not exhaust Canada's problems, but they show a pattern. Canada's failures are not hidden in fringe anecdotes. They appear in official statistics, federal pages, parliamentary evidence, central-bank research, regulator reports, and international assessments.

==Criticism==
Major criticisms of Canada include:

* unresolved settler colonialism, land dispossession, residential schools, reserve policy, and contested Crown sovereignty;
* unsafe drinking water, overcrowded housing, weak infrastructure, and service gaps in some First Nations, Inuit, and Métis communities despite national wealth;
* reconciliation practices that can become symbolic branding when not accompanied by land, money, authority, and institutional change;
* a housing system that rewards owners, investors, banks, developers, and land scarcity while punishing renters, younger workers, newcomers, single people, and lower-income families;
* a real-estate-dependent growth model that inflates paper wealth while weakening productivity, family formation, and labour mobility;
* concentrated banking, grocery, telecom, airline, rail, insurance, media, and professional sectors that limit consumer bargaining power;
* weak practical remedies when large institutions make harmful decisions, including account closures, billing errors, service failures, denial of benefits, or opaque administrative decisions;
* a health-care system that is universal in principle but often slow, overloaded, uneven, and dependent on rationing by delay;
* public services that are morally attractive in design but frequently difficult to access in practice;
* an immigration model that attracts newcomers without consistently providing housing, credential recognition, labour-market fairness, transit, health care, or settlement capacity;
* a temporary-resident economy that used students and workers as economic inputs while shifting housing, tuition, and labour-market risk onto them;
* dependence on natural resource extraction while claiming environmental leadership;
* high consumption, car dependence, and infrastructure choices that make climate targets harder to meet;
* weak productivity growth and underinvestment in competition, machinery, commercialization, infrastructure, and domestic scale-up firms;
* internal trade barriers and provincial gatekeeping that reduce the effective size of the national economy;
* a slow, expensive legal system that makes rights difficult to enforce for ordinary people;
* policing, corrections, and child-welfare systems that continue to produce racial and colonial inequality;
* defence underinvestment, procurement failure, and heavy reliance on the United States;
* access-to-information delays and bureaucratic opacity that weaken democratic accountability;
* a national culture that often uses politeness, process, consultation, and comparison with the United States to avoid direct accountability.

These criticisms do not mean Canada lacks advantages. They mean the country is often judged by its reputation rather than by its results. The most critical interpretation is that Canada is a fortunate country whose institutions have become too comfortable, too slow, and too protective of insiders.

==Interpretations==
Canada can be interpreted in several ways. It is a successful liberal democracy by global standards. It is also a colonial state whose legitimacy remains contested by Indigenous nations. It is a wealthy economy with high living standards. It is also a protected oligopoly economy with weak productivity and severe housing distortion.

It is a country where many people live safe, decent, free lives. It is also a country where bureaucratic failure, corporate concentration, and housing scarcity can make everyday life needlessly difficult.

The most accurate interpretation may be that Canada is neither the paradise of its branding nor the disaster imagined by its harshest critics. It is a fortunate country that too often confuses fortune with virtue.

==See also==
* [[Banking in Canada]]
* [[Debanking in Canada]]
* [[Canadian Indian residential school system]]
* [[Housing in Canada]]
* [[Economy of Canada]]
* [[Telecommunications in Canada]]
* [[Indigenous peoples in Canada]]
* [[Immigration to Canada]]
* [[Politics of Canada]]
* [[Health care in Canada]]
* [[Canadian federalism]]
* [[Monarchy of Canada]]
* [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]
* [[Poverty in Canada]]
* [[Environmental policy of Canada]]
* [[Foreign relations of Canada]]
* [[Canadian Armed Forces]]
* [[Access to Information Act]]
* [[Homelessness in Canada]]
* [[Household debt in Canada]]
* [[Internal trade in Canada]]
* [[Office of the Correctional Investigator]]

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Canada]]
[[Category:Countries in North America]]
[[Category:Federal monarchies]]
[[Category:G7 nations]]
[[Category:G20 nations]]
[[Category:Member states of NATO]]
[[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1867]]

Canada

2026-07-06T04:31:22Z

MapleSource:

{{short description|Country in North America}}
{{about|the country}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Coord|60|N|110|W|display=title}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Canada
| image_flag = Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg
| alt_flag = A vertical triband design (red, white, red) with a red maple leaf in the center.
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Canada.svg
| alt_coat = At the top there is a rendition of St. Edward's Crown, with the crest of a crowned gold lion standing on a twisted wreath of red and white silk and holding a maple leaf in its right paw underneath. The lion is standing on top of a helm, which is above the escutcheon, ribbon, motto and compartment. There is a supporter of either side of the escutcheon and ribbon; an English lion on the left and a Scottish unicorn on the right.
| national_motto = {{native phrase|la|[[A Mari Usque Ad Mare]]|italics=on|parensize=100%}}<br />"From Sea to Sea"
| national_anthem = <br>National: "[[O Canada]]"<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:"O Canada", performed by the United States Third Marine Aircraft Wing Band.oga]]}}</div><br> Royal: [[God Save the King]] <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/royal-symbols-titles/royal-anthem.html|title=Royal Anthem|first=Canadian|last=Heritage|date=August 11, 2017|website=aem|quote= [https://web.archive.org/web/20111010193142/http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0002533 'O Canada' and 'God Save the Queen'/'Dieu sauve la Reine' were approved by Parliament in 1967 as Canada's national and royal anthems. However, legislation to this effect was passed only in 1980, and applied only to 'O Canada.']}}</ref><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:United States Navy Band - God Save the King.ogg]]}}</div>
| image_map = CAN orthographic.svg
| map_width = 220px
| alt_map = A projection of North America with Canada highlighted in green
| capital = [[Ottawa]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|45|24|N|75|40|W|type:city}}
| largest_city = [[Toronto]]
| official_languages = {{hlist|[[Canadian English|English]]|[[Canadian French|French]]}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2016
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=110528&PRID=10&PTYPE=109445&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2017&THEME=120&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |title=2016 Census of Population—Ethnic Origin. |publisher=Statistics Canada, Catalog no. 98-400-X2016187 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026161129/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=110528&PRID=10&PTYPE=109445&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2017&THEME=120&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |archivedate=October 26, 2017 |date=October 25, 2017}}</ref>
| ethnic_groups = {{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;font-size:100%;
| title = List of ethnicities| 72.9% [[European Canadians|European]] | 17.7% [[Asian Canadians|Asian]] | 4.9% [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous]] | 3.1% [[Black Canadian|African]] | 1.3% [[Latin American Canadians|Latin American]] | 0.2% [[Oceania]]n}}
| religion_year = 2011
| religion_ref = <ref name="statcan1">{{cite web |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/130508/dq130508b-eng.htm |title=2011 National Household Survey |publisher=Statistics Canada |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515212448/http://statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/130508/dq130508b-eng.htm |archivedate=May 15, 2013 |date=May 8, 2013}}</ref>
| religion = {{Collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;font-size:100%;
|title = List of religions|67.2% [[Christianity in Canada|Christianity]] |23.9% [[Irreligion in Canada|No affiliation]]|3.2% [[Islam in Canada|Islam]]|1.5% [[Hinduism in Canada|Hinduism]] |1.4% [[Sikhism in Canada|Sikhism]] |1.1% [[Buddhism in Canada|Buddhism]] |1.0% [[History of the Jews in Canada|Judaism]] |0.6% [[Religion in Canada#Other religions|Other]]}}
| demonym = [[Canadians|Canadian]]
| government_type = {{nowrap|[[Federalism|Federal]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]]<br />[[constitutional monarchy]]<ref name="DowdingDumont2014">{{cite book |first1=Keith |last1=Dowding |first2=Patrick |last2=Dumont |title=The Selection of Ministers around the World |url=https://books.google.com/?id=AClHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT395 |year=2014 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-63444-7 |page=395}}</ref>}}
| leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of Canada|Monarch]]
| leader_name1 = {{Canadian monarch, current|nameonly=~}}
| leader_title2 = {{nowrap|[[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]}}
| leader_name2 = [[Louise Arbour]]
| leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name3 = [[Mark Carney]]
| legislature = [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]]
| upper_house = [[Senate of Canada|Senate]]
| lower_house = [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Canada#Canada under British rule (1763–1931)|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note = from the United Kingdom
| established_event1 = [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]]
| established_date1 = July 1, 1867
| established_event2 = [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]
| established_date2 = December 11, 1931
| established_event3 = Patriation
| established_date3 = April 17, 1982
| area_km2 = 9,984,670
| area_label = Total area
| area_rank = 2nd
| area_sq_mi = 3,854,085
| percent_water = 8.92
| area_label2 = Total land area
| area_data2 = {{convert|9093507|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| population_estimate = 41,472,081<ref name="StatCan2026Q4Pop">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/260318/dq260318b-eng.htm |title=Canada's population estimates, fourth quarter 2025 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] |date=March 18, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>
| population_census = 35,151,728<ref>{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |title=Population size and growth in Canada: Key results from the 2016 Census |date=February 8, 2017 |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/170208/dq170208a-eng.htm |accessdate=February 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210133245/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/170208/dq170208a-eng.htm |archivedate=February 10, 2017}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = January 1, 2026
| population_census_year = 2016
| population_estimate_rank = 38th
| population_density_km2 = 3.92
| population_density_sq_mi = 10.15
| population_density_rank = 228th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$1.971 trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEOCA">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2020&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=50&pr1.y=16&c=156&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=March 30, 2020}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2020
| GDP_PPP_rank = 16th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $52,144<ref name="IMFWEOCA" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 21st
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$1.812{{nbsp}}trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEOCA" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2020
| GDP_nominal_rank = 10th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $47,931<ref name="IMFWEOCA" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 17th
| Gini = 31.0 
| Gini_year = 2017
| Gini_change = increase
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/chart/5OdN |title=Income inequality |publisher=[[OECD]] |website=data.oecd.org |accessdate=January 10, 2020}}</ref>
| HDI = 0.922 
| HDI_year = 2018
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/2019-human-development-index-ranking|title=Human Development Report 2019|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=December 10, 2019|accessdate=December 10, 2019|format=PDF}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 13th
| currency = [[Canadian dollar]] ($)
| currency_code = CAD
| utc_offset = −3.5 to −8
| utc_offset_DST = −2.5 to −7
| date_format = {{abbr|yyyy|year}}-{{abbr|mm|month}}-{{abbr|dd|day}} ([[Anno Domini|AD]])<ref>The [[Government of Canada]] and [[Standards Council of Canada]] prescribe [[ISO 8601]] as the country's official all-numeric date format: {{cite book |last1=Translation Bureau |first1=[[Public Works and Government Services Canada]] |title=The Canadian style: A guide to writing and editing |date=1997 |publisher=Dundurn Press |location=Toronto |isbn=978-1-55002-276-6 |edition=Rev. |chapter=5.14: Dates |page=[https://archive.org/details/canadianstylegui0000unse/page/97 97] |chapterurl=http://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tcdnstyl-chap?lang=eng&lettr=chapsect5&info0=5.14 |url=https://archive.org/details/canadianstylegui0000unse/page/97}} The {{abbr|dd|day}}/{{abbr|mm|month}}/{{abbr|yy|year}} and {{abbr|mm|month}}/{{abbr|dd|day}}/{{abbr|yy|year}} formats also remain in common use; see [[Date and time notation in Canada]].</ref>
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Canada|+1]]
| cctld = [[.ca]]
}}

'''Canada''' is a country in the northern part of [[North America]]. Its [[Provinces and territories of Canada|ten provinces and three territories]] extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering {{convert|9.98|e6km2|e6sqmi|2|abbr=off}}, making it the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|second-largest country by total area]]. Its southern and western [[Canada–United States border|border with the United States]], stretching {{convert|8891|km|mi}}, is the world's longest bi-national land border. Canada's capital is Ottawa, and its three [[List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada|largest metropolitan areas]] are Toronto, [[Montreal]], and [[Vancouver]].

Various indigenous peoples inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years before European colonization. Beginning in the 16th century, [[British colonization of the Americas|British]] and [[French colonization of the Americas|French]] expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of [[Military history of Canada|various armed conflicts]], France ceded nearly all of [[New France|its colonies in North America]] in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three [[British North America]]n colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a [[federalism|federal]] [[British Dominions|dominion]] of four provinces. This began an [[Territorial evolution of Canada|accretion of provinces and territories]] and a process of increasing autonomy from the [[United Kingdom]]. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the ''Statute of Westminster'' of 1931 and culminated in the ''[[Canada Act 1982|Canada Act]]'' of 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the [[British parliament]].

Canada is a [[parliamentary democracy]] and a constitutional monarchy in the [[Westminster system|Westminster tradition]], with a monarch and a prime minister who serves as the chair of the [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] and head of government. The country is a [[Commonwealth realm|realm]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], a member of the [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie|Francophonie]] and [[Official bilingualism in Canada|officially bilingual]] at the federal level. It [[International rankings of Canada|ranks among the highest]] in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, [[economic freedom]], and education. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and [[Multiculturalism in Canada|multicultural]] nations, the product of [[Immigration to Canada|large-scale immigration]] from many other countries. Canada's [[Canada–United States relations|long and complex relationship]] with the United States has had a significant impact on its [[Economy of Canada|economy]] and [[Culture of Canada|culture]].

A [[developed country]], Canada has the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|seventeenth-highest nominal per-capita income globally]] as well as the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|thirteenth-highest]] ranking in the [[Human Development Index]]. Its advanced economy is the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|tenth-largest in the world]], relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the [[United Nations]], [[NATO]], the [[Group of Seven|G7]], the [[Group of Ten (economics)|Group of Ten]], the [[G20]], the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] and the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] forum.

==Etymology==

{{Main|Name of Canada}}
While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of ''Canada'', the name is now accepted as coming from the [[St. Lawrence Iroquoians|St. Lawrence Iroquoian]] word ''kanata'', meaning "village" or "settlement".<ref>{{cite book |first1=James Stuart |last1=Olson |first2=Robert |last2=Shadle |title=Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=uyqepNdgUWkC&pg=PA109 |year=1991 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-26257-9 |page=109 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412143614/https://books.google.com/books?id=uyqepNdgUWkC&pg=PA109 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day [[Quebec City]] region used the word to direct French explorer [[Jacques Cartier]] to the village of [[Stadacona]].<ref name="Rayburn2001">{{cite book |first=Alan |last=Rayburn |title=Naming Canada: Stories about Canadian Place Names |url=https://books.google.com/?id=aiUZMOypNB4C&pg=PA14 |year=2001 |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |isbn=978-0-8020-8293-0 |pages=14–22 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181901/https://books.google.com/books?id=aiUZMOypNB4C&pg=PA14 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Cartier later used the word ''Canada'' to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to [[Donnacona]] (the chief at Stadacona);<ref name="Rayburn2001" /> by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the [[Saint Lawrence River]] as ''Canada''.<ref name="Rayburn2001" />

From the 16th to the early 18th century "[[Canada (New France)|Canada]]" referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul R. |last=Magocsi |title=Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&pg=PA1048 |year=1999 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-2938-6 |page=1048 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412134750/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&pg=PA1048 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> In 1791, the area became two British colonies called [[Upper Canada]] and [[Lower Canada]] collectively named [[the Canadas]]; until their union as the British [[Province of Canada]] in 1841.<ref>{{citation |author=Victoria |title=An Act to Re-write the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and for the Government of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BCQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA20 |year=1841 |publisher=J.C. Fisher & W. Kimble |page=20 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412155952/https://books.google.com/books?id=BCQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA20 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Upon Confederation in 1867, ''Canada'' was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference, and the word ''[[Dominion]]'' was conferred as the country's title.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Toole |first=Roger |title=Holy nations and global identities: civil religion, nationalism, and globalisation |year=2009 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-17828-1 |editor=Hvithamar, Annika |editor2=Warburg, Margit |editor3=Jacobsen, Brian Arly |page=137 |chapter=Dominion of the Gods: Religious continuity and change in a Canadian context}}</ref> By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth".<ref name="Morra2016">{{cite book |first=Irene |last=Morra |title=The New Elizabethan Age: Culture, Society and National Identity after World War II |url=https://books.google.com/?id=enJ1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT49 |year=2016 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-0-85772-867-8 |page=49}}</ref> The government of [[Louis St. Laurent]] ended the practice of using ''Dominion'' in the statutes of Canada in 1951.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lipad.ca/full/permalink/1661272/ |title=November 8, 1951 (21st Parliament, 5th Session) |accessdate=April 9, 2019}}</ref><ref>Bowden, J.W.J.. (2015). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319533946_'Dominion'_A_Lament Dominion': A Lament]. The Dorchester Review 5, no. 2: pp.58-64.</ref>

In 1982, the passage of the ''Canada Act'', bringing the Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to ''Canada'', while later that year the name of the national holiday was [[Canada Day#History|changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day]].<ref name="buckner">{{cite book |title=Canada and the British Empire |editor=Buckner, Philip |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2008 |pages=37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125 |isbn=978-0-19-927164-1}}</ref> The term ''Dominion'' was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the [[Military history of Canada during World War II|Second World War]] the term ''federal'' had replaced ''dominion''.<ref>{{cite book |first1=John |last1=Courtney |first2=David |last2=Smith |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA114 |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford Handbooks Online |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |page=114 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181713/https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA114 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Canada}}
{{See also|Timeline of Canadian history|List of years in Canada}}
{{Further|Historiography of Canada}}

===Indigenous peoples===
Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the [[First Nations]], [[Inuit]], and [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]],<ref name="GraberKuprecht2012">{{cite book |first1=Christoph Beat |last1=Graber |first2=Karolina |last2=Kuprecht |first3=Jessica C. |last3=Lai |title=International Trade in Indigenous Cultural Heritage: Legal and Policy Issues |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5dv2d57n52MC&pg=PA366 |year=2012 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-0-85793-831-2 |page=366 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181512/https://books.google.com/books?id=5dv2d57n52MC&pg=PA366 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> the last being a [[mixed-blood]] people who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European settlers.<ref name="GraberKuprecht2012" /> The term "Aboriginal" as a [[collective noun]] is a specific [[term of art]] used in some legal documents, including the ''[[Constitution Act 1982]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Native American, First Nations or Aboriginal? {{!}} Druide |url=https://www.druide.com/en/reports/native-american-first-nations-or-aboriginal|website=www.druide.com|accessdate=May 19, 2017 |url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005114/https://www.druide.com/en/reports/native-american-first-nations-or-aboriginal|archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref>

The [[Prehistoric migration and settlement of the Americas from Asia|first inhabitants of North America]] are generally hypothesized to have migrated from [[Siberia]] by way of the [[Beringia|Bering land bridge]] and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas D. |last=Dillehay |title=The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory |url=https://books.google.com/?id=aM0CRBQ9kFcC&pg=PA61 |year=2008 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2543-4 |page=61 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413032756/https://books.google.com/books?id=aM0CRBQ9kFcC&pg=PA61 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref><ref name="FaganDurrani2016">{{cite book |first1=Brian M. |last1=Fagan |first2=Nadia |last2=Durrani |title=World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/?id=fMneCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34244-1 |page=124}}</ref> The [[Paleo-Indian]] archeological sites at [[Old Crow Flats]] and [[Bluefish Caves]] are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.<ref name="Rawat2012">{{cite book |first=Rajiv |last=Rawat |title=Circumpolar Health Atlas |url=https://books.google.com/?id=AwlYiuPAX-UC&pg=PT58 |year=2012 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-4456-4 |page=58 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330132512/https://books.google.com/books?id=AwlYiuPAX-UC&pg=PT58 |archivedate=March 30, 2017}}</ref> The [[Technological and industrial history of Canada#The Stone Age: Fire (14,000 BC – AD 1600)|characteristics of Canadian Indigenous societies]] included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Derek |title=Canada: an illustrated history |year=2008 |publisher=Douglas & Mcintyre |isbn=978-1-55365-259-5 |pages=7, 13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=quM1xyFyfhQC&pg=PA170 |title=Indigenous difference and the Constitution of Canada |first=Patrick |last=Macklem |year=2001 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |page=170 |isbn=978-0-8020-4195-1 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412153342/https://books.google.com/books?id=quM1xyFyfhQC&pg=PA170 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sonneborn |first=Liz |title=Chronology of American Indian History |date=January 2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-6770-1 |pages=2–12}}</ref>

The [[Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous population]] at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000<ref name="dying">{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Donna M |last2=Northcott |first2=Herbert C |url=https://books.google.com/?id=p_pMVs53mzQC&pg=PA25 |title=Dying and Death in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55111-873-4 |pages=25–27 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144745/https://books.google.com/books?id=p_pMVs53mzQC&pg=PA25 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> and two million,<ref name="Steckel">{{cite book |last=Thornton |first=Russell |title=A population history of North America |editor=Haines, Michael R |editor2=Steckel, Richard Hall |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2000 |pages=13, 380 |chapter=Population history of Native North Americans |isbn=978-0-521-49666-7}}</ref> with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's [[Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples]].<ref>{{cite book |series=Handbook of North American Indians |title=Indians in Contemporary Society |volume=2 |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Garrick Alan |chapter=Native Populations of Canada |last=O'Donnell |first=C. Vivian |year=2008 |publisher=Government Printing Office |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA285 |page=285 |isbn=978-0-16-080388-8}}</ref> As a consequence of European colonization, the population of Canada's Indigenous peoples declined by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the [[Beothuk]], disappeared.<ref name="Marshall1998">{{cite book |first=Ingeborg |last=Marshall |title=A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA442 |year=1998 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-1774-5 |page=442 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/https://books.google.com/books?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA442 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> The decline is attributed to several causes, including the [[Columbian Exchange|transfer of European diseases]], such as [[influenza]], [[measles]], and [[smallpox]] to which they had no natural immunity,<ref name="dying" /><ref>{{cite book |last=True Peters |first=Stephanie |title=Smallpox in the New World |url=https://books.google.com/?id=v0zEiM_hijsC&pg=PA39 |year=2005 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-1637-1 |page=39 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145733/https://books.google.com/books?id=v0zEiM_hijsC&pg=PA39 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.<ref name="LaidlawLester2015">{{cite book |first1=Z. |last1=Laidlaw |first2=Alan |last2=Lester |title=Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Loss and Survival in an Interconnected World |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ec-_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT150 |year=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-45236-8 |page=150 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec-_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT150 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Arthur J. |last=Ray |title=I Have Lived Here Since The World Began |page=[https://archive.org/details/ihavelivedheresi0000raya/page/244 244] |isbn=978-1-55263-633-6 |publisher=Key Porter Books |year=2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/ihavelivedheresi0000raya/page/244 }}</ref>

Although not without conflict, [[Euro-Canadian|European Canadians]]' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.<ref>{{cite book |last=Preston |first=David L. |title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |year=2009 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7 |pages=43–44 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112102431/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |archivedate=January 12, 2016}}</ref> First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of [[Former colonies and territories in Canada|European colonies in Canada]], particularly for their role in assisting European [[coureur des bois]] and [[voyageurs]] in the exploration of the continent during the [[North American fur trade]].<ref name="Miller2009j">{{cite book |first=J.R. |last=Miller |title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-9227-5 |page=34 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102075453/http://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |archivedate=January 2, 2014}}</ref> [[The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples|The Crown and Indigenous peoples]] began [[Timeline of colonization of North America|interactions]] during the European colonization period, though the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with European settlers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/innu_culture.html |work=Innu Culture |title=3. Innu-Inuit 'Warfare' |year=1999 |last=Tanner |first=Adrian |publisher=Department of Anthropology, Memorial University of Newfoundland |accessdate=March 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230222741/http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/innu_culture.html |archivedate=December 30, 2014}}</ref> However, from the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged Indigenous peoples to assimilate into their own culture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Asch |first=Michael |title=Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference |url=https://books.google.com/?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&pg=PA28 |year=1997 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-0581-0 |page=28 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112102431/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&pg=PA28 |archivedate=January 12, 2016}}</ref> These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with [[Canadian Indian residential school system|forced integration]] and [[High Arctic relocation|relocations]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kirmayer |first1=Laurence J. |last2=Guthrie |first2=Gail Valaskakis |title=Healing Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=AXYDxvx3zSAC&pg=PA9 |year=2009 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-5863-2 |page=9 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112102431/https://books.google.com/books?id=AXYDxvx3zSAC&pg=PA9 |archivedate=January 12, 2016}}</ref> A period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada]] by the Government of Canada in 2008.<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf |title=Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action |newspaper=Trc.ca |year=2015 |publisher=National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation |page=5 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615202024/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf |archivedate=June 15, 2015 |access-date=July 9, 2016}}
</ref>

===European colonization===
The first European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer [[Leif Erikson]] (c.970–1020 AD).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Little |first1=Becky |title=Why Do We Celebrate Columbus Day and Not Leif Erikson Day? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/10/151011-columbus-day-leif-erikson-italian-americans-holiday-history/ |website=National Geographic |accessdate=May 28, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Wallace |first1=Birgitta |title=Leif Eriksson |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/leif-ericsson |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |accessdate=May 29, 2020}}</ref> The earliest European mention of Canada may occur in [[Vinland sagas|Norse sagas]], which refer to new lands west of [[Greenland]] as [[Vinland]].<ref name="JohansenPritzker2007p727">{{cite book|author1=Bruce E. Johansen|author2=Barry M. Pritzker|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian History [4 volumes]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E9_J6IC&pg=PA727|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-818-7|pages=727–728}}</ref> In approximately 1000 AD, the [[Vikings|Norse]] built a small encampment that only lasted a few years at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] on the northern tip of [[Newfoundland]].<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008">{{cite encyclopedia |first1=Linda S. |last1=Cordell |first2=Kent |last2=Lightfoot |first3=Francis |last3=McManamon |first4=George |last4=Milner |title=L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site |encyclopedia=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA82 |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-02189-3 |page=82}}</ref> No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer [[John Cabot]] explored and claimed Canada's [[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic coast]] in the name of King [[Henry VII of England]].<ref name="BlakeKeshen2017p19">{{cite book |first1=Raymond B. |last1=Blake |first2=Jeffrey |last2=Keshen |first3=Norman J. |last3=Knowles |first4=Barbara J. |last4=Messamore |title=Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z4kwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |year=2017 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-3553-1 |page=19}}</ref> In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] where, on July 24, he planted a {{convert|10|m|ft|adj=on}} cross bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the territory New France in the name of [[Francis I of France|King Francis I]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cartier |first1=Jacques |last2=Biggar |first2=Henry Percival |last3=Cook |first3=Ramsay |title=The Voyages of Jacques Cartier |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagesofjacques0000cart |url-access=registration |year=1993 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-6000-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/voyagesofjacques0000cart/page/n79 26] }}</ref> The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the [[Basque people|Basque]] and [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese]] establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.<ref name="Kerr1987n">{{cite book |first=Donald Peter |last=Kerr |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: From the beginning to 1800 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=itsTLSnw8qgC&pg=PA47 |year=1987 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-2495-4 |page=47}}</ref> In general, early settlements during [[the Age of Discovery]] appear to have been [[Population of Canada#Ephemeral European settlements|short-lived]] due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Baten |first=Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref><ref name="Wynn2007">{{cite book |first=Graeme |last=Wynn |title=Canada and Arctic North America: An Environmental History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=bxGFaFvo2oMC&pg=PA49 |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-437-0 |page=49}}</ref>

In 1583, Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]], by the [[royal prerogative]] of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], founded [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's, Newfoundland]], as the first North American [[English overseas possessions|English colony]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Rose |first=George A |title=Cod: The Ecological History of the North Atlantic Fisheries |url=https://books.google.com/?id=tDNe7GOOwfwC&pg=PA209 |date=October 1, 2007 |publisher=[[Breakwater Books]] |isbn=978-1-55081-225-1 |page=209 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182027/https://books.google.com/books?id=tDNe7GOOwfwC&pg=PA209 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> French explorer [[Samuel de Champlain]] arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at [[Port Royal, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia|Port Royal]] (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ninette |last1=Kelley |first2=Michael J. |last2=Trebilcock |title=The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3IHyRvsCiKMC&pg=PA27 |date=September 30, 2010 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-9536-7 |page=27 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412205355/https://books.google.com/books?id=3IHyRvsCiKMC&pg=PA27 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Among the colonists of New France, ''[[French Canadian|Canadiens]]'' extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and [[Acadians]] settled the present-day [[The Maritimes|Maritimes]], while fur traders and [[Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery|Catholic missionaries]] explored the [[Great Lakes]], [[Hudson Bay]], and the [[Mississippi watershed]] to [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Howard Roberts |last=LaMar |authorlink=Howard R. Lamar |title=The Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West |year=1977 |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |isbn=978-0-690-00008-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/readersencyclope00lama_0/page/355 355] |url=https://archive.org/details/readersencyclope00lama_0/page/355}}</ref> The [[Beaver Wars]] broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C |last2=Arnold |first2=James |last3=Wiener |first3=Roberta |title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JsM4A0GSO34C&pg=PA394 |date=September 30, 2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-697-8 |page=394 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412162049/https://books.google.com/books?id=JsM4A0GSO34C&pg=PA394 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

The English established additional settlements in [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], beginning in 1610 and the [[Thirteen Colonies]] to the south were founded soon after.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Phillip Alfred |last1=Buckner |first2=John G. |last2=Reid |title=The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=_5AHjGRigpYC&pg=PA55 |year=1994 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-6977-1 |pages=55–56 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412160103/https://books.google.com/books?id=_5AHjGRigpYC&pg=PA55 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref name="hornsby">{{cite book |last=Hornsby |first=Stephen J |title=British Atlantic, American frontier: spaces of power in early modern British America |year=2005 |publisher=[[University Press of New England]] |isbn=978-1-58465-427-8 |pages=14, 18–19, 22–23}}</ref> A series of [[French and Indian Wars|four wars]] erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the [[Seven Years' War]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Nolan |first=Cathal J |title=Wars of the age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Nn_61ts-hQwC&pg=PA160 |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-33046-9 |page=160 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412205416/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn_61ts-hQwC&pg=PA160 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Mainland [[Nova Scotia]] came under British rule with the 1713 [[Treaty of Utrecht]], and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Allaire |first=Gratien |title=From 'Nouvelle-France' to 'Francophonie canadienne': a historical survey |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |date=May 2007 |issue=185 |pages=25–52 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.024 |volume=2007}}</ref>

The [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]] established First Nation treaty rights, created the [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] out of New France, and annexed [[Cape Breton Island]] to Nova Scotia.<ref name="buckner" /> St. John's Island (now [[Prince Edward Island]]) became a separate colony in 1769.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=Bruce M |title=Use of Non-Traditional Evidence: A Case Study Using Heraldry to Examine Competing Theories for Canada's Confederation |journal=[[British Journal of Canadian Studies]] |date=March 2010 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=87–117 |doi=10.3828/bjcs.2010.5}}</ref> To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the ''[[Quebec Act]]'' of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and [[Ohio River|Ohio Valley]].<ref name="Hopkins1898">{{cite book |first=John Castell |last=Hopkins |title=Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the Country: The Canadian Dominion Considered in Its Historic Relations, Its Natural Resources, Its Material Progress and Its National Development, by a Corps of Eminent Writers and Specialists |url=https://archive.org/details/canadaencyclop05hopk |year=1898 |publisher=Linscott Publishing Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/canadaencyclop05hopk/page/125 125]}}</ref> More importantly, the ''Quebec Act'' afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.<ref>{{cite book |first=Eric |last=Nellis |title=An Empire of Regions: A Brief History of Colonial British America |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-b6YVX53fIsC&pg=PT331 |year=2010 |publisher=University of Toronto Press – University of British Columbia |isbn=978-1-4426-0403-2 |page=331 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412205454/https://books.google.com/books?id=-b6YVX53fIsC&pg=PT331 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> It re-established the [[French language in Canada|French language]], [[Catholicism in Canada|Catholic faith]], and [[Law of France|French civil law]] there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.<ref name="StuartSavage2011">{{cite book |first1=Peter |last1=Stuart |first2=Allan M. |last2=Savage |title=The Catholic Faith and the Social Construction of Religion: With Particular Attention to the Québec Experience |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Fdx4AV1kgCsC&pg=PA101 |year=2011 |publisher=WestBow Press |isbn=978-1-4497-2084-1 |pages=101–102}}</ref> The ''Proclamation'' and the ''Quebec Act'' in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the [[American Revolution]].<ref name="buckner" />

After the successful American War of Independence, the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|1783 Treaty of Paris]] recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Todd |last1=Leahy |first2=Raymond |last2=Wilson |title=Native American Movements |url=https://books.google.com/?id=999tRpj8VGQC&pg=PR49 |date=September 30, 2009 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-0-8108-6892-2 |page=49 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181942/https://books.google.com/books?id=999tRpj8VGQC&pg=PR49 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of [[Loyalists]], the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. [[New Brunswick]] was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes which led to the incorporation of [[Saint John, New Brunswick]] to become Canada's first city.<ref name="Newman2016">{{cite book |first=Peter C |last=Newman |authorlink=Peter C. Newman |title=Hostages to Fortune: The United Empire Loyalists and the Making of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=kBGzCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 |date=2016 |publisher=Touchstone |isbn=978-1-4516-8615-9 |page=117 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=kBGzCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref> To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the [[Constitutional Act 1791|''Constitutional Act'']] of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later [[Quebec#Canadian Confederation|Quebec]]) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later [[Ontario#Canada West|Ontario]]), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.<ref>{{cite book |last=McNairn |first=Jeffrey L |title=The capacity to judge |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2000 |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=T_A3pZQrHzIC&pg=PA24 |isbn=978-0-8020-4360-3 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142512/https://books.google.com/books?id=T_A3pZQrHzIC&pg=PA24 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

The Canadas were the main front in the [[War of 1812]] between the United States and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.<ref>{{cite book |first=Richard Colebrook |last=Harris |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: The land transformed, 1800–1891 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=tWkxht1Oa8EC&pg=PA21 |year=1987 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |page=21 |display-authors=etal |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423190803/https://books.google.com/books?id=tWkxht1Oa8EC&pg=PA21 |archivedate=April 23, 2016 |isbn=978-0-8020-3447-2}}</ref> New arrivals included refugees escaping the [[Great Irish Famine]] as well as [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]]-speaking Scots displaced by the [[Highland Clearances]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1935-36/Gallagher.html |work=cchahistory.ca |title=The Irish Emigration of 1847 and Its Canadian Consequences |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707141525/http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1935-36/Gallagher.html |archivedate=July 7, 2014}}</ref> Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.<ref name="dying" />

The desire for [[responsible government]] resulted in the abortive [[Rebellions of 1837]].<ref name="Read1985">{{cite book |first=Colin |last=Read |title=Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=OWhXHCXuVvcC&pg=PR99 |year=1985 |publisher=MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-8406-8 |page=99 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=OWhXHCXuVvcC&pg=PR99 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref> The [[Report on the Affairs of British North America|Durham Report]] subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.<ref name="buckner" /> The [[Act of Union 1840|''Act of Union'']] merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America by 1849.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Romney |first=Paul |date=Spring 1989 |title=From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture |journal=Law and History Review |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=121–174 |doi=10.2307/743779 |jstor=743779}}</ref> The signing of the [[Oregon Treaty]] by Britain and [[Mexican Cession|the United States in 1846]] ended the [[Oregon boundary dispute]], extending the border westward along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]]. This paved the way for British colonies on [[Colony of Vancouver Island|Vancouver Island (1849)]] and in [[Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)|British Columbia (1858)]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Evenden |first=Leonard J |last2=Turbeville |first2=Daniel E |title=Geographical snapshots of North America |editor=Janelle, Donald G |publisher=Guilford Press |year=1992 |page=[https://archive.org/details/geographicalsnap0000unse/page/52 52] |chapter=The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier |isbn=978-0-89862-030-6 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/geographicalsnap0000unse/page/52 }}</ref> The [[Alaska Purchase]] of 1867 by the United States established the border along the Pacific coast, although there would continue to be some disputes about the exact demarcation of the Alaska-Yukon and Alaska-BC border for years to come.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Farr |first1=Niko |title=The Alaska Boundary Dispute |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/alaska-boundary-dispute |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |accessdate=October 30, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215092859/http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/alaska-boundary-dispute/ |archivedate=December 15, 2017}}</ref>

===Confederation and expansion===
Following several constitutional conferences, the ''[[Constitution Act, 1867|Constitution Act]]'' officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: [[Ontario]], Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Gertjan |last1=Dijkink |first2=Hans |last2=Knippenberg |title=The Territorial Factor: Political Geography in a Globalising World |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3RRJr-5q1H0C&pg=PA226 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Amsterdam University Press]] |isbn=978-90-5629-188-4 |page=226 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144931/https://books.google.com/books?id=3RRJr-5q1H0C&pg=PA226 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref name="bothwell">{{cite book |title=History of Canada Since 1867 |first=Robert |last=Bothwell |publisher=[[Michigan State University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-87013-399-2 |pages=31, 207–310}}</ref> Canada assumed control of [[Rupert's Land]] and the [[North-Western Territory]] to form the [[Northwest Territories]], where the Métis' grievances ignited the [[Red River Rebellion]] and the creation of the province of [[Manitoba]] in July 1870.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bumsted |first=JM |title=The Red River Rebellion |publisher=Watson & Dwyer |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-920486-23-8}}</ref> British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which [[United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia|had been united]] in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871, while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.<ref name="canatlas">{{cite web |url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060303140806/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En |archivedate=March 3, 2006 |title=Building a nation |work=Canadian Atlas |publisher=[[Canadian Geographic]] |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated southwards, to the U.S.<ref name="mdmols">{{cite book |last1=Denison |first1=Merrill |title=The Barley and the Stream: The Molson Story |date=1955 |publisher=McClelland & Stewart Limited |page=8}}</ref>

To open [[Western Canada|the West]] to European immigration, parliament also approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]), opening the prairies to settlement with the ''[[Dominion Lands Act]]'', and establishing the [[North-West Mounted Police]] to assert its authority over this territory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html |title=Sir John A. Macdonald |year=2008 |publisher=Library and Archives Canada |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614221958/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html |archivedate=June 14, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html |title=The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior |last=Cook |first=Terry |year=2000 |work=The Archivist |publisher=Library and Archives Canada |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614222015/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html |archivedate=June 14, 2011 }}</ref> In 1898, during the [[Klondike Gold Rush]] in the Northwest Territories, parliament created the Yukon Territory. [[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]] became provinces in 1905.<ref name="canatlas" />

===Early 20th century===
Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the ''Constitution Act, 1867'', its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought [[Military history of Canada during World War I|Canada into World War I]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Brian Douglas |last=Tennyson |title=Canada's Great War, 1914–1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w2OeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |year=2014 |publisher=Scarecrow Press (Cape Breton University) |isbn=978-0-8108-8860-9 |page=4 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142336/https://books.google.com/books?id=w2OeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Volunteers sent to the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] later became part of the [[Canadian Corps]], which played a substantial role in the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] and other major engagements of the war.<ref name="morton-milhist">{{cite book |last=Morton |first=Desmond |title=A military history of Canada |publisher=[[McClelland & Stewart]] |year=1999 |edition=4th |pages=130–158, 173, 203–233, 258 |isbn=978-0-7710-6514-9}}</ref> Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.<ref>{{cite book |first=J. L. |last=Granatstein |title=Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jqxyhNcha3sC&pg=PA144 |year=2004 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-8696-9 |page=144 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152349/https://books.google.com/books?id=jqxyhNcha3sC&pg=PA144 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]] erupted when the [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionist]] Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with [[conscription]] was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.<ref name="McGonigal1962">{{cite book |first=Richard Morton |last=McGonigal |title=The Conscription Crisis in Quebec – 1917: a Study in Canadian Dualism |year=1962 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |page=Intro}}</ref> The ''Military Service Act'' brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.<ref name="McGonigal1962" /> In 1919, Canada joined the [[League of Nations]] independently of Britain,<ref name="morton-milhist" /> and the 1931 ''Statute of Westminster'' affirmed Canada's independence.<ref name="Morton2002">{{cite book |first=Frederick Lee |last=Morton |title=Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PA63 |year=2002 |publisher=University of Calgary Press |isbn=978-1-55238-046-8 |page=63}}</ref>

The [[Great Depression in Canada]] during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.<ref>{{cite book |first=Robert B. |last=Bryce |title=Maturing in Hard Times: Canada's Department of Finance through the Great Depression |url=https://archive.org/details/maturinginhardti0000bryc |url-access=registration |date=June 1, 1986 |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press|McGill-Queen's]] |isbn=978-0-7735-0555-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/maturinginhardti0000bryc/page/41 41] }}</ref> In response to the downturn, the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a [[welfare state]] (as pioneered by [[Tommy Douglas]]) in the 1940s and 1950s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mulvale |first=James P |title=Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility |journal=Basic Income Studies |date=July 11, 2008 |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.2202/1932-0183.1084}}</ref> On the advice of Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], [[Declaration of war by Canada#Nazi Germany|war with Germany was declared]] effective September 10, 1939, by King [[George VI]], seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.<ref name="morton-milhist" />

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War II and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Humphreys |title=Great Canadian Battles: Heroism and Courage Through the Years |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z-SsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT151 |year=2013 |publisher=Arcturus Publishing |isbn=978-1-78404-098-7 |page=151 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413032850/https://books.google.com/books?id=z-SsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT151 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref> Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 [[Dieppe Raid]], the [[Allied invasion of Italy]], the [[Normandy landings]], the Battle of Normandy, and the [[Battle of the Scheldt]] in 1944.<ref name="morton-milhist" /> Canada provided asylum for the [[Dutch monarchy]] while that country was [[Reichskommissariat Niederlande|occupied]] and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to [[Liberation Day (Netherlands)|its liberation]] from [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name="netherlands">{{cite book |last=Goddard |first=Lance |title=Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands |publisher=[[Dundurn Press]] |year=2005 |pages=225–232 |isbn=978-1-55002-547-7}}</ref>

The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military [[materiel]] for Canada, Britain, [[Republic of China (1912–49)|China]], and the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="morton-milhist" /> Despite another [[Conscription Crisis of 1944|Conscription Crisis]] in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bothwell |first=Robert |title=Alliance and illusion: Canada and the world, 1945–1984 |year=2007 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-1368-6 |pages=11, 31}}</ref>

===Contemporary era===

The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the [[Dominion of Newfoundland]] to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a [[crown colony]] ruled by a British governor.<ref name="Buckner20082ed">{{cite book |first=Phillip |last=Alfred Buckner |title=Canada and the British Empire |url=https://books.google.com/?id=KmXnLGX7FvEC&pg=PA135 |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-927164-1 |pages=135–138 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=KmXnLGX7FvEC&pg=PA135 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref> After two bitter [[1948 Newfoundland referendums|referendums]], Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.<ref>{{cite book |first=J. Patrick |last=Boyer |title=Direct Democracy in Canada: The History and Future of Referendums |url=https://books.google.com/?id=CWGN-RZcqNoC&pg=PA119 |year=1996 |publisher=Dundurn |isbn=978-1-4597-1884-5 |page=119 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412150716/https://books.google.com/books?id=CWGN-RZcqNoC&pg=PA119 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new [[Canadian identity]], marked by the adoption of the [[Flag of Canada|Maple Leaf Flag]] in 1965,<ref>{{cite book |last=Mackey |first=Eva |title=The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8020-8481-1 |page=57}}</ref> the implementation of [[official bilingualism]] (English and French) in 1969,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Landry |first=Rodrigue |last2=Forgues |first2=Éric |title=Official language minorities in Canada: an introduction |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |date=May 2007 |issue=185 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.022 |volume=2007}}</ref> and the institution of [[Multiculturalism#Origins in Canada|official multiculturalism]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Esses |first=Victoria M |last2=Gardner |first2=RC |date=July 1996 |title=Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and current status |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science]] |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=145–152 |doi=10.1037/h0084934}}</ref> [[Social democracy|Socially democratic]] programs were also instituted, such as [[Medicare (Canada)|Medicare]], the [[Canada Pension Plan]], and [[Student loans in Canada|Canada Student Loans]], though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sd-01-09.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717075406/http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sd-01-09.pdf |archivedate=July 17, 2010 |title=Social Policies in Canada: A Model for Development |last=Sarrouh |first=Elissar |date=January 22, 2002 |work=Social Policy Series, No. 1 |publisher=United Nations |pages=14–16, 22–37 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref>

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the ''Canada Act'', the [[patriation]] of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/politics-government/proclamation-constitution-act-1982/Pages/proclamation-constitution-act-1982.aspx |title=Proclamation of the Constitution Act, 1982 |author= |date=May 5, 2014 |website=Canada.ca |publisher=Government of Canada |accessdate=February 10, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211083245/http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/politics-government/proclamation-constitution-act-1982/Pages/proclamation-constitution-act-1982.aspx |archivedate=February 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author= |date=March 17, 2009 |title=A statute worth 75 cheers |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/a-statute-worth-75-cheers/article1329730/ |newspaper=[[The Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |accessdate=February 10, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211081156/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/a-statute-worth-75-cheers/article1329730/ |archivedate=February 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/2017/canada-is-celebrating-150-years-of-what-exactly-1.3883315 |title=Canada is celebrating 150 years of... what, exactly? |last=Couture |first=Christa |date=January 1, 2017 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=February 10, 2017 |quote=the Constitution Act itself cleaned up a bit of unfinished business from the Statute of Westminster in 1931, in which Britain granted each of the Dominions full legal autonomy if they chose to accept it. All but one Dominion – that would be us, Canada – chose to accept every resolution. Our leaders couldn't decide on how to amend the Constitution, so that power stayed with Britain until 1982. |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210001343/http://www.cbc.ca/2017/canada-is-celebrating-150-years-of-what-exactly-1.3883315 |archivedate=February 10, 2017}}</ref> Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country, although the Queen retained her role as monarch of Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.revparl.ca/27/2/27n2_04e_trepanier.pdf |title=Some Visual Aspects of the Monarchical Tradition |last=Trepanier |first=Peter |year=2004 |website=Canadian Parliamentary Review |publisher=[[Canadian Parliamentary Review]] |access-date=February 10, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002130/http://www.revparl.ca/27/2/27n2_04e_trepanier.pdf |archivedate=March 4, 2016}}</ref><ref name="bickerton">{{cite book |editor1=Bickerton, James |editor2=Gagnon, Alain |title=Canadian Politics |publisher=[[Broadview Press]] |edition=4th |isbn=978-1-55111-595-5 |year=2004 |pages=250–254, 344–347}}</ref> In 1999, [[Nunavut]] became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Légaré |first=André |year=2008 |title=Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=15 |issue=2–3 |pages=335–367 |doi=10.1163/157181108X332659 |jstor=24674996}}</ref>

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the [[Quiet Revolution]] of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular [[Quebec nationalism|nationalist]] movement.<ref name="RobertsClifton2005">{{cite book |first1=Lance W. |last1=Roberts |first2=Rodney A. |last2=Clifton |first3=Barry |last3=Ferguson |title=Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3VcVpWNSPfkC&pg=PA415 |year=2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MUniversity of Manitoba |isbn=978-0-7735-7314-7 |page=415 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=3VcVpWNSPfkC&pg=PA415 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref> The radical [[Front de libération du Québec]] (FLQ) ignited the [[October Crisis]] with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970<ref>{{cite journal |last=Munroe |first=HD |title=The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |year=2009 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=288–305 |doi=10.1080/09546550902765623}}</ref> and the [[Quebec sovereignty movement|{{Not a typo|sovereignist}}]] [[Parti Québécois]] was elected in 1976, organizing an [[1980 Quebec referendum|unsuccessful referendum]] on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the [[Meech Lake Accord]] failed in 1990.<ref name="sorens">{{cite journal |last=Sorens |first=J |title=Globalization, secessionism, and autonomy |journal=Electoral Studies |date=December 2004 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=727–752 |doi=10.1016/j.electstud.2003.10.003}}</ref> This led to the formation of the [[Bloc Québécois]] in Quebec and the invigoration of the [[Reform Party of Canada]] in the West.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/ |title=A brief history of the Bloc Québécois |newspaper=The Globe and Mail |first=Daniel |last=Leblanc |date=August 13, 2010 |accessdate=November 25, 2010 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901151147/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/ |archivedate=September 1, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The new politics of the Right: neo-Populist parties and movements in established democracies |first1=Hans-Georg |last1=Betz |first2=Stefan |last2=Immerfall |url=https://books.google.com/?id=H9cGkDJgW7wC&pg=PA173 |page=173 |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-312-21134-9 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412133553/https://books.google.com/books?id=H9cGkDJgW7wC&pg=PA173 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> A [[1995 Quebec referendum|second referendum]] followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.<ref>{{cite book |first=Carol L. |last=Schmid |title=The Politics of Language : Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JIuO9HmX_8QC&pg=PA112 |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803150-5 |page=112 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181747/https://books.google.com/books?id=JIuO9HmX_8QC&pg=PA112 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> In 1997, the [[Supreme Court of Canada|Supreme Court]] ruled [[Reference re Secession of Quebec|unilateral secession]] by a province would be unconstitutional and the ''[[Clarity Act]]'' was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.<ref name="sorens" />

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of [[Air India Flight 182]] in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622063429/http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/ |archivedate=June 22, 2008 |title=Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air India Flight 182 |publisher=Government of Canada |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> the [[École Polytechnique massacre]] in 1989, a [[school shooting|university shooting]] targeting female students;<ref>{{cite web |last=Sourour |first=Teresa K |url=http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf |year=1991 |title=Report of Coroner's Investigation |accessdate=March 8, 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228182645/http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf |archivedate=December 28, 2016 }}</ref> and the [[Oka Crisis]] of 1990,<ref>{{cite news |title=The Oka Crisis |url=http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110804233458/http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/ |archivedate=August 4, 2011 |format=Digital Archives |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |year=2000 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Indigenous groups.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roach |first=Kent |title=September 11: consequences for Canada |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/september11conse00roac/page/15 15, 59–61, 194] |isbn=978-0-7735-2584-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/september11conse00roac/page/15 }}</ref> Canada also joined the [[Gulf War]] in 1990 as part of a U.S.-led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the [[UNPROFOR]] mission in the [[Yugoslav wars|former Yugoslavia]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Learning the lessons of UNPROFOR: Canadian peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia |doi=10.1080/11926422.1999.9673175 |first1=Lenard J. |last1=Cohen |first2=Alexander |last2=Moens |journal=[[Canadian Foreign Policy Journal]] |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=1999 |pages=85–100}}</ref>

Canada sent [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|troops to Afghanistan in 2001]], but declined to join the U.S.-led [[2003 Invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq in 2003]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jockel |first1=Joseph T |last2=Sokolsky |first2=Joel B |year=2008 |title=Canada and the war in Afghanistan: NATO's odd man out steps forward |journal=[[Journal of Transatlantic Studies]] |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=100–115 |doi=10.1080/14794010801917212}}</ref> In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the [[Libyan Civil War (2011)|Libyan Civil War]],<ref name="HehirMurray2013">{{cite book |first1=Aidan |last1=Hehir |first2=Robert |last2=Murray |title=Libya, the Responsibility to Protect and the Future of Humanitarian Intervention |url=https://books.google.com/?id=2TchAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT88 |year=2013 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-1-137-27396-3 |page=88 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145001/https://books.google.com/books?id=2TchAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT88 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> and also became involved in battling the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]] insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cgai.ca/canadas_policy_to_confront_the_islamic_state |title=Canada's Policy to Confront the Islamic State |publisher=[[Canadian Global Affairs Institute]] |year=2015 |first=Thomas |last=Juneau |accessdate=December 10, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211070017/http://www.cgai.ca/canadas_policy_to_confront_the_islamic_state |archivedate=December 11, 2015}}</ref>

==Geography, climate, and environment==
{{Main|Geography of Canada}}

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|second-largest country]] in the world, after [[Russia]]. By land area alone, however, Canada [[List of countries and outlying territories by land area|ranks fourth]], due to having the world's largest proportion of fresh water lakes.<ref name="Battram2010da">{{cite book|last=Battram|first=Robert A.|url=https://books.google.com/?id=pBc9349sw4QC&pg=PA1|title=Canada in Crisis: An Agenda for Survival of the Nation|publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]]|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4269-3393-6|page=1|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412141921/https://books.google.com/books?id=pBc9349sw4QC&pg=PA1|archivedate=April 12, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Of Canada's thirteen provinces and territories, eight share a border with the United States, and only two are landlocked (Alberta and Saskatchewan), with the remaining eight provinces and three territories directly bordering one of three oceans. Ontario and [[Quebec]] also send most of their shipping traffic through the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway|St. Lawrence Seaway]], which connects the Great Lakes to the St. Lawrence River, which flows into the [[Atlantic Ocean]].

Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north, and to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west,<ref name="cia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html|title=Canada|date=May 16, 2006|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=CIA|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711173434/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html|archivedate=July 11, 2015|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of {{convert|243042|km|mi}}, and occupies much of the continent of North America.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/2012000/chap/geo/geo-eng.htm|title=Geography|website=statcan.gc.ca|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307051855/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/2012000/chap/geo/geo-eng.htm|archivedate=March 7, 2016|access-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> Moreover, Canada's border with the [[contiguous United States]] to the south and the U.S. state of [[Alaska]] to the northwest forms the longest international land border in the world, stretching {{Convert|8891|km||abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/boundary.html|title=The Boundary|year=1985|publisher=International Boundary Commission|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801080033/http://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/boundary.html|archivedate=August 1, 2008|accessdate=May 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2096.html#ca|title=Field Listing: Land Boundaries|last=|first=|date=May 31, 2007|work=The World Factbook|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004344/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2096.html|archive-date=June 13, 2007|access-date=}}</ref> In addition to the U.S., Canada shares a [[maritime boundary]] with Greenland to the northeast and with the [[France]]'s [[overseas collectivity]] of [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] to the southeast.<ref name="Gallay2015">{{cite book|last=Gallay|first=Alan|url=https://books.google.com/?id=22rbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT429|title=Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia|date=2015|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-48718-0|pages=429–|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=22rbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT429|archivedate=March 20, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> 

Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station Alert]], on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]]—latitude 82.5°N—which lies {{convert|817|km|mi}} from the North Pole.<ref>{{cite book |title=Canadian Geographic |year=2008 |publisher=[[Royal Canadian Geographical Society]] |page=20}}</ref> Much of the [[Northern Canada|Canadian Arctic]] is covered by ice and [[permafrost]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/18/arctic-permafrost-canada-science-climate-crisis |title=Scientists shocked by Arctic permafrost thawing 70 years sooner than predicted |last=Reuters |date=June 18, 2019 |work=The Guardian |access-date=July 2, 2019 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Three of Canada's arctic islands{{snd}}[[Baffin Island]], [[Victoria Island (Canada)|Victoria Island]] and Ellesmere Island{{snd}}are among the ten largest in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.kids-world-travel-guide.com/canada-facts.html |title=Canada Facts: 25 Interesting and Fun Facts – not only for Kids |access-date=June 27, 2018}}</ref>

Since the end of the last [[glacial period]], Canada has consisted of [[Forests of Canada#Regions|eight distinct forest regions]], including extensive [[taiga|boreal]] forest on the [[Canadian Shield]];<ref>{{cite book |title=National Atlas of Canada |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7705-1198-2 |page=1}}</ref> 42 percent of the land acreage is covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land), made up mostly of [[spruce]], [[Populus|poplar]], and [[pine]].<ref name="LuckertHaley2011">{{cite book |first1=Martin K. |last1=Luckert |first2=David |last2=Haley |first3=George |last3=Hoberg |title=Policies for Sustainably Managing Canada's Forests: Tenure, Stumpage Fees, and Forest Practices |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0Gm-rBnGghcC&pg=PA1 |year=2012 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2069-1 |page=1}}</ref> Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are greater than {{convert|100|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}—which is more than any other country, containing much of the world's [[fresh water]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bailey |first=William G |last2=Oke |first2=TR |last3=Rouse |first3=Wayne R |title=The surface climates of Canada |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1997 |page=124 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=oxNMhw-rRrQC&pg=PA244 |isbn=978-0-7735-1672-4 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142210/https://books.google.com/books?id=oxNMhw-rRrQC&pg=PA244 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/hydrology/watershed1/1 |title=The Atlas of Canada – Physical Components of Watersheds |date=December 5, 2012 |access-date=March 4, 2016 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121205125542/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/hydrology/watershed1/1 |archivedate=December 5, 2012}}</ref> There are also fresh-water glaciers in the [[Canadian Rockies]], the [[Coast Mountains]] and the [[Arctic Cordillera]].<ref name="Sandford2012">{{cite book |first=Robert William |last=Sandford |title=Cold Matters: The State and Fate of Canada's Fresh Water |url=https://books.google.com/?id=UANY2ftt4pEC&pg=PR11 |year=2012 |publisher=Biogeoscience Institute at the University of Calgary |isbn=978-1-927330-20-3 |page=11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=UANY2ftt4pEC&pg=PR11 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref>

Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably [[Mount Meager massif]], [[Mount Garibaldi]], [[Mount Cayley massif]], and the [[Mount Edziza volcanic complex]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Etkin |first=David |last2=Haque |first2=CE |last3=Brooks |first3=Gregory R |title=An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada |publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |date=April 30, 2003 |pages=569, 582, 583 |isbn=978-1-4020-1179-5}}</ref> The volcanic eruption of the [[Tseax Cone]] in 1775 was among Canada's worst natural disasters, killing an estimated 2,000 [[Nisga'a people]] and destroying their village in the [[Nass River]] valley of northern [[British Columbia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/canadas-worst-natural-disasters-all-time |title=Canada's Worst Natural Disasters of All Time |first=Adam |last=Shoalts |publisher=Canadian Geographic |year=2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923150031/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/canadas-worst-natural-disasters-all-time |archivedate=September 23, 2016}}</ref> The eruption produced a {{convert|22.5|km|adj=on}} [[lava]] flow, and, according to Nisga'a legend, blocked the flow of the Nass River.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jessop |first=A |title=Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 5906 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z7IL9hO-_6cC&pg=PA18 |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |pages=18– |id=GGKEY:6DLTQFWQ9HG |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182124/https://books.google.com/books?id=z7IL9hO-_6cC&pg=PA18 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

Average winter and summer high [[Temperature in Canada|temperatures across Canada]] vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a [[continental climate]], where daily average temperatures are near {{Convert|-15|C|F|abbr=|lk=on}}, but can drop below {{convert|-40|°C|°F|abbr=on}} with severe [[wind chill]]s.<ref>{{cite web |author=The Weather Network |url=http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |title=Statistics, Regina SK |accessdate=January 18, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105062344/http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |archivedate=January 5, 2009 |author-link=The Weather Network}}</ref> In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from {{convert|25|to|30|C|F}}, with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding {{convert|40|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref name="ccnRegina">{{cite web |work=Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 |publisher=[[Environment Canada]] |url=http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=3002&lang=e&StationName=Regina&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |title=Regina International Airport |accessdate=May 12, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518084648/http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=3002&lang=e&StationName=Regina&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |archivedate=May 18, 2015 |date=September 25, 2013}}</ref>

==Government and politics==
{{Main|Government of Canada|Politics of Canada}}
Canada is described as a "[[Democracy Index#Classification definitions|full democracy]]",<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.eiu.com/topic/democracy-index |title=Democracy Index 2017– The Economist Intelligence Unit |website=eiu.com |access-date=November 29, 2017}}</ref> with a tradition of [[liberalism]],<ref name="WesthuesWharf2014">{{cite book |first1=Anne |last1=Westhues |first2=Brian |last2=Wharf |title=Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/?id=chTaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 |year=2014 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press |isbn=978-1-55458-409-3 |pages=10–11}}</ref> and an [[egalitarian]],<ref name="BickertonGagnon2009">{{cite book |first1=James |last1=Bickerton |first2=Alain |last2=Gagnon |title=Canadian Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=1jd6oqRHxLYC&pg=PA56 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0121-5 |page=56}}</ref> [[moderate]] political ideology.<ref name="Johnson2016">{{cite book |first=David |last=Johnson |title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada, Fourth Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |year=2016 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0 |pages=13–23 |quote=most Canadian governments, especially at the federal level, have taken a moderate, centrist approach to decision making, seeking to balance growth, stability, and governmental efficiency and economy...}}</ref> An emphasis on [[social justice]] has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.<ref name="Fierlbeck2006">{{cite book |first=Katherine |last=Fierlbeck |title=Political Thought in Canada: An Intellectual History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0bZBHlF4V8EC&pg=PA87 |year=2006 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-55111-711-9 |page=87}}</ref> [[Peace, order, and good government]], alongside an [[implied bill of rights]] are founding principles of the Canadian government.<ref name="DixonScheurell2016">{{cite book |first1=John |last1=Dixon |first2=Robert |last2=P. Scheurell |title=Social Welfare in Developed Market Countries |url=https://books.google.com/?id=npzDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |date=March 17, 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-36677-5 |page=48}}</ref><ref name="Boughey2017">{{cite book |first=Janina |last=Boughey |title=Human Rights and Judicial Review in Australia and Canada: The Newest Despotism? |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dgK-DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 |year=2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-5099-0788-5 |page=105}}</ref>

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively [[centrist]] parties practicing "brokerage politics",{{efn| name=politics|"Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful [[Big tent|big tent parties]] that embody a [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralistic]] catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and [[Electoral alliance|electoral coalitions]] to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."<ref name="MarlandGiasson2012">{{cite book |first1=Alex |last1=Marland |first2=Thierry |last2=Giasson |first3=Jennifer |last3=Lees-Marshment |title=Political Marketing in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GSeSaYPa2A4C&pg=PA257 |year=2012 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2231-2 |page=257}}</ref><ref name="CourtneySmith2010">{{cite book |first1=John |last1=Courtney |first2=David |last2=Smith |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA195 |year=2010 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |page=195}}</ref>}}<ref name="Brooks2004">{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Brooks |title=Canadian Democracy: An Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/canadiandemocrac0000broo_m5a9 |url-access=registration |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-541806-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/canadiandemocrac0000broo_m5a9/page/265 265] |quote=two historically dominant political parties have avoided ideological appeals in favour of a flexible centrist style of politics that is often labelled brokerage politics}}</ref><ref name="Johnson2016c">{{cite book |first=David |last=Johnson |title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada, Fourth Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |year=2016 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0 |pages=13–23 |quote=...most Canadian governments, especially at the federal level, have taken a moderate, centrist approach to decision making, seeking to balance growth, stability, and governmental efficiency and economy...}}</ref><ref name="Smith2014">{{cite book |first=Miriam |last=Smith |title=Group Politics and Social Movements in Canada: Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=iG4rAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |year=2014 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0695-1 |page=17 |quote=Canada's party system has long been described as a "brokerage system" in which the leading parties (Liberal and Conservative) follow strategies that appeal across major [[Cleavage (politics)|social cleavages]] in an effort to defuse potential tensions.}}</ref> the [[centre-left]] [[Liberal Party of Canada]] and the [[centre-right]] [[Conservative Party of Canada]] (or its [[Conservative Party of Canada#Predecessors|predecessors]]).<ref name="BaumerGold2015">{{cite book |first1=Donald C. |last1=Baumer |first2=Howard J. |last2=Gold |title=Parties, Polarization and Democracy in the United States |url=https://books.google.com/?id=uBbvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT152 |date=2015 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-25478-2 |page=152}}</ref> The historically predominant Liberal Party position themselves at the centre of the Canadian political spectrum,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Amanda |last1=Bittner |first2=Royce |last2=Koop |title=Parties, Elections, and the Future of Canadian Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=TdFTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA300 |date=March 1, 2013 |publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-2411-8 |page=300 |quote=Domination by the Centre The central anomaly of the Canadian system, and the primary cause of its other peculiarities, has been its historical domination by a party of the centre. In none of the other countries is a centre party even a major player, much less the dominant....}}</ref> with the Conservative Party positioned on the right and the [[New Democratic Party]] occupying the [[left-wing|left]].<ref name="EvansGraaf2013">{{cite book |first1=Geoffrey |last1=Evans |first2=Nan Dirk |last2=de Graaf |title=Political Choice Matters: Explaining the Strength of Class and Religious Cleavages in Cross-National Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/?id=bZhcx6hLOMMC&pg=PA166 |year=2013 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-966399-6 |pages=166–167}}</ref><ref name="Johnston2017">{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Johnston |title=The Canadian Party System: An Analytic History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=aZAwDwAAQBAJ |year=2017 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-3610-4}}</ref> [[Far-right]] and [[far-left]] politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033 |title=Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=213–236 |year=2015 |last1=Ambrose |first1=Emma |last2=Mudde |first2=Cas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |title=Canada's Secret to Resisting the West's Populist Wave |newspaper=The New York Times |year=2017 |last1=Taub |first1=Amanda}}</ref> Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the [[2019 Canadian federal election|2019 election]]—the Liberal Party, who currently form the government; the Conservative Party, who are the [[Official Opposition (Canada)|official opposition]]; the New Democratic Party; the Bloc Québécois; and the [[Green Party of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |title=CBC News: Election 2015 roundup |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022233012/http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |archivedate=October 22, 2015}}</ref>

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the [[monarchy of Canada]] being the foundation of the executive, [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches.<ref>{{cite web |date=March 29, 1867 |title=Constitution Act, 1867: Preamble |publisher=[[Queen's Printer]] |url=http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100203024121/http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html |archivedate=February 3, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=David E |title=The Crown and the Constitution: Sustaining Democracy? |periodical=The Crown in Canada: Present Realities and Future Options |page=6 |publisher=[[Queen's University at Kingston|Queen's University]] |date=June 10, 2010 |url=http://www.queensu.ca/iigr/conf/ConferenceOnTheCrown/CrownConferencePapers/The_Crown_and_the_Constitutio1.pdf |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5qXvz463C?url=http://www.queensu.ca/iigr/conf/ConferenceOnTheCrown/CrownConferencePapers/The_Crown_and_the_Constitutio1.pdf |archivedate=June 17, 2010 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref name="MacLeod16">{{cite book |last=MacLeod |first=Kevin S |authorlink=Kevin S. MacLeod |title=A Crown of Maples |publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |page=16 |edition=2nd |url=http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 |isbn=978-0-662-46012-1 |year=2012 |ref=harv |accessdate=March 8, 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204231448/http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 |archivedate=February 4, 2016}}</ref> The [[reign]]ing monarch is [[Queen Elizabeth II]], who is also monarch of 15 other [[Commonwealth countries]] and each of Canada's 10 provinces. The person who is the Canadian monarch is the same as the [[British monarch]], although the two institutions are separate.<ref name="Johnson2018">{{cite book |first=David |last=Johnson |title=Battle Royal: Monarchists vs. Republicans and the Crown of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z2WHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT196 |date=2018 |publisher=Dundurn |isbn=978-1-4597-4015-0 |page=196 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=z2WHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT196 |archivedate=March 20, 2018}}</ref> The Queen appoints a representative, the governor general (at present Julie Payette), to carry out most of her federal royal duties in Canada.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Governor General of Canada: Roles and Responsibilities |url=http://gg.ca/document.aspx?id=3 |publisher=Queen's Printer |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Commonwealth public administration reform 2004 |publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat |year=2004 |pages=54–55 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ATi5R5XNb2MC&pg=PA54 |isbn=978-0-11-703249-1 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412133750/https://books.google.com/books?id=ATi5R5XNb2MC&pg=PA54 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

The direct participation of the monarch and the governor general in areas of governance is limited.<ref name="MacLeod16" /><ref name="Forseyp1">{{cite book |last=Forsey |first=Eugene |authorlink=Eugene Forsey |title=How Canadians Govern Themselves |pages=1, 16, 26 |edition=6th |publisher=Queen's Printer |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-662-39689-5 |url=http://www2.parl.gc.ca/sites/lop/aboutparliament/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229155255/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/AboutParliament/Forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf |archivedate=December 29, 2009 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Montpetit">{{cite web |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5 |last=Marleau |first=Robert |last2=Montpetit |first2=Camille |title=House of Commons Procedure and Practice: Parliamentary Institutions |publisher=Queen's Printer |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828112251/http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5 |archivedate=August 28, 2011}}</ref> In practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of [[Minister of the Crown|ministers of the Crown]] responsible to the elected House of Commons of Canada and chosen and headed by the prime minister (at present Justin Trudeau),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2015/11/04/new-government-to-be-sworn-in-today.html |title='A cabinet that looks like Canada:' Justin Trudeau pledges government built on trust |date=November 4, 2015 |work=Toronto Star |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128075156/https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2015/11/04/new-government-to-be-sworn-in-today.html |archivedate=January 28, 2017}}</ref> the [[head of government]]. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial [[advice (constitutional)|advice]].<ref name="Forseyp1" /> To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a [[plurality (voting)|plurality]] in the House of Commons.<ref>{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=David |title=Thinking government: public sector management in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2006 |edition=2nd |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thinkinggovernme02ndjohn/page/134 134–135, 149] |isbn=978-1-55111-779-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/thinkinggovernme02ndjohn/page/134 }}</ref> The [[Office of the Prime Minister (Canada)|Prime Minister's Office]] (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, [[Lieutenant governor (Canada)|lieutenant governors]], senators, federal court judges, and heads of [[Crown corporations of Canada|Crown corporations]] and government agencies.<ref name="Forseyp1" /> The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the [[Leader of the Official Opposition (Canada)|leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition]] and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Opposition in a Parliamentary System |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/bp47-e.htm |publisher=Library of Parliament |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125122354/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/content/lop/researchpublications/bp47-e.htm |archivedate=November 25, 2010}}</ref>

Each of the 338 members of parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an [[Canadian electoral district|electoral district]] or riding. [[Elections in Canada|General elections]] must be called by the governor general, either on the advice of the prime minister or if the government loses a [[confidence vote]] in the House.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Compilations/ElectionsAndRidings.aspx |title=About Elections and Ridings |accessdate=September 3, 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224103929/http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Compilations/ElectionsAndRidings.aspx |archivedate=December 24, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=O'Neal |first1=Brian |last2=Bédard |first2=Michel |last3=Spano |first3=Sebastian |date=April 11, 2011 |title=Government and Canada's 41st Parliament: Questions and Answers |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm |publisher=[[Library of Parliament]] |accessdate=June 2, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522071714/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm |archivedate=May 22, 2011}}</ref> Constitutionally, an election may be held no more than five years after the preceding election, although the ''[[Canada Elections Act]]'' limits this to four years with a fixed election date in October. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ann L. |last1=Griffiths |first2=Karl |last2=Nerenberg |title=Handbook of Federal Countries |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GytLtJacxY8C&pg=PA116 |year=2003 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-7047-4 |page=116 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145132/https://books.google.com/books?id=GytLtJacxY8C&pg=PA116 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

[[Canada's federal structure]] divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. [[Legislative assemblies of Canadian provinces and territories|Provincial legislatures]] are [[unicameral]] and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.<ref name="Montpetit" /> Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&doc=difference-eng.htm |title=Difference between Canadian Provinces and Territories |year=2010 |publisher=Intergovernmental Affairs Canada |accessdate=November 23, 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151201135354/http://pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&doc=difference-eng.htm |archivedate=December 1, 2015 }}</ref> The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/visitors/what-consensus/differences-provincial-governments |title=Differences from Provincial Governments |year=2008 |publisher=Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories |accessdate=January 30, 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203044824/http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/visitors/what-consensus/differences-provincial-governments |archivedate=February 3, 2014}}</ref>

The [[Bank of Canada]] is the [[central bank]] of the country. In addition, the [[Minister of Finance (Canada)|minister of finance]] and [[Minister of Industry (Canada)|minister of industry]] utilize the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |title=About |publisher=Statistics Canada |year=2014 |accessdate=March 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115144515/http://statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |archivedate=January 15, 2015}}</ref> The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of [[Banknotes of the Canadian dollar|Canadian bank notes]].<ref name="GilbertHelleiner2003">{{cite book |first1=Emily |last1=Gilbert |first2=Eric |last2=Helleiner |title=Nation-States and Money: The Past, Present and Future of National Currencies |url=https://books.google.com/?id=gnWGfLxm4L8C&pg=PA39 |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-65817-6 |page=39 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181826/https://books.google.com/books?id=gnWGfLxm4L8C&pg=PA39 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The bank does not issue [[Coins of the Canadian dollar|Canadian coins]]; they are issued by the [[Royal Canadian Mint]].<ref name="CuhajMichael2011">{{cite book |first1=George S. |last1=Cuhaj |first2=Thomas |last2=Michael |title=Coins of the World: Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZheUkxvWhs8C&pg=PT4 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Krause Publications]] |isbn=978-1-4402-3129-2 |page=4 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181433/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZheUkxvWhs8C&pg=PT4 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

===Law===
{{Main|Law of Canada}}
The [[Constitution of Canada]] is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.<ref name="Dodek2016">{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Dodek |title=The Canadian Constitution |url=https://books.google.com/?id=86s7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 |year=2016 |publisher=Dundurn – University of Ottawa Faculty of Law. |isbn=978-1-4597-3505-7 |page=13 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920174329/https://books.google.com/books?id=86s7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> The ''Constitution Act, 1867'' (known as the ''[[British North America Acts|British North America Act]]'' prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.<ref name="Olive2015">{{cite book |first=Andrea |last=Olive |title=The Canadian Environment in Political Context |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Bvw_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |date=2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0871-9 |pages=41–42 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920174329/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bvw_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> The ''Statute of Westminster 1931'' granted full autonomy and the ''[[Constitution Act, 1982]]'', ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the ''Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms''.<ref name="VishnooShirur1997">{{cite book |first1=Vishnoo |last1=Bhagwan |first2=Bhushan |last2=Vidya |title=World Constitutions |url=https://books.google.com/?id=YatgyeA5R4sC&pg=PA550 |year=2004 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-1937-8 |pages=549–550 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/https://books.google.com/books?id=YatgyeA5R4sC&pg=PA550 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a [[Section Thirty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|notwithstanding clause]] allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bakan |first=Joel |last2=Elliot |first2=Robin M |title=Canadian Constitutional Law |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2003 |pages=3–8, 683–687, 699 |isbn=978-1-55239-085-6}}</ref>

[[Court system of Canada|Canada's judiciary]] plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December 18, 2017 by Chief Justice [[Richard Wagner (judge)|Richard Wagner]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfcju-jucp-eng.aspx |title=Current and Former Chief Justices |date=December 18, 2017 |website=Supreme Court of Canada |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180116062534/http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfcju-jucp-eng.aspx |archive-date=January 16, 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=January 16, 2018}}</ref> Its nine members are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Richard |last1=Yates |first2=Penny |last2=Bain |first3=Ruth |last3=Yates |title=Introduction to law in Canada |year=2000 |publisher=Prentice Hall Allyn and Bacon Canada |isbn=978-0-13-792862-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00yate/page/93 93] |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00yate/page/93}}</ref>

[[Common law]] prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] predominates. [[Criminal law of Canada|Criminal law]] is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sworden |first=Philip James |title=An introduction to Canadian law |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2006 |pages=22, 150 |isbn=978-1-55239-145-7}}</ref> Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |title=Ontario Provincial Police |publisher=OPP official website |year=2009 |accessdate=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826073944/http://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |archivedate=August 26, 2016}}</ref> However, in most rural areas and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nbpei-ecn.ca/documents/ECN-Forensics.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706190335/http://www.nbpei-ecn.ca/documents/ECN-Forensics.pdf |archivedate=July 6, 2011 |last=Royal Canadian Mounted Police |title=Keeping Canada and Our Communities Safe and Secure |publisher=Queen's Printer |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref>

The ''[[Indian Act]]'', various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and native peoples.<ref name="FN">{{cite report |title=Aboriginal roundtable on Kelowna Accord: Aboriginal policy negotiations 2004–2006 |last=Patterson |first=Lisa Lynne |url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf |series=1 |year=2004 |page=3 |publisher=Parliamentary Information and Research Service, Library of Parliament |ref=harv |accessdate=October 23, 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126203243/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf |archivedate=November 26, 2014}}</ref> Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the [[Numbered Treaties]] were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty areas |publisher=Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat |date=October 7, 2002 |url=http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/EB/prb9916-e.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107103722/http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/EB/prb9916-e.htm |archive-date=January 7, 2009 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> These treaties are agreements with the Canadian [[Queen-in-Council|Crown-in-Council]], administered by [[Canadian Aboriginal law]], and overseen by the [[minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations]]. The role of the treaties and the rights they support were reaffirmed by [[Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982]].<ref name="FN" /> These rights may include provision of services, such as health care, and exemption from taxation.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gary Brent |last=Madison |title=Is There a Canadian Philosophy?: Reflections on the Canadian Identity |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3AgrpoLkscMC&pg=PA128 |year=2000 |publisher=[[University of Ottawa Press]] |isbn=978-0-7766-0514-2 |page=128 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152416/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AgrpoLkscMC&pg=PA128 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

===Property rights and regulation===
{{Main|Property rights in Canada|Expropriation in Canada}}
Although Canadian law protects property through common law, statutes, land-title systems, expropriation legislation, and constitutional limits on arbitrary state action, Canada does not entrench a general right to own, use, or enjoy private property in the ''[[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]''. The [[Canadian Bill of Rights]] recognizes enjoyment of property at the federal statutory level, but it is not part of the Constitution and applies more narrowly than Charter rights.<ref name="CCSPropertyRights">{{cite web |url=https://www.constitutionalstudies.ca/2019/07/property-rights/ |title=Property Rights |publisher=Centre for Constitutional Studies, University of Alberta |date=July 4, 2019 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref><ref name="IRPPPropertyRights">{{cite web |url=https://policyoptions.irpp.org/2022/04/private-property-rights-halifax-park/ |title=Canadians’ rights to property need additional protection |first=Christine |last=Van Geyn |publisher=Policy Options |date=April 14, 2022 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

This feature of Canadian constitutional law has been criticized by property-rights advocates, small-business owners, landowners, and civil-liberties commentators who argue that zoning, environmental regulation, heritage controls, development freezes, asset forfeiture, and expropriation can substantially reduce the practical value of property without the same level of constitutional scrutiny given to expressive, criminal-procedure, equality, or mobility rights. Critics of the Canadian model argue that residents may own property in a practical and statutory sense but do not hold a deeply entrenched constitutional right against uncompensated regulatory taking. Defenders of the existing approach argue that constitutionalizing property rights could restrict democratic land-use planning, public infrastructure, environmental protection, housing policy, and resource regulation.<ref name="CCSPropertyRights" />

===Foreign relations and military===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Canada|Military history of Canada}}

Canada is recognized as a [[middle power]] for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue [[multilateralism|multilateral]] solutions.<ref name="Chapnick2011a">{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Chapnick |title=The Middle Power Project: Canada and the Founding of the United Nations |url=https://books.google.com/?id=S2DPElbLK5sC&pg=PA2 |year=2011 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-4049-1 |pages=2–5 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412150158/https://books.google.com/books?id=S2DPElbLK5sC&pg=PA2 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions.<ref name="SensStoett2013a">{{cite book |first1=Allen |last1=Sens |first2=Peter |last2=Stoett |title=Global Politics 5e |url=https://books.google.com/?id=LLc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |year=2013 |publisher=Nelson Education |isbn=978-0-17-648249-7 |page=6 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145749/https://books.google.com/books?id=LLc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> [[Canadian peacekeeping|Canada's peacekeeping role]] during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image.<ref name="SobelShiraev2002b">{{cite book |first1=Richard |last1=Sobel |first2=Eric |last2=Shiraev |first3=Robert |last3=Shapiro |title=International Public Opinion and the Bosnia Crisis |url=https://books.google.com/?id=RsY3pK_993EC&pg=PA21 |year=2002 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-0480-4 |page=21 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412141129/https://books.google.com/books?id=RsY3pK_993EC&pg=PA21 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The strategy of the [[Foreign relations of Canada#Foreign aid|Canadian government's foreign aid policy]] reflects an emphasis to meet the [[Millennium Development Goals]], while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://canadiangovernmentexecutive.ca/millennium-development-goals-a-sprint-to-2015-and-the-way-forward/ |title=Millennium Development Goals: A sprint to 2015 and the way forward |newspaper=Canadian Government Executive |year=2014 |accessdate=November 12, 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113033750/http://canadiangovernmentexecutive.ca/millennium-development-goals-a-sprint-to-2015-and-the-way-forward/ |archivedate=November 13, 2016}}</ref>

Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the [[World Trade Organization]], the G20 and the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD).<ref name="Chapnick2011a" /> Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/organisations.aspx?lang=eng |title=International Organizations and Forums |publisher=Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada |year=2013 |accessdate=March 3, 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227153935/http://www.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/organisations.aspx?lang=eng |archivedate=February 27, 2014}}</ref> Canada acceded to the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] in 1976.<ref name="Clément2016">{{cite book |first=Dominique |last=Clément |title=Human Rights in Canada: A History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=elteDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |date=2016 |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]] |isbn=978-1-77112-164-4 |page=98 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118035914/https://books.google.com/books?id=elteDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |archivedate=January 18, 2017}}</ref> Canada joined the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the [[3rd Summit of the Americas]] in 2001.<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter |last=McKenna |title=Canada Looks South: In Search of an Americas Policy |url=https://books.google.com/?id=IoputVv15MEC&pg=PA91 |year=2012 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-1108-5 |page=91 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152532/https://books.google.com/books?id=IoputVv15MEC&pg=PA91 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada seeks to expand its ties to [[Pacific Rim]] economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).<ref>{{cite book |author=IBP USA |title=Canada Intelligence, Security Activities and Operations Handbook Volume 1 Intelligence Service Organizations, Regulations, Activities |url=https://books.google.com/?id=7jNg1U2tf6wC&pg=PA27 |publisher=Int'l Business Publications |isbn=978-0-7397-1615-1 |page=27 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144751/https://books.google.com/books?id=7jNg1U2tf6wC&pg=PA27 |archivedate=April 12, 2016 |date=July 31, 2015}}</ref>

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's [[Canada–United States trade relations|largest trading partner]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Haglung |first=David G |date=Autumn 2003 |title=North American Cooperation in an Era of Homeland Security |journal=[[Orbis (journal)|Orbis]] |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=675–691 |doi=10.1016/S0030-4387(03)00072-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2089.htm?goMobile=0 |title=Canada |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |year=2014 |accessdate=February 13, 2015}}</ref> Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full [[Canada–Cuba relations|relations with Cuba]], and declining to officially participate in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].<ref name="BickertonGagnon2014">{{cite book |first1=James |last1=Bickerton |first2=Alain-G. |last2=Gagnon |title=Canadian Politics: Sixth Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=q2ErAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA423 |year=2014 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0703-3 |page=423 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142648/https://books.google.com/books?id=q2ErAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA423 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada also maintains historic ties to the [[Canada–United Kingdom relations|United Kingdom]] and [[Canada–France relations|France]] and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie.<ref>{{cite book |last=James |first=Patrick |title=Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy |editor=Michaud, Nelson |editor2=O'Reilly, Marc J |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 |pages=213–214, 349–362 |isbn=978-0-7391-1493-3}}</ref> Canada is noted for having a positive [[Canada–Netherlands relations|relationship with the Netherlands]], owing, in part, to its contribution to the [[Netherlands in World War II#Liberation|Dutch liberation during World War II]].<ref name="netherlands" />

Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the [[Second Boer War]], World War I and World War II.<ref name="DeRouen">{{cite book |first=Karl R. |last=DeRouen |title=Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wdeBgfmZI0cC&pg=PA90 |year=2005 |publisher=[[University of Alabama Press]] |isbn=978-1-85109-781-4 |page=90 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=wdeBgfmZI0cC&pg=PA90 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref> Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Teigrob |first=Robert |title='Which Kind of Imperialism?' Early Cold War Decolonization and Canada–US Relations |journal=Canadian Review of American Studies |date=September 2010 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=403–430 |doi=10.3138/cras.37.3.403}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Canada's international policy statement: a role of pride and influence in the world |publisher=Government of Canada |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-662-68608-8}}</ref> During the [[Canada in the Cold War|Cold War]], Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the [[Korean War]] and founded the [[North American Aerospace Defense Command]] (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book |last=Finkel |first=Alvin |title=Our lives: Canada after 1945 |publisher=Lorimer |year=1997 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ourlivescanadaaf0000fink/page/105 105–107, 111–116] |isbn=978-1-55028-551-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/ourlivescanadaaf0000fink/page/105 }}</ref>

During the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956, future Prime Minister [[Lester B. Pearson]] eased tensions by proposing the inception of the [[United Nations peacekeeping|United Nations Peacekeeping Force]], for which he was awarded the 1957 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Holloway |first=Steven Kendall |title=Canadian foreign policy: defining the national interest |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2006 |pages=102–103 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=MSHy65g7M7wC&pg=PA102 |isbn=978-1-55111-816-1 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412135852/https://books.google.com/books?id=MSHy65g7M7wC&pg=PA102 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.<ref name="Mays2010">{{cite book |first=Terry M. |last=Mays |title=Historical Dictionary of Multinational Peacekeeping |url=https://books.google.com/?id=pVR1vPCXObsC&pg=PA218 |date=December 16, 2010 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7516-6 |pages=218– |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182059/https://books.google.com/books?id=pVR1vPCXObsC&pg=PA218 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,<ref name="morton-milhist" /> and has since maintained forces in international missions in [[Rwanda]], the former [[Yugoslavia]], and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 [[Somalia Affair]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/27/world/torture-by-army-peacekeepers-in-somalia-shocks-canada.html |title=Torture by Army Peacekeepers in Somalia Shocks Canada |last=Farnsworth |first=Clyde H |date=November 27, 1994 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501200128/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/27/world/torture-by-army-peacekeepers-in-somalia-shocks-canada.html |archivedate=May 1, 2011}}</ref>

In 2001, Canada deployed troops to [[Afghanistan]] as part of the U.S. stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led [[International Security Assistance Force]].<ref name="KlassenAlbo2013">{{cite book |first1=Jerome |last1=Klassen |first2=Greg |last2=Albo |title=Empire's Ally: Canada and the War in Afghanistan |url=https://books.google.com/?id=XVvfcPGEofgC&pg=RA3-PT79 |date=January 10, 2013 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-6496-8 |pages=3– |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144919/https://books.google.com/books?id=XVvfcPGEofgC&pg=RA3-PT79 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> In February 2007, Canada, Italy, the United Kingdom, Norway, and Russia announced their joint commitment to a $1.5-billion project to help develop vaccines for developing nations, and called on other countries to join them.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL06661675._CH_.2400 |title=Rich nations to sign $1.5 bln vaccine pact in Italy |last=Vagnoni |first=Giselda |date=February 5, 2007 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522093757/http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL06661675._CH_.2400 |archivedate=May 22, 2010}}</ref> In August 2007, Canada's [[territorial claims in the Arctic]] were challenged after a [[Arktika 2007|Russian underwater expedition]] to the [[North Pole]]; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.<ref>{{cite news |last=Blomfield |first=Adrian |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1559165/Russia-claims-North-Pole-with-Arctic-flag-stunt.html |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |title=Russia claims North Pole with Arctic flag stunt |date=August 3, 2007 |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428173155/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1559165/Russia-claims-North-Pole-with-Arctic-flag-stunt.html |archivedate=April 28, 2011}}</ref>

The nation employs a professional, volunteer military force of approximately 79,000 active personnel and 32,250 reserve personnel.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Global Firepower |url=http://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=Canada |title=Military Strength of Canada |year=2017 |accessdate=July 5, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625141201/http://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=Canada |archivedate=June 25, 2017}}</ref> The unified [[Canadian Forces]] (CF) comprise the [[Canadian Army]], [[Royal Canadian Navy]], and [[Royal Canadian Air Force]]. In 2013, Canada's [[List of countries by military expenditure|military expenditure]] totalled approximately C$19 billion, or around one percent of the country's GDP.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/canadian-military-spending-by-the-numbers |title=Canadian military spending by the numbers |work=[[Ottawa Citizen]] |date=September 3, 2014 |accessdate=January 25, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228043243/http://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/canadian-military-spending-by-the-numbers |archivedate=December 28, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://milexdata.sipri.org/result.php4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622144856/http://milexdata.sipri.org/result.php4 |archive-date=June 22, 2008 |title=Military expenditure of Canada |publisher=[[SIPRI]] |year=2011 |accessdate=May 3, 2012}}</ref> Following the 2016 Defence Policy Review, the Canadian government announced a 70 percent increase to the country's defence budget over the next decade. The Canadian Forces will acquire 88 fighter planes and 15 naval surface combatants, the latter as part of the [[National Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy]]. Canada's total military expenditure is expected to reach C$32.7 billion by 2027.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/liberal-sajjan-garneau-defence-policy-1.4149473 |first=Murray |last=Brewster |title=More soldiers, ships and planes for military in Liberal defence plan |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=June 7, 2017 |accessdate=August 23, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822100919/http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/liberal-sajjan-garneau-defence-policy-1.4149473 |archivedate=August 22, 2017}}</ref>

===Provinces and territories===
{{Main|Provinces and territories of Canada}}
{{See also|Canadian federalism}}

[[File:Political map of Canada.png|upright=1.8|thumb|right|alt=Labelled map of Canada detailing its provinces and territories|Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories|link=Provinces and territories of Canada]]

Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three [[territory (administrative division)|territories]]. In turn, these may be grouped into [[List of regions of Canada|four main regions]]: Western Canada, [[Central Canada]], Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (''[[Eastern Canada]]'' refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).<ref name="HamelKeil2015">{{cite book |first1=Pierre |last1=Hamel |first2=Roger |last2=Keil |title=Suburban Governance: A Global View |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rB-NBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |year=2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-6357-2 |page=81}}</ref> Provinces have more autonomy than territories, having responsibility for social programs such as [[Health care in Canada|health care]], [[Education in Canada|education]], and [[Social programs in Canada|welfare]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=G. Bruce |last1=Doern |first2=Allan M. |last2=Maslove |first3=Michael J. |last3=Prince |title=Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises: Shifting Budgetary Domains and Temporal Budgeting |url=https://books.google.com/?id=FBXaFRZtKJsC&pg=RA1-PA1976 |year=2013 |publisher=MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-8853-0 |page=1 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142903/https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXaFRZtKJsC&pg=RA1-PA1976 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the ''[[Canada Health Act]]''; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. [[Equalization payments]] are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Jason |last1=Clemens |first2=Niels |last2=Veldhuis |title=Beyond Equalization: Examining Fiscal Transfers in a Broader Context |url=https://books.google.com/?id=yc6RakXxLy0C&pg=PA8 |year=2012 |publisher=[[Fraser Institute]] |isbn=978-0-88975-215-3 |page=8 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412150638/https://books.google.com/books?id=yc6RakXxLy0C&pg=PA8 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the ''Constitution Act, 1867'', whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada.<ref name="OliverMacklem2017a">{{cite book |first1=Peter |last1=Oliver |first2=Patrick |last2=Macklem |first3=Nathalie |last3=Des Rosiers |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Canadian Constitution |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ulsvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA498 |year=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-066482-4 |pages=498–499}}</ref> The powers flowing from the ''Constitution Act'' are divided between the Government of Canada (the federal government) and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively.<ref name="Meligrana2004">{{cite book |first=John |last=Meligrana |title=Redrawing Local Government Boundaries: An International Study of Politics, Procedures, and Decisions |url=https://books.google.com/?id=uL9hLqPSdi0C&pg=PA75 |year=2004 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-0934-4 |page=75}}</ref> A change to the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces requires a [[Amendments to the Constitution of Canada|constitutional amendment]], whereas a similar change affecting the territories can be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada or government.<ref name="Nicholson1979">{{cite book |first=Norman L. |last=Nicholson |title=The boundaries of the Canadian Confederation |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ek7cloNk3E8C&pg=PA174 |year=1979 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |isbn=978-0-7705-1742-7 |pages=174–175}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Canada}}
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Canadian exports 2017 <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/can/all/show/2017/|title=Products exported by Canada (2017)|website=The Observatory of Economic Complexity|year=2019}}</ref>
| label1 = Mineral products (mainly crude petroleum)
| value1 =24
| color1 =brown
| label2 =Transportation (mainly vehicles)
| value2 =19
| color2 =blue
| label3 = Machines
| value3 =10
| color3 =purple
| label4 =Basic metals
| value4 =8.4
| color4 =grey
| label5 = Chemicals
| value5 =6.7
| color5 =red
| label6 = Raw vegetables
| value6 =5.8
| color6 =green
| label7 = Plastic and rubber products
| value7 =4.2
| color7 =pink
| label8 = Paper goods
| value8 =3.9
| color8 =black
| label9 = Food goods
| value9=3.7
| color9 =orange
| label10 = Precious metals
| value10 =3.1
| color10 =yellow
| label11 = Animal products
| value11 =3.1
| color11 = Salmon
| label12 = Wood products
| value12 =2
| color12 =Cyan
| label13 = Instruments
| value13 =1.4
| color13 = Khaki
| label14 = Textiles, animal by-products and others
| value14 =7.8
| color14 = Magenta
}}

Canada is the world's tenth-largest economy {{As of|2018|lc=y|}}, with a [[nominal GDP]] of approximately US$1.73 trillion.<ref name="GDP IMF">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=44&pr.y=11&sy=2018&ey=2018&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C668%2C914%2C672%2C612%2C946%2C614%2C137%2C311%2C546%2C213%2C962%2C911%2C674%2C314%2C676%2C193%2C548%2C122%2C556%2C912%2C678%2C313%2C181%2C419%2C867%2C513%2C682%2C316%2C684%2C913%2C273%2C124%2C868%2C339%2C921%2C638%2C948%2C514%2C943%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C836%2C918%2C558%2C748%2C138%2C618%2C196%2C624%2C278%2C522%2C692%2C622%2C694%2C156%2C142%2C626%2C449%2C628%2C564%2C228%2C565%2C924%2C283%2C233%2C853%2C632%2C288%2C636%2C293%2C634%2C566%2C238%2C964%2C662%2C182%2C960%2C359%2C423%2C453%2C935%2C968%2C128%2C922%2C611%2C714%2C321%2C862%2C243%2C135%2C248%2C716%2C469%2C456%2C253%2C722%2C642%2C942%2C643%2C718%2C939%2C724%2C734%2C576%2C644%2C936%2C819%2C961%2C172%2C813%2C132%2C726%2C646%2C199%2C648%2C733%2C915%2C184%2C134%2C524%2C652%2C361%2C174%2C362%2C328%2C364%2C258%2C732%2C656%2C366%2C654%2C144%2C336%2C146%2C263%2C463%2C268%2C528%2C532%2C923%2C944%2C738%2C176%2C578%2C534%2C537%2C536%2C742%2C429%2C866%2C433%2C369%2C178%2C744%2C436%2C186%2C136%2C925%2C343%2C869%2C158%2C746%2C439%2C926%2C916%2C466%2C664%2C112%2C826%2C111%2C542%2C298%2C967%2C927%2C443%2C846%2C917%2C299%2C544%2C582%2C941%2C474%2C446%2C754%2C666%2C698&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a=#cs120 |title=World Economic Outlook Database |date=April 2, 2019 |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> It is one of the [[Corruption Perceptions Index|least corrupt countries in the world]],<ref name="RotbergCarment2018">{{cite book |first1=Robert I. |last1=Rotberg |first2=David |last2=Carment |title=Canada's Corruption at Home and Abroad |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ujOoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT12 |year=2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-57924-7 |page=12}}</ref> and is one of the world's top ten [[trading nation]]s, with a highly [[globalized]] economy.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=World Trade Organization |url=http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres08_e/pr520_e.htm |title=Latest release |date=April 17, 2008 |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605043028/http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres08_e/pr520_e.htm |archivedate=June 5, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch/ |publisher=KOF |title=Index of Globalization 2010 |accessdate=May 22, 2012 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531222435/http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch/ |archivedate=May 31, 2012}}</ref> Canada has a [[mixed economy]] ranking above the U.S. and most western European nations on [[The Heritage Foundation]]'s [[Index of Economic Freedom]],<ref>{{cite web |year=2013 |publisher=The Heritage Foundation-[[The Wall Street Journal]] |title=Index of Economic Freedom |url=http://www.heritage.org/Index/ |accessdate=June 27, 2013 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629215405/http://www.heritage.org/index/ |archivedate=June 29, 2013}}</ref> and experiencing a relatively low level of [[economic inequality|income disparity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/jonathan-kay-the-key-to-canadas-economic-advantage-over-the-united-states-less-income-inequality |title=Jonathan Kay: The key to Canada's economic advantage over the United States? Less income inequality |work=[[National Post]] |date=December 13, 2012 |accessdate=December 14, 2012 |url-status=live |archiveurl=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515131854/http%3A//news.nationalpost.com/full%2Dcomment/jonathan%2Dkay%2Dthe%2Dkey%2Dto%2Dcanadas%2Deconomic%2Dadvantage%2Dover%2Dthe%2Dunited%2Dstates%2Dless%2Dincome%2Dinequality |archivedate=May 15, 2016}}</ref> The country's average household [[disposable income]] per capita is "well above" the OECD average.<ref name="OECDBLI">{{cite book |author=OECD |title=Better Policies Policies for Stronger and More Inclusive Growth in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GEIoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP3 |date=June 16, 2017 |publisher=OECD Publishing |isbn=978-92-64-27794-6 |pages=3–}}</ref> The [[Toronto Stock Exchange]] is the ninth-largest [[stock exchange]] in the world by [[market capitalization]], listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics |title=Monthly Reports - World Federation of Exchanges |publisher=WFE}}{{asof|2018|November|lc=y}}</ref>

===Economic criticism, taxation, and productivity===
Canada is often described internationally as a wealthy and stable economy, but critics argue that headline GDP and quality-of-life rankings can obscure weak growth in living standards, high household debt, low business investment, and a declining sense of economic mobility among residents. The OECD's 2025 Economic Survey of Canada stated that recent economic growth had been supported by strong population growth while per-capita growth remained weak, with elevated household debt and debt-service costs weighing on consumption.<ref name="OECDCanadaMacro2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2025/05/oecd-economic-surveys-canada-2025_ee18a269/full-report/macroeconomic-developments-and-policy-challenges_fc10c1ae.html |title=OECD Economic Surveys: Canada 2025 — Macroeconomic developments and policy challenges |publisher=[[OECD]] |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> The same survey identified weak productivity as a structural problem, noting that in 2023 Canada's GDP per hour worked was below several comparable advanced economies and well below the United States.<ref name="OECDCanadaProductivity2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2025/05/oecd-economic-surveys-canada-2025_ee18a269/full-report/raising-business-sector-productivity_443bcd88.html |title=OECD Economic Surveys: Canada 2025 — Raising business sector productivity |publisher=[[OECD]] |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Taxation is another recurring source of criticism. Opponents of Canada's fiscal model argue that combined federal, provincial, municipal, payroll, consumption, property, fuel, carbon, and regulatory costs are excessive relative to the services residents actually receive, particularly in housing, health care, policing, transportation, and infrastructure. The OECD reported that Canada's tax-to-GDP ratio rose to 34.9 percent in 2024, above the OECD average of 34.1 percent and the highest Canadian level in the period covered by its country note.<ref name="OECDCanadaRevenue2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2025/12/revenue-statistics-2025-country-notes_3708be73/canada_3aa043fb/795aaca9-en.pdf |title=Revenue Statistics 2025 — Canada |publisher=[[OECD]] |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Supporters of the Canadian tax system argue that higher public revenue funds universal health care, social insurance, public education, infrastructure, and redistribution; critics respond that the tax burden increasingly coexists with long health-care waits, unaffordable housing, and visible infrastructure deficits.

In 2018, Canadian trade in goods and services reached {{CAD|1.5}} trillion.<ref name=econ/> Canada's exports totalled over {{CAD|585}} billion, while its imported goods were worth over {{CAD|607}} billion, of which approximately {{CAD|391}} billion originated from the United States, {{CAD|216}} billion from non-U.S. sources.<ref name=econ>{{cite journal |url=https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/publications/economist-economiste/state_of_trade-commerce_international-2019.aspx?lang=eng |title=Canada's State of Trade 2019 |journal=Canada's State of Trade |year=2019 |publisher=Global Affairs Canada |edition=20 |issn=2562-8313}}[https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/assets/pdfs/publications/State-of-Trade-2019_eng.pdf PDF version]</ref> In 2018, Canada had a [[trade deficit]] in goods of {{CAD|22}} billion and a trade deficit in services of {{CAD|25}} billion.<ref name=econ/>

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.<ref name="HarrisMatthews1987l">{{cite book |first1=R. Cole |last1=Harris |first2=Geoffrey J. |last2=Matthews |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: Addressing the twentieth century, 1891–1961 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=pD7vTXLqkugC&pg=PA2 |year=1987 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-3448-9 |page=2 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=pD7vTXLqkugC&pg=PA2 |archivedate=March 20, 2018}}</ref> Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service industry]], which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm |publisher=Statistics Canada |title=Employment by Industry |date=January 8, 2009 |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524063742/http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm |archivedate=May 24, 2011}}</ref> However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its [[primary sector of the economy|primary sector]], in which the [[Forestry in Canada|forestry]] and [[Petroleum production in Canada|petroleum industries]] are two of the most prominent components.<ref name="SueyoshiGoto2018">{{cite book |first1=Toshiyuki |last1=Sueyoshi |first2=Mika |last2=Goto |title=Environmental Assessment on Energy and Sustainability by Data Envelopment Analysis |url=https://books.google.com/?id=s0RKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA496 |year=2018 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-97933-4 |page=496}}</ref>

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.<ref name="SueyoshiGoto2018" /><ref name="energy">{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Charles E |title=World energy resources |publisher=Springer |year=2002 |pages=323, 378–389 |isbn=978-3-540-42634-9}}</ref> Atlantic Canada possesses vast [[offshore drilling|offshore]] deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the [[Athabasca oil sands]] and other assets results in Canada having a 13 percent share of global [[oil reserves]], comprising the world's third-largest share after [[Oil reserves in Venezuela|Venezuela]] and [[Oil reserves in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="Lopez-Vallejo2016">{{cite book |first=Marcela |last=Lopez-Vallejo |title=Reconfiguring Global Climate Governance in North America: A Transregional Approach |url=https://books.google.com/?id=fgDtCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-07042-9 |page=82}}</ref> Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, [[canola]], and other grains.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fcc-fac.ca/fcc/knowledge/ag-economist/trade-ranking-report-agriculture-e.pdf |title=Trade Ranking Report: Agriculture |publisher=FCC Ag Economics |year=2017 |access-date=June 28, 2020 |archive-date=October 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003070556/https://www.fcc-fac.ca/fcc/knowledge/ag-economist/trade-ranking-report-agriculture-e.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Canada's Department of Natural Resources provides statistics regarding its major exports; the country is a leading exporter of [[zinc]], [[uranium]], [[gold]], [[nickel]], [[PGMs|platinoids]], [[aluminum]], [[steel]], [[iron ore]], [[coking coal]], [[lead]], [[copper]], [[molybdenum]], [[cobalt]], and [[cadmium]].<ref name="Haldar2016">{{cite book |first=Swapan Kumar |last=Haldar |title=Platinum-Nickel-Chromium Deposits: Geology, Exploration and Reserve Base |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3CDfCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 |year=2016 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=978-0-12-802086-9 |page=108}}</ref> Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and [[aeronautics]] representing particularly important industries.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ibisworld.com/media/2015/01/22/mapping-canadas-top-manufacturing-industries/ |title=Mapping Canada's Top Manufacturing Industries : Industry Insider |website=ibisworld.com}}</ref>

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Dr David |last1=Mosler |first2=Pr Bob |last2=Catley |title=The American Challenge: The World Resists US Liberalism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=l00i5PKYDwcC&pg=PA38 |year=2013 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4094-9852-0 |page=38 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412133120/https://books.google.com/books?id=l00i5PKYDwcC&pg=PA38 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The [[Automotive Products Trade Agreement]] of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry.<ref name="KerrPerdikis2014">{{cite book |first1=William |last1=Kerr |first2=Nicholas |last2=Perdikis |title=The Economics of International Commerce |url=https://books.google.com/?id=FEsjBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 |year=2014 |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-78347-668-8 |page=96 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/https://books.google.com/books?id=FEsjBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister [[Pierre Trudeau]]'s Liberal government to enact the [[National Energy Program]] (NEP) and the [[Foreign Investment Review Agency]] (FIRA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Morck |first=Randall |last2=Tian |first2=Gloria |last3=Yeung |first3=Bernard |title=Governance, multinationals, and growth |editor=Eden, Lorraine |editor2=Dobson, Wendy |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |year=2005 |page=50 |chapter=Who owns whom? Economic nationalism and family controlled pyramidal groups in Canada |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q4gt2xhqpSIC&pg=PA50 |isbn=978-1-84376-909-5 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413033210/https://books.google.com/books?id=q4gt2xhqpSIC&pg=PA50 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref> In the 1980s, Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]]'s Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to [[Invest in Canada|Investment Canada]], to encourage foreign investment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hale |first=Geoffrey |title=The Dog That Hasn't Barked: The Political Economy of Contemporary Debates on Canadian Foreign Investment Policies |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Political Science]] |date=October 2008 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=719–747 |doi=10.1017/S0008423908080785 |jstor=25166298}}</ref> The [[Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement]] (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include [[Mexico]] in 1994.<ref name="Nzongola-NtalajaKrieger2001">{{cite book |editor-first1=Joel |editor-last1=Krieger |title=The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World |url=https://books.google.com/?id=2wd30pXJxpYC&pg=PA569 |edition=2 |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511739-4 |page=569}}</ref> Canada has a strong [[cooperative banking]] sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in [[credit union]]s.<ref name="KobrakMartin2018">{{cite book |first1=Christopher |last1=Kobrak |first2=Joe |last2=Martin |title=From Wall Street to Bay Street: The Origins and Evolution of American and Canadian Finance |url=https://books.google.com/?id=yw9aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA220 |year=2018 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-1625-7 |page=220}}</ref>

===Housing affordability and cost of living===
{{Main|Housing in Canada|Canadian housing affordability crisis}}
Housing affordability has become one of the most prominent domestic criticisms of Canada. In major metropolitan areas such as [[Toronto]], [[Vancouver]], [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]], [[Ottawa]], [[Montreal]], and parts of the [[Greater Golden Horseshoe]], residents have faced high rents, high home prices relative to incomes, elevated mortgage costs, and growing difficulty forming independent households. Critics attribute the crisis to a combination of restrictive zoning, slow permitting, infrastructure bottlenecks, speculative demand, financialization of housing, high construction costs, foreign and domestic investment demand, and population growth that outpaced housing completions.

The [[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation]] estimated in 2025 that Canadian housing starts would need to nearly double to roughly 430,000 to 480,000 units per year until 2035 to restore affordability, compared with a projected rate of about 250,000 units annually.<ref name="CMHCHousingShortage2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/professionals/housing-markets-data-and-research/housing-research/research-reports/accelerate-supply/canadas-housing-supply-shortages-a-new-framework |title=Canada’s Housing Supply Shortages: Moving to a New Framework |publisher=[[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation]] |date=June 19, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Critics argue that Canada's housing shortage has redistributed wealth from renters and younger workers to established owners, encouraged high household leverage, reduced labour mobility, increased homelessness, and made immigration and family formation more politically contentious. Supporters of current reform efforts point to federal, provincial, and municipal programs intended to accelerate construction, legalize denser forms of housing, and increase rental supply.

===Banking and debanking===
{{Main|Banking in Canada|Debanking in Canada}}
Canada's banking system is dominated by a small number of large national banks and is frequently praised for stability. The Bank of Canada reported in 2025 that Canadian banks had maintained elevated capital buffers and high liquidity, while the OECD described the banking sector as stable and well capitalized but exposed to the domestic mortgage market.<ref name="BOCFSR2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.bankofcanada.ca/2025/05/financial-stability-report-2025/ |title=Financial Stability Report—2025 |publisher=[[Bank of Canada]] |date=May 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref><ref name="OECDCanadaMacro2025" /> Critics, however, argue that the sector's concentration contributes to high fees, slow innovation, limited consumer bargaining power, and weak competition in payments, mortgages, and small-business banking.

A related criticism concerns [[debanking]], the closure or restriction of personal or business accounts by banks or payment providers. Canadian consumers have statutory rights when opening basic bank accounts and accessing certain low-cost or no-cost accounts, but there is no general right to maintain a relationship with a particular bank.<ref name="FCACBankingRights">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/services/rights-responsibilities/rights-banking.html |title=Banking: know your rights |publisher=[[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]] |date=October 22, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref><ref name="FCACLowCostAccounts">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/services/industry/laws-regulations/low-cost-no-cost-accounts.html |title=Commitment on Low-Cost and No-Cost Accounts |publisher=[[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]] |date=December 1, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> The [[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]] has stated in a consumer case that Canadian banking law and regulations allow banks to end consumer relationships and do not require banks to provide a reason or notice in every circumstance.<ref name="OBSIDebankingCase">{{cite web |url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/news/posts/consumer-surprised-when-bank-gives-him-30-days-to-close-his-account/ |title=Consumer surprised when bank gives him 30 days to close his account |publisher=[[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]] |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Critics argue that this gives financial institutions disproportionate power over residents and small businesses, especially when account closures are based on automated risk flags, anti-money-laundering concerns, political or reputational risk, or unexplained internal policy decisions. Banks and regulators respond that account restrictions are sometimes necessary to comply with anti-money-laundering, fraud-prevention, sanctions, and risk-management obligations.

===Science and technology===
{{Main|Science and technology in Canada}}In 2018, Canada spent approximately C$34.5 billion on domestic [[research and development]], of which around $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/181212/dq181212c-eng.htm |title=The Daily – Spending on research and development, 2018 intentions |first=Government of Canada, Statistics |last=Canada |website=statcan.gc.ca |accessdate=September 19, 2019 |date=December 22, 2018}}</ref> {{As of|2018}}, the country has produced fourteen [[List of Nobel laureates by country|Nobel laureates]] in [[Nobel Prize in Physics|physics]], [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|chemistry]], and [[Nobel Prize in Medicine|medicine]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Canadian Nobel Prize in Science Laureates |url=http://www.science.ca/scientists/nobellaureates.php |publisher=Science.ca |accessdate=September 19, 2019}}</ref> and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/canada-ranked-fourth-in-the-world-for-scientific-research/article4571162/ |first=Anne |last=McIlroy |title=Canada ranked fourth in the world for scientific research |work=The Globe and Mail |date=September 26, 2012 |accessdate=October 17, 2012 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004001349/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/canada-ranked-fourth-in-the-world-for-scientific-research/article4571162/ |archivedate=October 4, 2012}}</ref> It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.branham300.com/index.php?year=2014&listing=1 |title=Top 250 Canadian Technology Companies |year=2014 |publisher=Branham Group Inc |accessdate=February 13, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315075119/http://www.branham300.com/index.php?year=2014&listing=1 |archivedate=March 15, 2015}}</ref> Canada [[List of countries by number of Internet users|has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world]], with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats14.htm#north |title=Internet Usage and Population in North America |publisher=Internet World Stats |date=June 2014 |accessdate=February 7, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207003832/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats14.htm#north |archivedate=February 7, 2015}}</ref>

Some of the most notable scientific developments in Canada include the creation of the [[alkaline battery]] and the [[polio vaccine]], along with the discovery of the [[atomic nucleus]].<ref name=topten>{{cite web|url=http://www.science.ca/askascientist/topachievements.php|title=Top ten canadian scientific achievements|work=GCS Research Society|year=2015}}</ref> Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the [[artificial cardiac pacemaker]], mapping the [[visual cortex]],<ref>{{cite news |first=Evelyn |last=Strauss |title=2005 Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award |url=http://www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/2005_b_description.htm |publisher=[[Lasker Award|Lasker Foundation]] |year=2005 |accessdate=November 23, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100716192333/http://www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/2005_b_description.htm |archive-date=July 16, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=topten/> the development of the [[electron microscope]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/Invent/iow/hillier.html |title=James Hillier |accessdate=November 20, 2008 |work=Inventor of the Week |publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808192011/http://web.mit.edu/Invent/iow/hillier.html |archive-date=August 8, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Jeremy |last=Pearce |title=James Hillier, 91, Dies; Co-Developed Electron Microscope |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/22/science/22hillier.html |work=The New York Times |date=January 22, 2007 |accessdate=November 20, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325113042/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/22/science/22hillier.html |archive-date=March 25, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[plate tectonics]], [[deep learning]], [[multi-touch]] technology and the identification of the first [[black hole]], [[Cygnus X-1]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bolton | first=C. T. | year=1972 | title=Identification of Cygnus X-1 with HDE 226868 | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume=235 | issue=2 | pages=271–273 | doi=10.1038/235271b0 | bibcode=1972Natur.235..271B}}</ref> Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include [[stem cell]]s, [[site-directed mutagenesis]], [[T-cell receptor]] and the identification of the genes that cause [[Fanconi anemia]], [[cystic fibrosis]] and [[early-onset Alzheimer's disease]], among numerous other diseases.<ref name=topten/><ref>{{cite journal |first=C.A. |last =Strathdee |author2=Gavish, H. |author3=Shannon, W. |author4= Buchwald, M. |year=1992 |title=Cloning of cDNAs for Fanconi's anemia by functional complementation |journal=Nature |volume=356 |issue=6372 |pages=763–767 |doi=10.1038/356763a0 |pmid=1574115|bibcode = 1992Natur.356..763S }}</ref>

The [[Canadian Space Agency]] operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/about/milestones.asp |title=Canadian Space Milestones |publisher=Canadian Space Agency |year=2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091008060654/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/about/milestones.asp |archivedate=October 8, 2009}}</ref> Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the [[Soviet space program|Soviet Union]] and the United States, with the 1962 [[Alouette 1]] launch.<ref name="Angelo2009s">{{cite book |first=Joseph A. |last=Angelo |title=Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VUWno1sOwnUC&pg=PA22 |year=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1018-9 |page=22 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152522/https://books.google.com/books?id=VUWno1sOwnUC&pg=PA22 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada is a participant in the [[International Space Station]] (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the [[Canadarm]], [[Canadarm2]] and [[Dextre]] robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's [[Space Shuttle]].<ref name="Bidaud2012">{{cite book |first1=Philippe |last1=Bidaud |first2=Erick |last2=Dupuis |title=Field Robotics: Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Climbing and Walking Robots and the Support Technologies for Mobile Machines |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TSlqDQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA35 |year=2012 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=978-981-4374-27-9 |pages=35–37 |chapter=An overview of Canadian space robotics activities |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920174329/https://books.google.com/books?id=TSlqDQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA35 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}} University Pierre Et Marie Curie (UPMC), Paris, France, September 6–8, 2011.</ref> Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including [[Radarsat-1]] and [[Radarsat-2|2]], [[ISIS (satellite)|ISIS]] and [[Microvariability and Oscillations of STars telescope|MOST]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2010/11/c9200.html |title=The Canadian Aerospace Industry praises the federal government for recognizing Space as a strategic capability for Canada |publisher=Newswire |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609224813/http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2010/11/c9200.html |archivedate=June 9, 2011}}</ref> Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used [[sounding rocket]]s, the [[Black Brant (rocket)|Black Brant]]; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.<ref name="Godefroy2017">{{cite book |first=Andrew B. |last=Godefroy |title=The Canadian Space Program: From Black Brant to the International Space Station |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JVLJDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-40105-8 |page=41}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Canada|List of cities in Canada}}The [[2016 Canadian Census]] enumerated a [[Population of Canada by year|total population]] of 35,151,728, an increase of around 5.0 percent over the 2011 figure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/toronto-montreal-vancouver-now-home-to-one-third-of-canadians-census-1.3275666 |title=Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver now home to one-third of Canadians: census |last=Press |first=Jordan |date=February 8, 2017 |website=CTV News |access-date=February 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208145820/http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/toronto-montreal-vancouver-now-home-to-one-third-of-canadians-census-1.3275666 |archivedate=February 8, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table.cfm?Lang=Eng&T=101&S=50&O=A |title=2016 Census: Population and dwelling counts |date=February 8, 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada |accessdate=February 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211082635/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table.cfm?Lang=Eng&T=101&S=50&O=A |archivedate=February 11, 2017}}</ref> Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people, with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase.<ref>{{cite news |last=Campion-Smith |first=Bruce |date=February 8, 2017 |title=Canada's population grew 1.7M in 5 years, latest census shows |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2017/02/08/canadas-population-grew-17m-in-5-years.html |newspaper=Toronto Star |location=Toronto |access-date=February 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208142923/https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2017/02/08/canadas-population-grew-17m-in-5-years.html |archivedate=February 8, 2017}}</ref> Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/publications/statistics/trends10/chapter3.cfm |title=Energy Efficiency Trends in Canada, 1990 to 2008 |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |year=2011 |accessdate=December 13, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222162432/http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/publications/statistics/trends10/chapter3.cfm |archivedate=December 22, 2015}}</ref> The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Barry |last1=Edmonston |first2=Eric |last2=Fong |title=The Changing Canadian Population |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VVYOgvFPvBEC&pg=PA181 |year=2011 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-3793-4 |page=181 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152653/https://books.google.com/books?id=VVYOgvFPvBEC&pg=PA181 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=kv4nlSWLT8UC&pg=PA51 |page=51 |title=Canada |first=Karla |last=Zimmerman |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |year=2008 |edition=10th |isbn=978-1-74104-571-0 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412135044/https://books.google.com/books?id=kv4nlSWLT8UC&pg=PA51 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> driven mainly by [[Economic impact of immigration to Canada|economic policy]] and, to a lesser extent, [[Immigration to Canada#Immigration categories|family reunification]].<ref name="HollifieldMartin2014" /><ref name="BeaujotKerr2007j">{{cite book |first1=Roderic P. |last1=Beaujot |first2=Donald W. |last2=Kerr |title=The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population |url=https://books.google.com/?id=CofPBh5BRhwC&pg=PA178 |year=2007 |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |isbn=978-1-55130-322-2 |page=178 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182054/https://books.google.com/books?id=CofPBh5BRhwC&pg=PA178 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The Canadian public, as well as the major political parties, support the current level of immigration.<ref name="HollifieldMartin2014">{{cite book |first1=James |last1=Hollifield |first2=Philip |last2=Martin |first3=Pia |last3=Orrenius |title=Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective, Third Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ys9jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |year=2014 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8047-8627-0 |page=11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106124820/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ys9jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |archivedate=January 6, 2017}}</ref><ref name="FreemanHansen2013">{{cite book |first1=Gary P. |last1=Freeman |first2=Randall |last2=Hansen |first3=David L. |last3=Leal |title=Immigration and Public Opinion in Liberal Democracies |url=https://books.google.com/?id=A0s03B_RjhIC&pg=PA8 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-21161-4 |page=8 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106131629/https://books.google.com/books?id=A0s03B_RjhIC&pg=PA8 |archivedate=January 6, 2017}}</ref> In 2019, a total of 341,180 immigrants were admitted to Canada, mainly from Asia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Immigrants Flock To Canada, While U.S. Declines|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/stuartanderson/2020/02/18/immigrants-flock-to-canada-while-us-declines/#12abbd306e54|last=Anderson|first=Stuart|date=|year=2020|website=Forbes|publisher=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|accessdate=April 16, 2020}}</ref> India, Philippines and China are the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.<ref>{{cite news |title=Is Canada asking countries for a million immigrants? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-48466771 |publisher=BBC News |date=June 6, 2019}}</ref> New immigrants settle mostly in major [[List of the 100 largest population centres in Canada|urban areas]] such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.<ref>{{cite book |first=Herbert G. |last=Grubel |title=The Effects of Mass Immigration on Canadian Living Standards and Society |url=https://books.google.com/?id=48LOyfxYihoC&pg=PA5 |year=2009 |publisher=Fraser Institute |isbn=978-0-88975-246-7 |page=5 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412162354/https://books.google.com/books?id=48LOyfxYihoC&pg=PA5 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada also accepts large numbers of [[refugee]]s,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/media/releases/2010/2010-11-01a.asp |title=Government of Canada Tables 2011 Immigration Plan |publisher=Canada News Centre |accessdate=December 12, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203235801/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/media/releases/2010/2010-11-01a.asp |archivedate=December 3, 2010}}</ref> accounting for over 10 percent of annual global [[third country resettlement|refugee resettlements]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Alan |last=Simmons |title=Immigration and Canada: Global and Transnational Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/?id=K0YwAJ7MpswC&pg=PA92 |year=2010 |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |isbn=978-1-55130-362-8 |page=92 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412135840/https://books.google.com/books?id=K0YwAJ7MpswC&pg=PA92 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jason |first1=Markusoff |title=Canada now brings in more refugees than the U.S. |url=https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/refugee-resettlement-canada/ |website=macleans.ca |publisher=Rogers Media |date=January 23, 2019}}</ref>

===Immigration, population growth, and integration criticism===
{{Main|Immigration to Canada}}
Canada has historically maintained one of the developed world's most expansive immigration systems and has used immigration to support labour-force growth, demographic renewal, family reunification, refugee protection, and international education. Critics of recent policy settings argue that permanent and temporary admissions grew faster than housing supply, health-care capacity, transportation networks, schools, and labour-market absorption in many communities. In January 2026, Statistics Canada estimated that Canada had 2,676,441 non-permanent residents, even as quarterly population growth slowed following policy changes affecting international migration.<ref name="StatCan2026Q4Pop" /> The federal immigration levels plan for 2026 set targets of 380,000 new permanent residents, 155,000 new student arrivals, and 230,000 new temporary worker arrivals, with the student and temporary-worker targets reduced from the previous year's targets.<ref name="IRCCLevels2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/mandate/corporate-initiatives/levels.html |title=Canada's immigration levels |publisher=[[Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada]] |date=November 6, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Immigration critics argue that rapid population growth has intensified rental-market competition, suppressed wages in some lower-paid sectors, strained public services, and weakened public consent for immigration. Statistics Canada research has found that immigrants and non-permanent residents use housing differently from Canadian-born residents, with non-permanent residents particularly concentrated in the rental market.<ref name="StatCanImmigrantHousing2025">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/36-28-0001/2025005/article/00003-eng.htm |title=Housing use of immigrants and non-permanent residents in ownership and rental markets |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] |date=May 28, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Supporters of immigration respond that newcomers are essential to labour supply, entrepreneurship, universities, caregiving, construction, and public finances, and that the core problem is not immigration itself but Canada's failure to build enough housing, recognize credentials efficiently, and expand infrastructure in line with population growth.

Canada's policy of [[multiculturalism in Canada|official multiculturalism]] is similarly praised as a source of pluralism and criticized by some residents as weakening shared civic identity, language cohesion, and social trust. Others argue that cultural tensions are often downstream of economic pressures, especially unaffordable housing, insecure work, regional inequality, and poor access to services.

Canada's population density, at {{convert|3.7|PD/km2}}, is among the lowest in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=101&SR=1&S=10&O=A |title=Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, 2011 and 2006 censuses |first=Government of Canada, Statistics |last=Canada |website=www12.statcan.ca |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006234239/http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=101&SR=1&S=10&O=A |archivedate=October 6, 2014}}</ref> Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.<ref name="OECD2014" /> About four-fifths of the population lives within {{convert|150|km|mi}} of the border with the contiguous United States.<ref>{{cite book |last=Custred |first=Glynn |title=Immigration policy and the terrorist threat in Canada and the United States |editor=Moens, Alexander |publisher=Fraser Institute |year=2008 |page=[https://archive.org/details/immigrationpolic0000unse/page/96 96] |chapter=Security Threats on America's Borders |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmiqBgnkAXYC&pg=PA96 |isbn=978-0-88975-235-1 |url-status=live |url=https://archive.org/details/immigrationpolic0000unse/page/96 }}</ref> The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the [[Quebec City–Windsor Corridor]] in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.<ref name="McMurryShepherd2004">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=1giH-mvhhw8C&pg=PA391|title=Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment|last1=McMurry|first1=Peter H.|last2=Shepherd|first2=Marjorie F.|last3=Vickery|first3=James S.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-521-84287-7|page=391|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142432/https://books.google.com/books?id=1giH-mvhhw8C&pg=PA391|archivedate=April 12, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="OECD2014">{{cite book |author=OECD |title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Canada 2004 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=_mjWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |year=2014 |publisher=OECD Publishing |isbn=978-92-64-10778-6 |pages=142– |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160903062445/https://books.google.com/books?id=_mjWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |archivedate=September 3, 2016}}</ref> An additional 30 percent live along the British Columbia [[Lower Mainland]] and the [[Calgary–Edmonton Corridor]] in Alberta.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-221-x/00503/t/th/4062283-eng.htm |title=Urban-rural population as a proportion of total population, Canada, provinces, territories and health regions |year=2001 |publisher=Statistics Canada |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610194606/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-221-x/00503/t/th/4062283-eng.htm |archivedate=June 10, 2011}}</ref>

The majority of Canadians (69.9 percent) live in family households, 26.8 percent report living alone, and those living with unrelated persons reported at 3.7 percent.<ref name="fam">{{cite web |url=http://vanierinstitute.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/CFT_2011-06-00_EN.pdf |title=Changing Families, New Understandings |publisher=Vanier institute (York University) |page=6 (PDF p 12) |year=2011 |first=Meg |last=Luxton |accessdate=February 2, 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204230715/http://vanierinstitute.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/CFT_2011-06-00_EN.pdf |archivedate=February 4, 2016}}</ref> The average size of a household in 2006 was 2.5 people.<ref name="fam" />
{{Largest metropolitan areas of Canada}}{{-}}

===Health===
{{Main|Healthcare in Canada}}
Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of [[publicly funded health care]], informally called Medicare.<ref name="AaseWaring2017">{{cite book |first1=Karina |last1=Aase |first2=Justin |last2=Waring |first3=Lene |last3=Schibevaag |title=Researching Quality in Care Transitions: International Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Jvs1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-62346-7 |pages=128–129}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/healthcare/public_vs_private.html |title=Public vs. private health care |publisher=CBC News |date=December 1, 2006}}</ref> It is guided by the provisions of the ''Canada Health Act'' of 1984,<ref name="Bégin1988">{{cite book |first=Monique |last=Bégin |title=Medicare: Canada's Right to Health |year=1988 |publisher=Optimum Pub. International |isbn=978-0-88890-219-1 |page=Intro}}</ref> and is [[Universal health care|universal]].<ref name="LeattMapa2003">{{cite book |first1=Peggy |last1=Leatt |first2=Joseph |last2=Mapa |title=Government Relations in the Health Care Industry |url=https://books.google.com/?id=2_y6J647QFoC&pg=PA81 |year=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-56720-513-8 |page=81}}</ref> Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country."<ref>{{cite report|title=The Health of Canadians – The Federal Role |section-url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/content/sen/committee/372/soci/rep/repoct02vol6part7-e.htm |publisher=Parliament of Canada |accessdate=January 5, 2017 |section=17.2 Universality}}</ref> However, 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.<ref name="Kroll2012">{{cite book |first=David J. |last=Kroll |title=Capitalism Revisited: How to Apply Capitalism in Your Life |url=https://books.google.com/?id=STnr1N89LIUC&pg=PA126 |year=2012 |publisher=Dorrance Publishing |isbn=978-1-4349-1768-3 |page=126}}</ref> This mostly goes towards services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as [[prescription drug]]s, [[dentistry]] and [[optometry]].<ref name="Kroll2012" /> Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or utilizes secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities.<ref name="Chen2018">{{cite book |first=Tsai-Jyh |last=Chen |title=An International Comparison of Financial Consumer Protection |url=https://books.google.com/?id=1bBhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |year=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-10-8441-6 |page=93}}</ref><ref name="Kroll2012" />

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a cost increase due to a [[demographic transition|demographic shift]] towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age was 39.5 years;<ref>{{cite web |last=Martel |first=Laurent |last2=Malenfant |first2=Éric Caron |title=2006 Census: Portrait of the Canadian Population in 2006, by Age and Sex |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=September 22, 2009 |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-551/index-eng.cfm?CFID=3347169&CFTOKEN=19485112 |access-date=June 28, 2020 |archive-date=September 20, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-551/index-eng.cfm?CFID=3347169&CFTOKEN=19485112 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> within twelve years it had risen to 42.4 years,<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html |title=The World FactBook – Canada |date=July 12, 2018 |work=The World Factbook |access-date=June 28, 2020 |archive-date=April 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430234227/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> with a life expectancy of 81.1 years.<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas G. |last=Weiss |authorlink=Thomas G. Weiss |url=https://www.disabled-world.com/calculators-charts/ca-lifespan.php |title=Canadian Male and Female Life Expectancy Rates by Province and Territory |website=Disabled World |year=2017}}</ref> A 2016 report by the [[Chief Public Health Officer of Canada]] found that 88 percent of Canadians; one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/corporate/publications/chief-public-health-officer-reports-state-public-health-canada/2016-health-status-canadians/page-7-how-healthy-are-we-perceived-health.html |title=Health Status of Canadians - How healthy are we? - Perceived health |publisher=Report of the Chief Public Health Officer - Public Health Agency of Canada |year=2016}}</ref> 80 percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease; smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.<ref name="GregoryStephens2019">{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Gregory |first2=Tracey |last2=Stephens |first3=Christy |last3=Raymond-Seniuk |first4=Linda |last4=Patrick |title=Fundamentals: Perspectives on the Art and Science of Canadian Nursing |url=https://books.google.com/?id=uEeCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT75 |year=2019 |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health |isbn=978-1-4963-9850-5 |page=75}}</ref> Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries attributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of [[diabetes]] (types 1 and 2 combined).<ref name="GregoryStephens2019" /> Four chronic diseases; [[cancer]] (leading cause of death), [[cardiovascular diseases]], [[respiratory diseases]] and diabetes account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/how-healthy-canadians.html#s1 |title=How Healthy are Canadians? |first=Public Health Agency of |last=Canada |year=2017 |website=canada.ca}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/health/health-systems/Health-at-a-Glance-2019-Chartset.pdf|title=Health at a Glance 2019 |work=OECD|year=2019}}</ref>

In 2017, the [[Canadian Institute for Health Information]] reported that healthcare spending reached $242{{nbsp}}billion, or 11.5 percent of Canada's [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) for that year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cihi.ca/en/total-health-spending-in-canada-reaches-242-billion|title=Total health spending in Canada reaches $242{{nbsp}}billion|year=2017|publisher=Canadian Institute for Health Information|quote=Spending on drugs is expected to outpace spending on hospitals and doctors.|access-date=April 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421231735/https://www.cihi.ca/en/total-health-spending-in-canada-reaches-242-billion|archive-date=April 21, 2019}}</ref> Canada's per-capita spending ranks as seventh on the [[list of countries by total health expenditure per capita]] in the OECD and above the average of 8.8 percent of GDP.<ref name=OECDstats>[http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SHA Health expenditure and financing]. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). Choose options from dropdown menus.</ref> Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/canada/Health-at-a-Glance-2017-Key-Findings-CANADA.pdf |title=Health at a Glance 2017 |publisher=OECD Publishing |year=2017}}</ref> In 2017 Canada ranked above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/health/health-systems/health-at-a-glance-19991312.htm |title=Health at a Glance - OECD Indicators by country |year=2017 |publisher=OECD Publishing}}</ref> A comprehensive study from 2017 of the top 11 countries ranked Canada's health care system third-to-last.<ref name="urlCanadathird-last">{{cite web |url=https://interactives.commonwealthfund.org/2017/july/mirror-mirror// |title=International Comparison Reflects Flaws and Opportunities for Better U.S. Health Care |format= |work=Commonwealth Fund |accessdate=March 6, 2020}}</ref> Identified weaknesses of Canada's system were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.<ref name="urlCanadathird-last"/>

====Wait times, access, and medical assistance in dying====
Canadian Medicare is frequently defended as a symbol of equality, but it is also criticized for long wait times, weak access to primary care, shortages of family physicians, limited public coverage for dental care, prescription drugs, mental health, and allied health services, and political resistance to private or mixed delivery models. In 2025, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that patients waited longer for diagnostic imaging in 2024 than in 2019, with median wait times rising by 15 days for MRI scans and by 3 days for CT scans.<ref name="CIHIWaitTimes2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.cihi.ca/en/wait-times-for-priority-procedures-in-canada-2025 |title=Wait times for priority procedures in Canada, 2025 |publisher=[[Canadian Institute for Health Information]] |date=June 12, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> CIHI also reported that the share of Canadian adults with a regular doctor or place of care declined from 93 percent in 2016 to 86 percent in 2023, the lowest proportion among ten countries surveyed, representing an estimated four million adults without a primary-care provider.<ref name="CIHIPrimaryCare2023">{{cite web |url=https://www.cihi.ca/en/international-survey-shows-canada-lags-behind-peer-countries-in-access-to-primary-health-care |title=International survey shows Canada lags behind peer countries in access to primary health care |publisher=[[Canadian Institute for Health Information]] |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

[[Medical assistance in dying in Canada]] is another major subject of domestic and international debate. Health Canada reported that 16,499 people received MAID in 2024, representing 5.1 percent of deaths in Canada; 95.6 percent of cases were under Track 1, where natural death was reasonably foreseeable, while 4.4 percent were under Track 2, where natural death was not reasonably foreseeable.<ref name="HealthCanadaMAID2024">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/health-system-services/annual-report-medical-assistance-dying-2024.html |title=Sixth Annual Report on Medical Assistance in Dying in Canada, 2024 |publisher=[[Health Canada]] |date=November 28, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Supporters frame MAID as an autonomy and dignity right protected by safeguards. Critics, including disability-rights groups, argue that expanding MAID while disability supports, housing, palliative care, and mental-health services remain inadequate risks normalizing death as a response to poverty, isolation, or treatable suffering. Disability-rights organizations have challenged the constitutionality of Canada's assisted-dying framework for people whose deaths are not reasonably foreseeable.<ref name="ReutersMAIDDisabilityChallenge2024">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/disability-rights-groups-challenge-canadas-assisted-death-framework-2024-09-26/ |title=Disability rights groups challenge Canada's assisted death framework |publisher=[[Reuters]] |date=September 26, 2024 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

===Education===
{{main|Education in Canada|Higher education in Canada}}
Education in Canada is for the most part provided [[public education|publicly]], funded and overseen by federal, [[Provinces of Canada|provincial]], and [[local government]]s.<ref name = "2015 federal budget">{{cite web |author=Lucy Scholey |title=2015 federal budget 'disappointing' for post-secondary students: CFS |url=http://metronews.ca/news/canada/1347155/2015-federal-budget-disappointing-for-post-secondary-students-cfs/ |accessdate=June 1, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603103455/http://metronews.ca/news/canada/1347155/2015-federal-budget-disappointing-for-post-secondary-students-cfs/ |archive-date=June 3, 2015}}</ref> Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province.<ref>{{Cite book | title =Canada 1956 the Official Handbook of Present Conditions and Recent Progress | year =1959 | location =Ottawa | publisher = Canada Year Book Section Information Services Division Dominion Bureau of Statistics}}</ref> Education in Canada is generally divided into [[primary education]], followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.<ref name="Epstein2008">{{cite book |first=Irving |last=Epstein |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Children's Issues Worldwide |url=https://books.google.com/?id=FI3zJQzOdcIC&pg=PA73 |year=2008 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-33617-1 |page=73 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412153142/https://books.google.com/books?id=FI3zJQzOdcIC&pg=PA73 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education provision.<ref name="MontesinosVela2013">{{cite book |first1=Vicente |last1=Montesinos |first2=José |last2=Manuel Vela |title=Innovations in Governmental Accounting |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rqzwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA305 |year=2013 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4757-5504-6 |page=305 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412205344/https://books.google.com/books?id=rqzwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA305 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada has a large number of Universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.<ref name="ShanahanNilson2016">{{cite book|author1=Theresa Shanahan|author2=Michelle Nilson|author3=Li Jeen Broshko|title=The Handbook of Canadian Higher Education|url=https://books.google.com/?id=VpcHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59|year=2016|publisher=MQUP|isbn=978-1-55339-506-5|page=59}}</ref> Established in 1663, [[Université Laval]] is the oldest post-secondary [[Higher education in Canada|institution in Canada]].<ref name="BlakeKeshen2017p249">{{cite book|author1=Raymond B. Blake|author2=Jeffrey A. Keshen|author3=Norman J. Knowles|author4=Barbara J. Messamore|title=Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada|url=https://books.google.com/?id=PqEvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA249|year=2017|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-3555-5|page=249}}</ref> The largest University is the University of Toronto with over 85,000 students.<ref name="Richards2019">{{cite book|author=Larry Wayne Richards|title=University of Toronto: An Architectural Tour (The Campus Guide) 2nd Edition|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZTKODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11|year=2019|publisher=Princeton Architectural Press|isbn=978-1-61689-824-3|page=11}}</ref> Four Universities are regularly ranked among the top 100 world-wide, namely University of Toronto, [[University of British Columbia]], [[McGill University]] and [[McMaster University]] , with a total of 18 [[Rankings of universities in Canada|Universities ranked]] in the top 500 worldwide.<ref name="ARWU2019 | Canada Universities ">{{cite web |url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/World-University-Rankings-2019/Canada.html |title=World University Rankings - 2019 | Canada Universities in Top 1000 universities | Academic Ranking of World Universities - 2019 | Shanghai Ranking - 2019 |accessdate=March 6, 2020 |archive-date=August 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812221131/http://www.shanghairanking.com/World-University-Rankings-2019/Canada.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref>

According to a 2019 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;<ref name="world">{{cite web |url=http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/most-educated-countries/ |title=Most Educated Countries 2019 |publisher=World Population Review |year=2019 |accessdate=September 7, 2019}}</ref> the country ranks first worldwide in the number of adults having [[tertiary education]], with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.<ref name="world" /> Canada spends about 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS |title=Government expenditure on education as % of GDP (%) |publisher=World Bank |year=2015 |accessdate=January 4, 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105103625/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS |archivedate=January 5, 2016}}</ref> The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/48630868.pdf |title=Financial and human resources invested in Education |publisher=OECD |year=2011 |accessdate=July 4, 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308202848/http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/48630868.pdf |archivedate=March 8, 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2014}}, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.<ref name="OECDBLI2">{{cite web |url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/ |title=Canada |work=[[OECD Better Life Index]] |publisher=OECD |year=2014 |accessdate=February 13, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218152526/http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/ |archivedate=February 18, 2015}}</ref>

The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Council of Ministers of Education, Canada |title=Overview of Education in Canada |url=http://www.educationau-incanada.ca/index.aspx?action=educationsystem-systemeeducation&lang=eng |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214200211/http://www.educationau-incanada.ca/index.aspx?action=educationsystem-systemeeducation&lang=eng |archivedate=February 14, 2010 |accessdate=October 20, 2010}}</ref> contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.<ref name="cia" /> In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Department of Finance Canada |title=Creating Opportunities for All Canadians |url=http://www.fin.gc.ca/ec2005/agenda/agc4-eng.asp |date=November 14, 2005 |accessdate=May 22, 2006 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100423192244/http://www.fin.gc.ca/ec2005/agenda/agc4-eng.asp |archivedate=April 23, 2010}}</ref> The [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] indicates Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/12/46643496.pdf |title=Comparing countries' and economies' performances |publisher=OECD |year=2009 |accessdate=May 22, 2012 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307105640/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/12/46643496.pdf |archivedate=March 7, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadian-education-among-best-in-the-world-oecd-1.583143 |title=Canadian education among best in the world: OECD |publisher=CTV News |date=December 7, 2010 |accessdate=February 15, 2013 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528085955/http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadian-education-among-best-in-the-world-oecd-1.583143 |archivedate=May 28, 2013}}</ref> ranking the overall knowledge and skills of Canadian 15-year-olds as the sixth-best in the world. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |title=PISA - Results in Focus |publisher=OECD |url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf|pages=5|year=2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Canada - Student performance (PISA 2015) |publisher=OECD |url=http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?plotter=h5&primaryCountry=CAN&treshold=10&topic=PI}}</ref>

===Ethnicity===
{{main|Canadians}}

According to the 2016 Canadian Census, the country's largest [[Ethnic origins of people in Canada|self-reported ethnic origin]] is Canadian (accounting for 32 percent of the population),{{efn| name=Canadian|1=All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by [[Canadian nationality law|Canada's nationality laws]]. However, "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire. "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones), however no-longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Kate |last1=Bezanson |first2=Michelle |last2=Webber |title=Rethinking Society in the 21st Century, Fourth Edition: Critical Readings in Sociology |url=https://books.google.com/?id=oWO_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA455 |year=2016 |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |isbn=978-1-55130-936-1 |pages=455–456}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Barry |last1=Edmonston |first2=Eric |last2=Fong |title=The Changing Canadian Population |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VVYOgvFPvBEC&pg=PA294 |year=2011 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-3793-4 |pages=294–296}}</ref>}} followed by [[English Canadian|English]] (18.3 percent), [[Scottish Canadian|Scottish]] (13.9 percent), French (13.6 percent), [[Irish Canadian|Irish]] (13.4 percent), [[Canadians of German ethnicity|German]] (9.6 percent), [[Chinese Canadian|Chinese]] (5.1 percent), [[Italian Canadians|Italian]] (4.6 percent), First Nations (4.4 percent), [[Indo-Canadians|Indian]] (4.0 percent), and [[Ukrainian Canadian|Ukrainian]] (3.9 percent).<ref name="ethnicity">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D |title=Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables |publisher=statcan.gc.ca |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027195802/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D |archivedate=October 27, 2017 |date=October 25, 2017}}</ref> There are 600 recognized [[List of First Nations peoples|First Nations governments or bands]], encompassing a total of 1,525,565 people.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aboriginal Identity (8), Sex (3) and Age Groups (12) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census – 20% Sample Data |work=2006 Census: Topic-based tabulations |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=June 12, 2008 |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=837928&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=89122&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=73&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |accessdate=September 18, 2009 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018234534/http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=837928&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=89122&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=73&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |archivedate=October 18, 2011}}</ref> Canada's Indigenous population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and four percent of Canada's population claimed an Indigenous identity in 2006. Another 22.3 percent of the population belonged to a non-Indigenous [[visible minority]].<ref name="Census Profile, 2016 Census">{{cite web |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census |work=Statistics Canada |date=February 8, 2017 |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 | access-date=February 16, 2018 | url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015095154/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |archivedate=October 15, 2017}}</ref> In 2016, the largest visible minority groups were [[South Asian Canadian|South Asian]] (5.6 percent), Chinese (5.1 percent) and [[Black Canadians|Black]] (3.5 percent).<ref name="Census Profile, 2016 Census" /> Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.<ref name="Census Profile, 2016 Census" /> In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible minority groups.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml |title=Visible Minorities and Aboriginal Peoples in Vancouver's Labour Market |last=Pendakur |first=Krishna |publisher=Simon Fraser University |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516021011/http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml |archivedate=May 16, 2011 |accessdate=June 30, 2014}}</ref> Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority under the ''[[Employment equity (Canada)|Employment Equity Act]]'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Classification of visible minority |work=Statistics Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |date=July 25, 2008 |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |accessdate=September 18, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714060402/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |archivedate=July 14, 2011}}
</ref> and this is the definition that Statistics Canada also uses.
===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of Canada}}
A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the [[official language]]s) being the [[first language|mother tongues]] of approximately 56 percent and 21 percent of Canadians, respectively.<ref name="Highlightsb">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |title=Population by mother tongue and age groups (total), 2016 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015095154/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |archivedate=October 15, 2017 |date=February 8, 2017}}</ref> As of the 2016 Census, just over 7.3 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (1,227,680 first-language speakers), [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (501,680), Spanish (458,850), [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (431,385), [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (419,895), German (384,040), and Italian (375,645).<ref name="Highlightsb" /> Canada's federal government practices official bilingualism, which is applied by the [[Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages|Commissioner of Official Languages]] in consonance with [[Section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] and the Federal ''[[Official Languages Act (Canada)|Official Languages Act]]'' English and French have equal status in federal courts, parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French and official-[[minority language|language minorities]] are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Languages and You |publisher=Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages |date=June 16, 2009 |url=http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php |accessdate=September 10, 2009 |archive-date=October 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027121057/http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php |dead-url=yes }}</ref>

The 1977 [[Charter of the French Language]] established French as the official language of Quebec.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bourhis |first=Richard Y |last2=Montaruli |first2=Elisa |last3=Amiot |first3=Catherine E |title=Language planning and French-English bilingual communication: Montreal field studies from 1977 to 1997 |journal=[[International Journal of the Sociology of Language]] |date=May 2007 |issue=185 |pages=187–224 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.031 |volume=2007}}</ref> Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial [[Francophone]] populations in [[Demographics of New Brunswick|New Brunswick]], [[Franco-Albertan|Alberta]], and [[Franco-Manitoban|Manitoba]]; [[Franco-Ontarian|Ontario]] has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.<ref name="Webber2015">{{cite book |first=Jeremy |last=Webber |title=The Constitution of Canada: A Contextual Analysis |url=https://books.google.com/?id=f357BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 |year=2015 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-78225-631-1 |page=214 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181644/https://books.google.com/books?id=f357BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population.<ref name="Auer2010b">{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Auer |title=Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation. Theories and methods |url=https://books.google.com/?id=2_aPmMkzK_AC&pg=PA387 |year=2010 |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-018002-2 |page=387 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182158/https://books.google.com/books?id=2_aPmMkzK_AC&pg=PA387 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hayday |first=Matthew |title=Bilingual Today, United Tomorrow: Official Languages in Education and Canadian Federalism |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2005 |page=49 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3D6LPBGT59kC&pg=PA49 |isbn=978-0-7735-2960-1 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142623/https://books.google.com/books?id=3D6LPBGT59kC&pg=PA49 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.<ref>{{cite book |last=Heller |first=Monica |title=Crosswords: language, education and ethnicity in French Ontario |year=2003 |publisher=[[Mouton de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-017687-2 |pages=72, 74}}</ref> There are 11 [[Languages of Canada#Aboriginal languages|Indigenous language groups]], composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-589-x/4067801-eng.htm |title=Aboriginal languages |publisher=Statistics Canada |accessdate=October 5, 2009 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429005405/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-589-x/4067801-eng.htm |archivedate=April 29, 2011}}</ref> Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fettes |first=Mark |last2=Norton |first2=Ruth |title=Aboriginal education: fulfilling the promise |editor=Castellano, Marlene Brant |editor2=Davis, Lynne |editor3=Lahache, Louise |publisher=UBC Press |year=2001 |page=39 |chapter=Voices of Winter: Aboriginal Languages and Public Policy in Canada |isbn=978-0-7748-0783-8}}</ref> [[Inuktitut]] is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.<ref>{{cite book |last=Russell |first=Peter H |title=Unfinished constitutional business?: rethinking indigenous self-determination |editor-last=Hocking |editor-first=Barbara |publisher=[[Aboriginal Studies Press]] |year=2005 |page=180 |chapter=Indigenous Self-Determination: Is Canada as Good as it Gets? |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mxreMX_cf4EC&pg=PA180 |isbn=978-0-85575-466-2 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144722/https://books.google.com/books?id=mxreMX_cf4EC&pg=PA180 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

Additionally, Canada is home to many [[sign language]]s, some of which are Indigenous.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cad.ca/issues-positions/language/ |title=Sign languages |publisher=Canadian Association of the Deaf – Association des Sourds du Canada |year=2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730163508/http://cad.ca/issues-positions/language/ |archivedate=July 30, 2017}}</ref> [[American Sign Language]] (ASL) is spoken across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.<ref name="JepsenClerck2015">{{cite book |last1=Jepsen |first1=Julie Bakken |last2=Clerck |first2=Goedele De |last3=Lutalo-Kiingi |first3=Sam |title=Sign Languages of the World: A Comparative Handbook |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA702 |year=2015 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-1-61451-817-4 |page=702 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106131756/https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA702 |archivedate=January 6, 2017}}</ref> Due to its historical relation to the francophone culture, [[Quebec Sign Language]] (LSQ) is spoken primarily in Quebec, although there are sizeable Francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba.<ref name="BaileyDolby2002">{{cite book |last1=Bailey |first1=Carole Sue |last2=Dolby |first2=Kathy |last3=Campbell |first3=Hilda Marian |title=The Canadian Dictionary of ASL Canadian Cultural Society of the Dead |url=https://books.google.com/?id=_D_ZRFm_4EsC&pg=PR11 |year=2002 |publisher=University of Alberta |isbn=978-0-88864-300-1 |page=11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106130556/https://books.google.com/books?id=_D_ZRFm_4EsC&pg=PR11 |archivedate=January 6, 2017}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Canada}}

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. Canada has no official church, and the government is officially committed to [[religious pluralism]].<ref name="Moon2008">{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Moon |title=Law and Religious Pluralism in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ah66SQsk4hAC&pg=PA1 |year=2008 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-1497-3 |pages=1–4 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181629/https://books.google.com/books?id=ah66SQsk4hAC&pg=PA1 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> [[Freedom of religion in Canada]] is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.<ref name="Scott2012n">{{cite book |first=Jamie S. |last=Scott |title=The Religions of Canadians |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GbZJ2ZszYw8C&pg=PA345 |year=2012 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0516-9 |page=345 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412205504/https://books.google.com/books?id=GbZJ2ZszYw8C&pg=PA345 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.<ref name="BoyleSheen2013">{{cite book |first1=Kevin |last1=Boyle |first2=Juliet |last2=Sheen |title=Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JxgFWwK8dXwC&pg=PT219 |year=2013 |publisher=University of Essex – Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-72229-7 |page=219 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152401/https://books.google.com/books?id=JxgFWwK8dXwC&pg=PT219 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> With [[Christianity]] in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,<ref name="Roberts2005w">{{cite book |first=Lance W. |last=Roberts |title=Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=qnPOqwsR5UsC&pg=PA359 |year=2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-2955-7 |page=359 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413032901/https://books.google.com/books?id=qnPOqwsR5UsC&pg=PA359 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref> Canada has become a [[Postchristianity|post-Christian]], [[secularity|secular]] state.<ref name="BramadatSeljak2009">{{cite book |first1=Paul |last1=Bramadat |first2=David |last2=Seljak |title=Religion and Ethnicity in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VymssyK1Hs0C&pg=PA3 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-1018-7 |page=3 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413033108/https://books.google.com/books?id=VymssyK1Hs0C&pg=PA3 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Bowen2004">{{cite book |first=Kurt |last=Bowen |title=Christians in a Secular World: The Canadian Experience |url=https://books.google.com/?id=__38sGZLrvYC&pg=PA174 |year=2004 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-7194-5 |page=174 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181907/https://books.google.com/books?id=__38sGZLrvYC&pg=PA174 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref name="GregoryJohnston2009">{{cite book |first1=Derek |last1=Gregory |first2=Ron |last2=Johnston |first3=Geraldine |last3=Pratt |first4=Michael |last4=Watts |first5=Sarah |last5=Whatmore |title=The Dictionary of Human Geography |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5liCbG4J9LYC&pg=PT672 |year=2009 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-4443-1056-6 |page=672 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412160737/https://books.google.com/books?id=5liCbG4J9LYC&pg=PT672 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref name="BermanBhargava2013b">{{cite book |first1=Bruce J. |last1=Berman |first2=Rajeev |last2=Bhargava |first3=Andre |last3=Lalibert |title=Secular States and Religious Diversity |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wrYAAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |year=2013 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2515-3 |page=103 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412155519/https://books.google.com/books?id=wrYAAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The majority of Canadians consider [[Importance of religion by country|religion to be unimportant]] in their daily lives,<ref name="Punnett2015a">{{cite book |first=Betty Jane |last=Punnett |title=International Perspectives on Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management |url=https://books.google.com/?id=tG2mBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-46745-8 |page=116 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107053830/https://books.google.com/books?id=tG2mBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |archivedate=January 7, 2016}}</ref> but still believe in God.<ref name="Haskell2009">{{cite book |first=David M. |last=Haskell |title=Through a Lens Darkly: How the News Media Perceive and Portray Evangelicals |url=https://books.google.com/?id=TzJMfNOR5O0C&pg=PA50 |year=2009 |publisher=Clements Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-894667-92-0 |page=50 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413033206/https://books.google.com/books?id=TzJMfNOR5O0C&pg=PA50 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref>

According to the 2011 National Household Survey, 67.3 percent of Canadians identify as Christian; of these, [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] make up the largest group, accounting for 38.7 percent of the population. Much of the remainder is made up of [[Protestantism|Protestants]], who accounted for approximately 27 percent in a 2011 survey.<ref name="2011NHSreligiondetailed">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=105399&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=95&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |title=Tabulation: Religion (108), Immigrant Status and Period of Immigration (11), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=January 7, 2016 |accessdate=November 15, 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220034621/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=105399&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=95&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |archivedate=December 20, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2013/06/27/canadas-changing-religious-landscape/ |title=Canada's Changing Religious Landscape | Pew Research Center |publisher=[[Pew Research Center|Pewforum.org]] |date=June 27, 2013 |accessdate=April 21, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310042724/http://www.pewforum.org/2013/06/27/canadas-changing-religious-landscape/ |archivedate=March 10, 2017}}</ref> The largest Protestant [[Christian denomination|denomination]] is the [[United Church of Canada]] (accounting for 6.1 percent of Canadians), followed by the [[Anglican Church of Canada]] (5.0 percent), and [[Baptists in Canada|various Baptist sects]] (1.9 percent).<ref name="statcan1" /> Secularization has been growing since the 1960s.<ref>Hans Mol, "The secularization of Canada." ''Research in the social scientific study of religion'' (1989) 1:197–215.</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Mark A. |last=Noll |title=A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VGF3wbzzy9QC&pg=PR15 |year=1992 |pages=15–17 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412133318/https://books.google.com/books?id=VGF3wbzzy9QC&pg=PR15 |archivedate=April 12, 2016 |isbn=978-0-8028-0651-2}}</ref> In 2011, 23.9 percent declared [[irreligion|no religious affiliation]], compared to 16.5 percent in 2001.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/15/no-religion-is-increasingly-popular-for-canadians-report_n_3283268.html |title='No Religion' Is Increasingly Popular For Canadians: Report |work=[[HuffPost]] |date=May 15, 2013 |accessdate=May 19, 2013 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609215833/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/15/no-religion-is-increasingly-popular-for-canadians-report_n_3283268.html |archivedate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Islam is the largest non-Christian religion in Canada, constituting 3.2 percent of its population. It is also the fastest growing religion in Canada.<ref name="nationalpost1">{{cite news|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/2013/05/08/survey-shows-muslim-population-is-fastest-growing-religion-in-canada/ |title=Muslims fastest growing religious population in Canada | National Post |publisher=News.nationalpost.com |accessdate=July 14, 2013}}</ref> 1.5 percent of the Canadian population is Hindu and 1.4 percent is Sikh.<ref name="statcan1" />

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Canada}}Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a "[[just society]]" are constitutionally protected.<ref name="LaSelva1996k">{{cite book |first=Samuel Victor |last=LaSelva |title=The Moral Foundations of Canadian Federalism: Paradoxes, Achievements, and Tragedies of Nationhood |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rcqMl9MK_x0C&pg=PA86 |year=1996 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-1422-5 |page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Rand |last=Dyck |title=Canadian Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BUOoN8e5Ps0C&pg=PA88 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |isbn=978-0-17-650343-7 |page=88 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412160000/https://books.google.com/books?id=BUOoN8e5Ps0C&pg=PA88 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Newman2012">{{cite book |first=Stephen L. |last=Newman |title=Constitutional Politics in Canada and the United States |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ELWjuzADl7UC&pg=PA203 |date=2012 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-0-7914-8584-2 |page=203 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412151520/https://books.google.com/books?id=ELWjuzADl7UC&pg=PA203 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people.<ref name="GuoWong2015">{{cite book |first1=Shibao |last1=Guo |first2=Lloyd |last2=Wong |title=Revisiting Multiculturalism in Canada: Theories, Policies and Debates |url=https://books.google.com/?id=HW8iCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA317 |year=2015 |publisher=University of Calgary |isbn=978-94-6300-208-0 |page=317 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413033116/https://books.google.com/books?id=HW8iCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA317 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref> Multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments,<ref name="Sikka2014v">{{cite book |first=Sonia |last=Sikka |title=Multiculturalism and Religious Identity: Canada and India |url=https://books.google.com/?id=e4NLBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 |year=2014 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-9220-9 |page=237 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145209/https://books.google.com/books?id=e4NLBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.<ref name="JohnsonJoseph-Salisbury2018">{{cite book |first1=Azeezat |last1=Johnson |first2=Remi |last2=Joseph-Salisbury |first3=Beth |last3=Kamunge |title=The Fire Now: Anti-Racist Scholarship in Times of Explicit Racial Violence |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ib2rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT148 |date=2018 |publisher=Zed Books |isbn=978-1-78699-382-3 |page=148}}</ref><ref name="Caplow2001a">{{cite book |first=Theodore |last=Caplow |title=Leviathan Transformed: Seven National States in the New Century |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JRunB0w4G-EC&pg=PA146 |year=2001 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-2304-3 |page=146 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152627/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRunB0w4G-EC&pg=PA146 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and there is a [[Culture of Quebec|French Canadian culture]] that is distinct from English Canadian culture.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=NtvKidOH9pgC&pg=PA61 |page=61 |title=Political culture and constitutionalism: a comparative approach |first1=Daniel P |last1=Franklin |first2=Michael J |last2=Baun |publisher=Sharpe |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-56324-416-2 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152401/https://books.google.com/books?id=NtvKidOH9pgC&pg=PA61 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> However, as a whole, Canada is, in theory, a [[cultural mosaic]]—a collection of regional ethnic subcultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Garcea |first=Joseph |last2=Kirova |first2=Anna |last3=Wong |first3=Lloyd |title=Multiculturalism Discourses in Canada |journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies |date=January 2009 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1353/ces.0.0069}}</ref>

Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective [[economic migrant|immigration]], [[social integration]], and [[Suppression of dissent|suppression]] of far-right politics, has wide public support.<ref name="Ambrosea">{{Cite journal |title=Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right – Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=213–236 |doi=10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033 |year=2015 |first1=Emma |last1=Ambrosea |first2=Cas |last2=Muddea}}</ref> Government policies such as publicly-funded health care, [[Income taxes in Canada|higher taxation]] to [[Canadian federal budget|redistribute wealth]], the outlawing of [[Capital punishment in Canada|capital punishment]], strong efforts to eliminate [[poverty in Canada|poverty]], strict [[Gun politics in Canada|gun control]]; alongside legislation with a [[social liberal]] attitude toward [[Feminism in Canada|women's rights]] (like [[Abortion in Canada|pregnancy termination]]), [[LGBT rights in Canada|LGBTQ rights]], [[Euthanasia in Canada|assisted euthanasia]] and [[cannabis in Canada|cannabis use]] are indicators of Canada's political and [[Canadian values|cultural values]].<ref name="HollifieldMartin2014b">{{cite book |first1=James |last1=Hollifield |first2=Philip L. |last2=Martin |first3=Pia |last3=Orrenius |title=Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective, Third Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=oec_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |year=2014 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8735-2 |page=103}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Darrell |last1=Bricker |first2=John |last2=Wright |title=What Canadians think about almost everything |publisher=Doubleday Canada |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-385-65985-7 |pages=8–28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nanosresearch.com/sites/default/files/POLNAT-S15-T705.pdf |title=Exploring Canadian values |date=October 2016 |author=Nanos Research |accessdate=February 1, 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405113447/http://nanosresearch.com/sites/default/files/POLNAT-S15-T705.pdf |archivedate=April 5, 2017}}</ref> Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the [[National Parks of Canada|National park system]] and the ''Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms''.<ref name="polls">{{cite web |url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/research/por-multi-imm/sec02-1.asp |title=A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006–2009 |publisher=Government of Canada |year=2011 |accessdate=December 18, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222133226/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/research/por-multi-imm/sec02-1.asp |archivedate=December 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.queensu.ca/cora/_files/fc2010report.pdf |title=Focus Canada (Final Report) |publisher=Queen's University |department=The Environics Institute |year=2010 |page=4 (PDF page 8) |accessdate=December 12, 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204231952/http://www.queensu.ca/cora/_files/fc2010report.pdf |archivedate=February 4, 2016}}
</ref>

Historically, Canada has been influenced by [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British]], [[French culture|French]], and Indigenous cultures and traditions. Through their language, [[Native American art|art]] and [[First Nations music|music]], Indigenous peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA3 |pages=3–6 |title=Aboriginal peoples of Canada: a short introduction |first=Paul R |last=Magocsi |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8020-3630-8 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181938/https://books.google.com/books?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA3 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.<ref name="TetteyPuplampu2005">{{cite book |first1=Wisdom |last1=Tettey |first2=Korbla P. |last2=Puplampu |title=The African Diaspora in Canada: Negotiating Identity & Belonging |url=https://books.google.com/?id=QpoxptJZ73sC&pg=PA100 |year=2005 |publisher=University of Calgary |isbn=978-1-55238-175-5 |page=100 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412140508/https://books.google.com/books?id=QpoxptJZ73sC&pg=PA100 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> [[Canadian humour]] is an integral part of the Canadian identity and is reflected in its [[Canadian folklore|folklore]], literature, music, art, and media. The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony, parody, and satire.<ref name="Nieguth2015">{{cite book |first=Tim |last=Nieguth |title=The Politics of Popular Culture: Negotiating Power, Identity, and Place |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wMjMCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |year=2015 |publisher=MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-9685-6 |page=188 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182002/https://books.google.com/books?id=wMjMCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Many [[List of Canadian comedians|Canadian comedians]] have achieved international success in the American TV and film industries and are amongst the most recognized in the world.<ref name="LeeYork2016">{{cite book |first1=Katja |last1=Lee |first2=Lorraine |last2=York |title=Celebrity Cultures in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=8r0eDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT180 |year=2016 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-1-77112-224-5 |page=180 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=8r0eDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT180 |archivedate=March 20, 2018}}</ref>

Canada has a well-developed [[Media of Canada|media sector]], but its cultural output; particularly in [[Cinema of Canada|English films]], [[Television in Canada|television shows]], and [[List of Canadian magazines|magazines]], is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.<ref name="Vipond2011y">{{cite book |first=Mary |last=Vipond |title=The Mass Media in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-0eDs29g49YC&pg=PA57 |edition=4 |year=2011 |publisher=James Lorimer Company |isbn=978-1-55277-658-2 |page=57 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412162022/https://books.google.com/books?id=-0eDs29g49YC&pg=PA57 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the [[National Film Board of Canada]] (NFB), and the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC).<ref name="Edwardson2008c">{{cite book |first=Ryan |last=Edwardson |title=Canadian Content: Culture and the Quest for Nationhood |url=https://archive.org/details/canadiancontentc0000edwa |url-access=registration |year=2008 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-9519-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/canadiancontentc0000edwa/page/59 59] }}</ref>

===Symbols===
{{main|National symbols of Canada}}Canada's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Indigenous sources. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and [[Canadian Red Ensign|previous flags]], and on the [[Arms of Canada]].<ref name="symbol1" /> The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the [[royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom]] with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.<ref name="Gough2010g">{{cite book |first=Barry M. |last=Gough |title=Historical Dictionary of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z4xK6CasigkC&pg=PA71 |date=2010 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7504-3 |page=71 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181920/https://books.google.com/books?id=z4xK6CasigkC&pg=PA71 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Other prominent symbols include the national motto "{{lang|la|A Mari Usque Ad Mare|italics=on}}" ("From Sea to Sea"),<ref name="Nischik2008">{{cite book|first=Reingard M. |last= Nischik|title=History of Literature in Canada: English-Canadian and French-Canadian|url=https://books.google.com/?id=VYgTaGwa4nsC&pg=PA113|year=2008|publisher=Camden House|isbn=978-1-57113-359-5|pages=113–114}}</ref> the sports of [[ice hockey]] and [[lacrosse]], the [[beaver]], [[Canada goose]], [[common loon]], [[Canadian horse]], the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,<ref name="symbol1">{{cite book |author=Canadian Heritage |title=Symbols of andCanada |url=http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.693005/publication.html |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-660-18615-3 |publisher=Canadian Government Publishing}}</ref> and more recently the [[totem pole]] and [[Inuksuk]].<ref name="Nels">{{cite book |title=Sociology in Action, Canadian Edition, 2nd ed. |url=https://books.google.com/?id=R0hwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT92 |publisher=Nelson Education-McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0-17-672841-0 |page=92}}</ref> Material items such as [[Canadian beer]], [[maple syrup]], [[Knit cap#Canadian tuque|tuques]], [[canoes]], [[nanaimo bar]]s, [[butter tart]]s and the Quebec dish of [[poutine]] are defined as uniquely Canadian.<ref name="Nels" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Hutchins |first=Donna |last2=Hutchins |first2=Nigel |title=The Maple Leaf Forever: A Celebration of Canadian Symbols |publisher=The Boston Mills Press |year=2006 |location=Erin |isbn=978-1-55046-474-0 |page=iix intro}}</ref> Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the [[loonie|$1 coin]], the Arms of Canada on the [[50-cent piece (Canadian coin)|50¢ piece]], the beaver on the [[Nickel (Canadian coin)|nickel]].<ref name="Berman2008">{{cite book |first=Allen G |last=Berman |title=Warman's Coins And Paper Money: Identification and Price Guide |url=https://books.google.com/?id=LRFWcmAr68YC&pg=PA137 |year=2008 |publisher=Krause Publications |isbn=978-1-4402-1915-3 |page=137 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412160324/https://books.google.com/books?id=LRFWcmAr68YC&pg=PA137 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The [[penny (Canadian coin)|penny]], removed from circulation in 2013, featured the maple leaf.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mint.ca/store/mint/about-the-mint/phasing-out-the-penny-6900002 |title=Phasing out the penny |publisher=Royal Canadian Mint |year=2015 |accessdate=December 11, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212032210/http://www.mint.ca/store/mint/about-the-mint/phasing-out-the-penny-6900002 |archivedate=December 12, 2015}}</ref> The Queen' s image appears on $20 bank notes, and on the obverse of all current Canadian coins.<ref name="Berman2008" />

===Literature===
{{main|Canadian literature}}
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.<ref>{{cite book |first=W. J. |last=Keith |title=Canadian literature in English |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rGawhTGpGK0C&pg=PA19 |year=2006 |publisher=[[The Porcupine's Quill]] |isbn=978-0-88984-283-0 |page=19 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144827/https://books.google.com/books?id=rGawhTGpGK0C&pg=PA19 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> There are four major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature; nature, frontier life, Canada's position within the world, all three of which tie into the [[garrison mentality]].<ref>{{cite book |first=William H. |last=New |title=Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Mkh2vJ_9GpEC&pg=PA259 |year=2002 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-0761-2 |pages=259–261 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152115/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mkh2vJ_9GpEC&pg=PA259 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.<ref name="Dominic2010">{{cite book |first=K. V. |last=Dominic |title=Studies in Contemporary Canadian Literature |url=https://books.google.com/?id=spW-K5UiJVkC&pg=PT9 |year=2010 |publisher=Pinnacle Technology |isbn=978-1-61820-640-4 |page=9 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181844/https://books.google.com/books?id=spW-K5UiJVkC&pg=PT9 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada's ethnic and cultural diversity are reflected in its literature, with many of its most prominent modern writers focusing on ethnic life.<ref>{{cite book |first=K. V. |last=Dominic |authorlink=K. V. Dominic |title=Studies in Contemporary Canadian Literature |url=https://books.google.com/?id=spW-K5UiJVkC&pg=PT8 |year=2010 |publisher=Pinnacle Technology |isbn=978-1-61820-640-4 |page=8 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412153250/https://books.google.com/books?id=spW-K5UiJVkC&pg=PT8 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Arguably, the best-known living Canadian writer internationally (especially since the deaths of [[Robertson Davies]] and [[Mordecai Richler]]) is [[Margaret Atwood]], a prolific novelist, poet, and literary critic.<ref>{{cite book |first=Reingard M. |last=Nischik |title=Margaret Atwood: Works and Impact |url=https://books.google.com/?id=s_xIap0GDbwC&pg=PA46 |year=2000 |publisher=Camden House |isbn=978-1-57113-139-3 |page=46 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412133550/https://books.google.com/books?id=s_xIap0GDbwC&pg=PA46 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Numerous other [[List of Canadian writers|Canadian authors]] have accumulated international literary awards;<ref>{{cite book |first=William H. |last=New |title=Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Mkh2vJ_9GpEC&pg=PA55 |year=2012 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-0761-2 |page=55 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181819/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mkh2vJ_9GpEC&pg=PA55 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> including [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Laureate]] [[Alice Munro]], who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;<ref>{{cite book |title=Broadview Anthology of British Literature, The. Concise Edition, Volume B |url=https://books.google.com/?id=hJI_vgWiJiMC&pg=PA1459 |year=2006 |publisher=Broadview Press |page=1459 |id=GGKEY:1TFFGS4YFLT |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412141422/https://books.google.com/books?id=hJI_vgWiJiMC&pg=PA1459 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> and [[Booker Prize]] recipient [[Michael Ondaatje]], who is perhaps best known for the novel ''[[The English Patient]]'', which was adapted as a [[The English Patient (film)|film of the same name]] that won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Robert |last1=Giddings |first2=Erica |last2=Sheen |title=From Page To Screen: Adaptations of the Classic Novel |url=https://books.google.com/?id=9ZGUDrLW2yYC&pg=PA197 |year=2000 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-5231-6 |page=197 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413033226/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZGUDrLW2yYC&pg=PA197 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref>

===Visual arts===
{{main|Canadian art}}Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as Tom Thomson – the country's most famous painter – and by the [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Marylin J. |last=McKay |title=Picturing the Land: Narrating Territories in Canadian Landscape Art, 1500–1950 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BZWhNZwppdIC&pg=PA229 |year=2011 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-3817-7 |page=229 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144946/https://books.google.com/books?id=BZWhNZwppdIC&pg=PA229 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Thomson's career painting Canadian landscapes spanned a decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brock |first=Richard |title=Envoicing Silent Objects: Art and Literature at the Site of the Canadian Landscape |journal=Canadian Journal of Environmental Education |year=2008 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=50–61 |url=https://cjee.lakeheadu.ca/article/view/904 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913232415/https://cjee.lakeheadu.ca/article/view/904 |archivedate=September 13, 2017}}</ref> The Group of Seven were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—[[Lawren Harris]], [[A. Y. Jackson]], [[Arthur Lismer]], [[J. E. H. MacDonald]], and [[Frederick Varley]]—were responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by [[Frank Johnston (artist)|Frank Johnston]], and by commercial artist [[Franklin Carmichael]]. [[A. J. Casson]] became part of the Group in 1926.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hill |first=Charles C |title=The Group of Seven – Art for a Nation |publisher=National Gallery of Canada |year=1995 |pages=15–21, 195 |isbn=978-0-7710-6716-7}}</ref> Associated with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist, [[Emily Carr]], known for her landscapes and portrayals of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Newlands |first=Anne |title=Emily Carr |publisher=Firefly Books |year=1996 |pages=8–9 |isbn=978-1-55209-046-6}}</ref> Since the 1950s, works of [[Inuit art]] have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.<ref>{{cite book |first=Pamela R. |last=Stern |title=Daily life of the Inuit |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0y95_2m0pGUC&pg=PA151 |date=June 30, 2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-36311-5 |page=151 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182141/https://books.google.com/books?id=0y95_2m0pGUC&pg=PA151 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

===Music===
{{main|Music of Canada}}
The Canadian music industry is the sixth-largest in the world producing internationally renowned [[List of Canadian composers|composers]], [[List of Canadian musicians|musicians]] and [[List of bands from Canada|ensembles]].<ref name="HullHutchison2011a">{{cite book |first1=Geoffrey P. |last1=Hull |first2=Thomas William |last2=Hutchison |first3=Richard |last3=Strasser |title=The Music Business and Recording Industry: Delivering Music in the 21st Century |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BWUil8OuXS8C&pg=PA304 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0-415-87560-8 |page=304 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181543/https://books.google.com/books?id=BWUil8OuXS8C&pg=PA304 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.<ref name="AchesonMaule2009">{{cite book |first1=Archibald Lloyd Keith |last1=Acheson |first2=Christopher John |last2=Maule |title=Much Ado about Culture: North American Trade Disputes |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5gCzOUo6YhkC&pg=PA181 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-02241-0 |page=181 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152538/https://books.google.com/books?id=5gCzOUo6YhkC&pg=PA181 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The [[Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences]] presents Canada's music industry awards, the [[Juno Award]]s, which were first awarded in 1970.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/canadiancontentc0000edwa |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/canadiancontentc0000edwa/page/127 127] |title=Canadian content, culture and the quest for nationhood |first=Ryan |last=Edwardson |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8020-9759-0 }}</ref> The [[Canadian Music Hall of Fame]] established in 1976 honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.<ref name="Hoffmann2004">{{cite book |first=Frank |last=Hoffmann |title=Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-FOSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA324 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-94950-1 |page=324 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412134940/https://books.google.com/books?id=-FOSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA324 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> [[Anthems and nationalistic songs of Canada|Patriotic music in Canada]] dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the Canadian Confederation by over 50 years. The earliest, ''[[The Bold Canadian]]'', was written in 1812.<ref>{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Jortner |title=The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier |url=https://books.google.com/?id=l6whyXqA7BUC&pg=PA217 |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-976529-4 |page=217 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412134841/https://books.google.com/books?id=l6whyXqA7BUC&pg=PA217 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The national anthem of Canada, "O Canada", was originally commissioned by the [[Lieutenant Governor of Quebec]], the Honourable [[Théodore Robitaille]], for the 1880 [[Fête nationale du Québec|St. Jean-Baptiste Day]] ceremony, and was officially adopted in 1980.<ref>{{cite web |author1link=Helmut Kallmann |first1=Helmut |last1=Kallmann |first2=Gilles |last2=Potvin |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/o-canada |title=O Canada |publisher=Encyclopedia of Music in Canada |accessdate=November 27, 2013 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203021353/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/o-canada/ |archivedate=December 3, 2013}}</ref> [[Calixa Lavallée]] wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir [[Adolphe-Basile Routhier]]. The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hymne national du Canada |publisher=Canadian Heritage |date=June 23, 2008 |url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/anthem-fra.cfm |accessdate=June 26, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129084708/http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/anthem-fra.cfm |archivedate=January 29, 2009}}</ref>

===Sports===
{{main|Sports in Canada}}The [[History of Canadian sports|roots of organized sports in Canada]] date back to the 1770s,<ref>{{cite book |first=Henry |last=Roxborough |title=The Beginning of Organized Sport in Canada |location=Canada |year=1975 |pp=30–43}}</ref> culminating in the development and popularization of the major professional games of ice hockey, lacrosse, [[basketball]], [[baseball]] and [[football]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sports-history |title=Canadian Sports History|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=September 30, 2016}}</ref> Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Sports of Canada Act |publisher=Government of Canada |date=November 5, 2015 |url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/n-16.7/page-1.html |accessdate=November 23, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124142348/http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/n-16.7/page-1.html |archivedate=November 24, 2015}}</ref> [[Golf]], soccer, baseball, [[tennis]], [[skiing]], [[badminton]], [[volleyball]], [[cycling]], [[swimming (sport)|swimming]], [[bowling]], [[rugby union]], [[canoeing]], [[equestrianism|equestrian]], [[squash (sport)|squash]] and the study of [[martial arts]] are widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/pc-ch/CH24-1-2012-eng.pdf |title=Canadian sport participation – Most frequently played sports in Canada (2010) |newspaper=Publications.gc.ca |year=2013 |page=34 |author=Canadian Heritage |accessdate=January 27, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110193033/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/pc-ch/CH24-1-2012-eng.pdf |archivedate=January 10, 2017}}</ref>

Canada shares several [[Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada|major professional sports leagues]] with the United States.<ref name="ButenkoGil-Lafuente2010">{{cite book |first1=Sergiy |last1=Butenko |first2=Jaime |last2=Gil-Lafuente |first3=Panos M. |last3=Pardalos |title=Optimal Strategies in Sports Economics and Management |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Lh7tPTtYelUC&pg=PA42 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-642-13205-6 |pages=42–44 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lh7tPTtYelUC&pg=PA42 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the [[National Hockey League]], as well as three [[Soccer in Canada#Major League Soccer|Major League Soccer]] teams and one team in each of [[Major League Baseball]] and the [[National Basketball Association]]. Other popular professional sports in Canada include [[Canadian football]], which is played in the [[Canadian Football League]], [[National Lacrosse League]] lacrosse, and [[curling]].<ref name="MorrowWamsley2016">{{cite book |first1=Don |last1=Morrow |first2=Kevin B. |last2=Wamsley |title=Sport in Canada: A History |year=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-902157-4 |pages=xxI – intro}}</ref>

Canada has participated in almost every Olympic Games since [[Canada at the 1900 Summer Olympics|its Olympic debut in 1900]],<ref name="MallonHeijmans2011">{{cite book |first1=Bill |last1=Mallon |first2=Jeroen |last2=Heijmans |title=Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement |url=https://books.google.com/?id=9mM0XzW03AcC&pg=PA71 |year=2011 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7522-7 |page=71 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=9mM0XzW03AcC&pg=PA71 |archivedate=March 20, 2018}}</ref> and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the [[1976 Summer Olympics]],<ref name="Howell2009">{{cite book |first=Paul Charles |last=Howell |title=Montreal Olympics: An Insider's View of Organizing a Self-financing Games |url=https://books.google.com/?id=E2mTzjIKkNcC&pg=PA3 |year=2009 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-7656-8 |page=3 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=E2mTzjIKkNcC&pg=PA3 |archivedate=March 20, 2018}}</ref> the [[1988 Winter Olympics]],<ref name="HorneWhannel2016">{{cite book |first1=John |last1=Horne |first2=Garry |last2=Whannel |title=Understanding the Olympics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=UQozDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT157 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49519-2 |page=157 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920174329/https://books.google.com/books?id=UQozDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT157 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> the [[1994 Basketball World Championship]],<ref name="Blevins2012">{{cite book |first=David |last=Blevins |title=The Sports Hall of Fame Encyclopedia: Baseball, Basketball, Football, Hockey, Soccer |url=https://books.google.com/?id=aB8sCV5nVaoC&pg=PA1222 |year=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8108-6130-5 |page=1222 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160627220327/https://books.google.com/books?id=aB8sCV5nVaoC |archivedate=June 27, 2016}}</ref> the [[2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup]],<ref name="ParentChappelet2015">{{cite book |first1=Milena M. |last1=Parent |first2=Jean-Loup |last2=Chappelet |title=Routledge Handbook of Sports Event Management |url=https://books.google.com/?id=9mLABgAAQBAJ&pg=PT464 |date=February 20, 2015 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-135-10437-5 |page=464}}</ref> the 2010 Winter Olympics<ref name="Development2006">{{cite book |author=United States Senate Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism and Economic Development |title=The economic impact of the 2010 Vancouver, Canada, Winter Olympics on Oregon and the Pacific Northwest: hearing before the Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism, and Economic Development of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, first session, August 5, 2005 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=l4XN6eyYqiUC |date=January 2006 |publisher=U.S. G.P.O.}}</ref><ref name="Fromm2006">{{cite book |first=Zuzana |last=Fromm |title=Economic Issues of Vancouver-Whistler 2010 Olympics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=kXYgkSsrnaMC |year=2006 |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-197843-0}}</ref> and the [[2015 FIFA Women's World Cup]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Temporary Importations Using the FIFA Women?s World Cup Canada 2015 Remission Order |url=https://books.google.com/?id=QY2lnQAACAAJ |year=2015 |publisher=Canada Border Services Agency}}</ref> Most recently, Canada staged the [[2015 Pan American Games]] and [[2015 Parapan American Games]], the former being the largest sporting event hosted by the country.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Peterson |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-debate/why-toronto-should-get-excited-about-the-pan-am-games/article19543736/ |title=Why Toronto should get excited about the Pan Am Games |work=The Globe and Mail |date=July 10, 2014}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal-inline|Canada}}
* [[Index of Canada-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Canada]]
* [[Banking in Canada]]
* [[Debanking in Canada]]
* [[Debanking]]
* [[Canadian housing affordability crisis]]
* [[Healthcare in Canada]]
* [[Medical assistance in dying in Canada]]
* [[Taxation in Canada]]
* [[Property rights in Canada]]
* [[Immigration to Canada]]
* [[List of Canada-related topics by provinces and territories|Topics by provinces and territories]]{{-}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{main|Bibliography of Canada|Bibliography of Canadian history}}
{{refbegin}}
{| style="width:100%;"
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|width=47%|
'''Overview'''
*{{cite book |first=James H. |last=Marsh |title=The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wR_-aSFyvuYC&pg=PP1 |year=1999 |publisher=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |isbn=978-0-7710-2099-5}}
'''History'''
* {{cite book |first=J. M. S. |last=Careless |title=Canada: A Story of Challenge |url=https://books.google.com/?id=mARx1-EGwR0C&pg=PR1 |edition=revised |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-67581-0}}
* {{cite book |title=Journeys: A History of Canada |first1=RD |last1=Francis |first2=Richard |last2=Jones |first3=Donald B |last3=Smith |publisher=Nelson Education |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-17-644244-6 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&pg=PP1}}
* {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Martin Brook |first2=Doug |last2=Owram |year=1994 |title=Canadian History |volume=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FamJrJEvymIC&pg=PP1 1] & [https://books.google.com/books?id=HKmAjZJCJFoC&pg=PP1 2] |publisher=University of Toronto Press}} {{ISBN|978-0-8020-5016-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8020-2801-3}}
'''Geography and climate'''
* {{cite book |first=Thomas A. |last=Rumney |title=Canadian Geography: A Scholarly Bibliography |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-qN8rBPg-8IC&pg=PP1 |year=2009 |publisher=[[State University of New York at Plattsburgh|Plattsburgh State University]] |isbn=978-0-8108-6718-5}}
* {{cite book |title=Canadian Oxford World Atlas |editor=Stanford, Quentin H |edition=6th |publisher=Oxford University Press (Canada) |isbn=978-0-19-542928-2 |year=2008}}
'''Government and law'''
* {{cite book |first=Joseph W. |last=Jacob |title=Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms: Democracy for the People and for Each Person |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rIbBxDxmUHwC&pg=PP1 |year=2007 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=978-1-4269-8016-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Malcolmson |first=Patrick |edition=4th |first2=Richard |last2=Myers |year=2009 |title=The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-jpXFH_ZhY8C&pg=PP1 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0047-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Morton |first=Frederick Lee |year=2002 |title=Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PP1 |publisher=Frederick Lee |isbn=978-1-55238-046-8}}
'''Social welfare'''
* {{cite book |first=Alvin |last=Finkel |title=Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/socialpolicyprac0000fink |url-access=registration |date=2006 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-88920-475-1}}
* {{cite book |first=Valerie D. |last=Thompson |title=Health and Health Care Delivery in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rd51BwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |year=2015 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-1-927406-31-1}}
* {{cite book |first1=Sara Z. |last1=Burke |first2=Patrice |last2=Milewski |title=Schooling in Transition: Readings in Canadian History of Education |url=https://books.google.com/?id=apjYaExaI-QC&pg=PP1 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-9577-0}}
|width=2%|
|width=47%|
'''Foreign relations and military'''
* {{cite book |first1=Patrick |last1=James |first2=Nelson |last2=Michaud |first3=Marc J. |last3=O'Reilly |title=Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wGf_QsLu0DIC&pg=PP1 |year=2006 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-1493-3}}
* {{cite book |first=John |last=Conrad |title=Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at Canadian Peacekeeping |url=https://books.google.com/?id=G8ypARC5JJkC&pg=PP1 |year=2011 |publisher=Dundurn |isbn=978-1-55488-981-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Granatstein |first=J. L. |title=Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z7E-j1UWuOMC&pg=PP1 |year=2011 |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-1178-8}}
'''Economy'''
* {{cite book |first1=W.T. |last1=Easterbrook |first2=Hugh G. J. |last2=Aitken |title=Canadian Economic History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wQGNBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |year=2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division |isbn=978-1-4426-5814-1}}
* {{cite book |publisher=OECD Economic Surveys |year=2018 |title=Economic Survey of Canada 2018 |url=http://www.oecd.org/eco/economic-survey-canada.htm}} – ([http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/oecd-economic-surveys-canada_19990081 Previous surveys])
*{{cite book |first1=Edward |last1=Jones-Imhotep |first2=Tina |last2=Adcock |title=Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=o4x8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |year=2018 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-3726-2}}
'''Demography and statistics'''
* {{cite book |author=Statistics Canada |title=Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967 |publisher=Federal Publications (Queen of Canada) |year=2008 |url=https://www5.statcan.gc.ca/bsolc/olc-cel/olc-cel?catno=11-402-X&chropg=1&lang=eng}}
* {{cite book |first1=David |last1=Carment |first2=David |last2=Bercuson |title=The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VNYqAxXOxNIC&pg=PP1 |year=2008 |publisher=MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-7854-8}}
* {{cite journal |author=Statistics Canada |title=Canada Year Book |journal=Canada Yearbook |publisher=Federal Publications (Queen of Canada) |date=December 2012 |id=Catalogue no 11-402-XWE |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/11-402-x2012000-eng.htm |issn=0068-8142}}
'''Culture'''
* {{cite book |authorlink=Andrew Cohen (journalist) |first=Andrew |last=Cohen |title=The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are |url=https://archive.org/details/unfinishedcanadi00andr |url-access=registration |year=2007 |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |isbn=978-0-7710-2181-7}}
* {{cite book |first=Paul R |last=Magocsi |title=Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples |publisher=Society of Ontario, University of Toronto Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8020-2938-6 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC}}
* {{cite book |first=Jonathan F. |last=Vance |title=A History of Canadian Culture |url=https://books.google.com/?id=TOR9SwAACAAJ |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-544422-3}}
|}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-Canada.ogg|2008-01-04}}
{{Sister project links|collapsible=collapsed|voy=Canada|Canada}}
'''Overviews'''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090204012447/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/canada.htm Canada] from [[University of Colorado Boulder|UCB]] Libraries GovPubs
* {{curlie|Regional/North_America/Canada}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html Canada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430234227/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html |date=April 30, 2019 }} from the CIA's ''The World Factbook''
* [http://www.oecd.org/canada/ Canada profile] from the OECD
* [http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/canadiana/index-e.html Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada] from [[Library and Archives Canada]]
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=CA Key Development Forecasts for Canada] from [[International Futures]]

'''Government'''
* [http://www.gc.ca/ Official website of the Government of Canada]
* [http://www.gg.ca/ Official website of the Governor General of Canada]
* [http://pm.gc.ca/eng Official website of the Prime Ministers of Canada]

'''Travel'''
* [http://travel.gc.ca/ Canada's official website for travel and tourism]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130426213630/http://us.canada.travel/ Official website of Destination Canada]

'''Studies'''
* [http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/international-journal-canadian-studies.php A Guide to the Sources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822004757/http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/international-journal-canadian-studies.php |date=August 22, 2016 }} from [[International Council for Canadian Studies]]

{{Anchor|Related information}}
{{Canada topics}}
{{Navboxes
|title=Related topics
|list1={{Countries of North America}}
{{The Commonwealth}}}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:1867 establishments in Canada| ]]
[[Category:Countries in North America]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:Federal monarchies]]
[[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:G20 nations]]
[[Category:G7 nations]]
[[Category:Group of Eight nations]]
[[Category:Member states of NATO]]
[[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1867]]

Canada

2026-07-06T04:25:09Z

MapleSource:

{{short description|Country in North America}}
{{about|the country}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=July 2015}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Coord|60|N|110|W|display=title}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Canada
| image_flag = Flag of Canada (Pantone).svg
| alt_flag = A vertical triband design (red, white, red) with a red maple leaf in the center.
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Canada.svg
| alt_coat = At the top there is a rendition of St. Edward's Crown, with the crest of a crowned gold lion standing on a twisted wreath of red and white silk and holding a maple leaf in its right paw underneath. The lion is standing on top of a helm, which is above the escutcheon, ribbon, motto and compartment. There is a supporter of either side of the escutcheon and ribbon; an English lion on the left and a Scottish unicorn on the right.
| national_motto = {{native phrase|la|[[A Mari Usque Ad Mare]]|italics=on|parensize=100%}}<br />"From Sea to Sea"
| national_anthem = <br>National: "[[O Canada]]"<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:"O Canada", performed by the United States Third Marine Aircraft Wing Band.oga]]}}</div><br> Royal: [[God Save the King]] <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/royal-symbols-titles/royal-anthem.html|title=Royal Anthem|first=Canadian|last=Heritage|date=August 11, 2017|website=aem|quote= [https://web.archive.org/web/20111010193142/http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0002533 'O Canada' and 'God Save the Queen'/'Dieu sauve la Reine' were approved by Parliament in 1967 as Canada's national and royal anthems. However, legislation to this effect was passed only in 1980, and applied only to 'O Canada.']}}</ref><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:United States Navy Band - God Save the King.ogg]]}}</div>
| image_map = CAN orthographic.svg
| map_width = 220px
| alt_map = A projection of North America with Canada highlighted in green
| capital = [[Ottawa]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|45|24|N|75|40|W|type:city}}
| largest_city = [[Toronto]]
| official_languages = {{hlist|[[Canadian English|English]]|[[Canadian French|French]]}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2016
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="autogenerated1">{{Cite web |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=110528&PRID=10&PTYPE=109445&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2017&THEME=120&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |title=2016 Census of Population—Ethnic Origin. |publisher=Statistics Canada, Catalog no. 98-400-X2016187 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026161129/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=110528&PRID=10&PTYPE=109445&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2017&THEME=120&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |archivedate=October 26, 2017 |date=October 25, 2017}}</ref>
| ethnic_groups = {{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;font-size:100%;
| title = List of ethnicities| 72.9% [[European Canadians|European]] | 17.7% [[Asian Canadians|Asian]] | 4.9% [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous]] | 3.1% [[Black Canadian|African]] | 1.3% [[Latin American Canadians|Latin American]] | 0.2% [[Oceania]]n}}
| religion_year = 2011
| religion_ref = <ref name="statcan1">{{cite web |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/130508/dq130508b-eng.htm |title=2011 National Household Survey |publisher=Statistics Canada |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515212448/http://statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/130508/dq130508b-eng.htm |archivedate=May 15, 2013 |date=May 8, 2013}}</ref>
| religion = {{Collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;font-size:100%;
|title = List of religions|67.2% [[Christianity in Canada|Christianity]] |23.9% [[Irreligion in Canada|No affiliation]]|3.2% [[Islam in Canada|Islam]]|1.5% [[Hinduism in Canada|Hinduism]] |1.4% [[Sikhism in Canada|Sikhism]] |1.1% [[Buddhism in Canada|Buddhism]] |1.0% [[History of the Jews in Canada|Judaism]] |0.6% [[Religion in Canada#Other religions|Other]]}}
| demonym = [[Canadians|Canadian]]
| government_type = {{nowrap|[[Federalism|Federal]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]]<br />[[constitutional monarchy]]<ref name="DowdingDumont2014">{{cite book |first1=Keith |last1=Dowding |first2=Patrick |last2=Dumont |title=The Selection of Ministers around the World |url=https://books.google.com/?id=AClHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT395 |year=2014 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-63444-7 |page=395}}</ref>}}
| leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of Canada|Monarch]]
| leader_name1 = {{Canadian monarch, current|nameonly=~}}
| leader_title2 = {{nowrap|[[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]}}
| leader_name2 = [[Louise Arbour]]
| leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name3 = [[Mark Carney]]
| legislature = [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]]
| upper_house = [[Senate of Canada|Senate]]
| lower_house = [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Canada#Canada under British rule (1763–1931)|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note = from the United Kingdom
| established_event1 = [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]]
| established_date1 = July 1, 1867
| established_event2 = [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]
| established_date2 = December 11, 1931
| established_event3 = Patriation
| established_date3 = April 17, 1982
| area_km2 = 9,984,670
| area_label = Total area
| area_rank = 2nd
| area_sq_mi = 3,854,085
| percent_water = 8.92
| area_label2 = Total land area
| area_data2 = {{convert|9093507|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| population_estimate = 41,472,081<ref name="StatCan2026Q4Pop">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/260318/dq260318b-eng.htm |title=Canada's population estimates, fourth quarter 2025 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] |date=March 18, 2026 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>
| population_census = 35,151,728<ref>{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |title=Population size and growth in Canada: Key results from the 2016 Census |date=February 8, 2017 |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/170208/dq170208a-eng.htm |accessdate=February 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210133245/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/170208/dq170208a-eng.htm |archivedate=February 10, 2017}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = January 1, 2026
| population_census_year = 2016
| population_estimate_rank = 38th
| population_density_km2 = 3.92
| population_density_sq_mi = 10.15
| population_density_rank = 228th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$1.971 trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEOCA">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2020&ey=2024&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=50&pr1.y=16&c=156&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a= |title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=March 30, 2020}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2020
| GDP_PPP_rank = 16th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $52,144<ref name="IMFWEOCA" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 21st
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} {{nowrap|$1.812{{nbsp}}trillion}}<ref name="IMFWEOCA" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2020
| GDP_nominal_rank = 10th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $47,931<ref name="IMFWEOCA" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 17th
| Gini = 31.0 
| Gini_year = 2017
| Gini_change = increase
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/chart/5OdN |title=Income inequality |publisher=[[OECD]] |website=data.oecd.org |accessdate=January 10, 2020}}</ref>
| HDI = 0.922 
| HDI_year = 2018
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/2019-human-development-index-ranking|title=Human Development Report 2019|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=December 10, 2019|accessdate=December 10, 2019|format=PDF}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 13th
| currency = [[Canadian dollar]] ($)
| currency_code = CAD
| utc_offset = −3.5 to −8
| utc_offset_DST = −2.5 to −7
| date_format = {{abbr|yyyy|year}}-{{abbr|mm|month}}-{{abbr|dd|day}} ([[Anno Domini|AD]])<ref>The [[Government of Canada]] and [[Standards Council of Canada]] prescribe [[ISO 8601]] as the country's official all-numeric date format: {{cite book |last1=Translation Bureau |first1=[[Public Works and Government Services Canada]] |title=The Canadian style: A guide to writing and editing |date=1997 |publisher=Dundurn Press |location=Toronto |isbn=978-1-55002-276-6 |edition=Rev. |chapter=5.14: Dates |page=[https://archive.org/details/canadianstylegui0000unse/page/97 97] |chapterurl=http://www.btb.termiumplus.gc.ca/tcdnstyl-chap?lang=eng&lettr=chapsect5&info0=5.14 |url=https://archive.org/details/canadianstylegui0000unse/page/97}} The {{abbr|dd|day}}/{{abbr|mm|month}}/{{abbr|yy|year}} and {{abbr|mm|month}}/{{abbr|dd|day}}/{{abbr|yy|year}} formats also remain in common use; see [[Date and time notation in Canada]].</ref>
| drives_on = right
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Canada|+1]]
| cctld = [[.ca]]
}}

'''Canada''' is a country in the northern part of [[North America]]. Its [[Provinces and territories of Canada|ten provinces and three territories]] extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering {{convert|9.98|e6km2|e6sqmi|2|abbr=off}}, making it the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|second-largest country by total area]]. Its southern and western [[Canada–United States border|border with the United States]], stretching {{convert|8891|km|mi}}, is the world's longest bi-national land border. Canada's capital is Ottawa, and its three [[List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada|largest metropolitan areas]] are Toronto, [[Montreal]], and [[Vancouver]].

Various indigenous peoples inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years before European colonization. Beginning in the 16th century, [[British colonization of the Americas|British]] and [[French colonization of the Americas|French]] expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of [[Military history of Canada|various armed conflicts]], France ceded nearly all of [[New France|its colonies in North America]] in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three [[British North America]]n colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a [[federalism|federal]] [[British Dominions|dominion]] of four provinces. This began an [[Territorial evolution of Canada|accretion of provinces and territories]] and a process of increasing autonomy from the [[United Kingdom]]. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the ''Statute of Westminster'' of 1931 and culminated in the ''[[Canada Act 1982|Canada Act]]'' of 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the [[British parliament]].

Canada is a [[parliamentary democracy]] and a constitutional monarchy in the [[Westminster system|Westminster tradition]], with a monarch and a prime minister who serves as the chair of the [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] and head of government. The country is a [[Commonwealth realm|realm]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], a member of the [[Organisation internationale de la Francophonie|Francophonie]] and [[Official bilingualism in Canada|officially bilingual]] at the federal level. It [[International rankings of Canada|ranks among the highest]] in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, [[economic freedom]], and education. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and [[Multiculturalism in Canada|multicultural]] nations, the product of [[Immigration to Canada|large-scale immigration]] from many other countries. Canada's [[Canada–United States relations|long and complex relationship]] with the United States has had a significant impact on its [[Economy of Canada|economy]] and [[Culture of Canada|culture]].

A [[developed country]], Canada has the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|seventeenth-highest nominal per-capita income globally]] as well as the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|thirteenth-highest]] ranking in the [[Human Development Index]]. Its advanced economy is the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|tenth-largest in the world]], relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the [[United Nations]], [[NATO]], the [[Group of Seven|G7]], the [[Group of Ten (economics)|Group of Ten]], the [[G20]], the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] and the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] forum.

==Etymology==

{{Main|Name of Canada}}
While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of ''Canada'', the name is now accepted as coming from the [[St. Lawrence Iroquoians|St. Lawrence Iroquoian]] word ''kanata'', meaning "village" or "settlement".<ref>{{cite book |first1=James Stuart |last1=Olson |first2=Robert |last2=Shadle |title=Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=uyqepNdgUWkC&pg=PA109 |year=1991 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-313-26257-9 |page=109 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412143614/https://books.google.com/books?id=uyqepNdgUWkC&pg=PA109 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day [[Quebec City]] region used the word to direct French explorer [[Jacques Cartier]] to the village of [[Stadacona]].<ref name="Rayburn2001">{{cite book |first=Alan |last=Rayburn |title=Naming Canada: Stories about Canadian Place Names |url=https://books.google.com/?id=aiUZMOypNB4C&pg=PA14 |year=2001 |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |isbn=978-0-8020-8293-0 |pages=14–22 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181901/https://books.google.com/books?id=aiUZMOypNB4C&pg=PA14 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Cartier later used the word ''Canada'' to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to [[Donnacona]] (the chief at Stadacona);<ref name="Rayburn2001" /> by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the [[Saint Lawrence River]] as ''Canada''.<ref name="Rayburn2001" />

From the 16th to the early 18th century "[[Canada (New France)|Canada]]" referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul R. |last=Magocsi |title=Encyclopedia of Canada's Peoples |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&pg=PA1048 |year=1999 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-2938-6 |page=1048 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412134750/https://books.google.com/books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&pg=PA1048 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> In 1791, the area became two British colonies called [[Upper Canada]] and [[Lower Canada]] collectively named [[the Canadas]]; until their union as the British [[Province of Canada]] in 1841.<ref>{{citation |author=Victoria |title=An Act to Re-write the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and for the Government of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BCQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA20 |year=1841 |publisher=J.C. Fisher & W. Kimble |page=20 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412155952/https://books.google.com/books?id=BCQtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA20 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Upon Confederation in 1867, ''Canada'' was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference, and the word ''[[Dominion]]'' was conferred as the country's title.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Toole |first=Roger |title=Holy nations and global identities: civil religion, nationalism, and globalisation |year=2009 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-17828-1 |editor=Hvithamar, Annika |editor2=Warburg, Margit |editor3=Jacobsen, Brian Arly |page=137 |chapter=Dominion of the Gods: Religious continuity and change in a Canadian context}}</ref> By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth".<ref name="Morra2016">{{cite book |first=Irene |last=Morra |title=The New Elizabethan Age: Culture, Society and National Identity after World War II |url=https://books.google.com/?id=enJ1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT49 |year=2016 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-0-85772-867-8 |page=49}}</ref> The government of [[Louis St. Laurent]] ended the practice of using ''Dominion'' in the statutes of Canada in 1951.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lipad.ca/full/permalink/1661272/ |title=November 8, 1951 (21st Parliament, 5th Session) |accessdate=April 9, 2019}}</ref><ref>Bowden, J.W.J.. (2015). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319533946_'Dominion'_A_Lament Dominion': A Lament]. The Dorchester Review 5, no. 2: pp.58-64.</ref>

In 1982, the passage of the ''Canada Act'', bringing the Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to ''Canada'', while later that year the name of the national holiday was [[Canada Day#History|changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day]].<ref name="buckner">{{cite book |title=Canada and the British Empire |editor=Buckner, Philip |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2008 |pages=37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125 |isbn=978-0-19-927164-1}}</ref> The term ''Dominion'' was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the [[Military history of Canada during World War II|Second World War]] the term ''federal'' had replaced ''dominion''.<ref>{{cite book |first1=John |last1=Courtney |first2=David |last2=Smith |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA114 |year=2010 |publisher=Oxford Handbooks Online |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |page=114 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181713/https://books.google.com/books?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA114 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Canada}}
{{See also|Timeline of Canadian history|List of years in Canada}}
{{Further|Historiography of Canada}}

===Indigenous peoples===
[[File:Langs N.Amer.svg|upright=1.5|thumb|alt=Colour-coded map of North America showing the distribution of North American language families north of Mexico|[[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Linguistic areas of North American Indigenous peoples]] at the time of European contact]]
Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the [[First Nations]], [[Inuit]], and [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]],<ref name="GraberKuprecht2012">{{cite book |first1=Christoph Beat |last1=Graber |first2=Karolina |last2=Kuprecht |first3=Jessica C. |last3=Lai |title=International Trade in Indigenous Cultural Heritage: Legal and Policy Issues |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5dv2d57n52MC&pg=PA366 |year=2012 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-0-85793-831-2 |page=366 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181512/https://books.google.com/books?id=5dv2d57n52MC&pg=PA366 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> the last being a [[mixed-blood]] people who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European settlers.<ref name="GraberKuprecht2012" /> The term "Aboriginal" as a [[collective noun]] is a specific [[term of art]] used in some legal documents, including the ''[[Constitution Act 1982]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Native American, First Nations or Aboriginal? {{!}} Druide |url=https://www.druide.com/en/reports/native-american-first-nations-or-aboriginal|website=www.druide.com|accessdate=May 19, 2017 |url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005114/https://www.druide.com/en/reports/native-american-first-nations-or-aboriginal|archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref>

The [[Prehistoric migration and settlement of the Americas from Asia|first inhabitants of North America]] are generally hypothesized to have migrated from [[Siberia]] by way of the [[Beringia|Bering land bridge]] and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas D. |last=Dillehay |title=The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory |url=https://books.google.com/?id=aM0CRBQ9kFcC&pg=PA61 |year=2008 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-7867-2543-4 |page=61 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413032756/https://books.google.com/books?id=aM0CRBQ9kFcC&pg=PA61 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref><ref name="FaganDurrani2016">{{cite book |first1=Brian M. |last1=Fagan |first2=Nadia |last2=Durrani |title=World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/?id=fMneCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34244-1 |page=124}}</ref> The [[Paleo-Indian]] archeological sites at [[Old Crow Flats]] and [[Bluefish Caves]] are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.<ref name="Rawat2012">{{cite book |first=Rajiv |last=Rawat |title=Circumpolar Health Atlas |url=https://books.google.com/?id=AwlYiuPAX-UC&pg=PT58 |year=2012 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-4456-4 |page=58 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330132512/https://books.google.com/books?id=AwlYiuPAX-UC&pg=PT58 |archivedate=March 30, 2017}}</ref> The [[Technological and industrial history of Canada#The Stone Age: Fire (14,000 BC – AD 1600)|characteristics of Canadian Indigenous societies]] included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Derek |title=Canada: an illustrated history |year=2008 |publisher=Douglas & Mcintyre |isbn=978-1-55365-259-5 |pages=7, 13}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=quM1xyFyfhQC&pg=PA170 |title=Indigenous difference and the Constitution of Canada |first=Patrick |last=Macklem |year=2001 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |page=170 |isbn=978-0-8020-4195-1 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412153342/https://books.google.com/books?id=quM1xyFyfhQC&pg=PA170 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sonneborn |first=Liz |title=Chronology of American Indian History |date=January 2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-6770-1 |pages=2–12}}</ref>

The [[Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous population]] at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000<ref name="dying">{{cite book |last=Wilson |first=Donna M |last2=Northcott |first2=Herbert C |url=https://books.google.com/?id=p_pMVs53mzQC&pg=PA25 |title=Dying and Death in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55111-873-4 |pages=25–27 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144745/https://books.google.com/books?id=p_pMVs53mzQC&pg=PA25 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> and two million,<ref name="Steckel">{{cite book |last=Thornton |first=Russell |title=A population history of North America |editor=Haines, Michael R |editor2=Steckel, Richard Hall |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2000 |pages=13, 380 |chapter=Population history of Native North Americans |isbn=978-0-521-49666-7}}</ref> with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's [[Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples]].<ref>{{cite book |series=Handbook of North American Indians |title=Indians in Contemporary Society |volume=2 |editor1-last=Bailey |editor1-first=Garrick Alan |chapter=Native Populations of Canada |last=O'Donnell |first=C. Vivian |year=2008 |publisher=Government Printing Office |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA285 |page=285 |isbn=978-0-16-080388-8}}</ref> As a consequence of European colonization, the population of Canada's Indigenous peoples declined by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the [[Beothuk]], disappeared.<ref name="Marshall1998">{{cite book |first=Ingeborg |last=Marshall |title=A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA442 |year=1998 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-1774-5 |page=442 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/https://books.google.com/books?id=ckOav3Szu7oC&pg=PA442 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> The decline is attributed to several causes, including the [[Columbian Exchange|transfer of European diseases]], such as [[influenza]], [[measles]], and [[smallpox]] to which they had no natural immunity,<ref name="dying" /><ref>{{cite book |last=True Peters |first=Stephanie |title=Smallpox in the New World |url=https://books.google.com/?id=v0zEiM_hijsC&pg=PA39 |year=2005 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-1637-1 |page=39 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145733/https://books.google.com/books?id=v0zEiM_hijsC&pg=PA39 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.<ref name="LaidlawLester2015">{{cite book |first1=Z. |last1=Laidlaw |first2=Alan |last2=Lester |title=Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Loss and Survival in an Interconnected World |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ec-_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT150 |year=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-137-45236-8 |page=150 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ec-_BwAAQBAJ&pg=PT150 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Arthur J. |last=Ray |title=I Have Lived Here Since The World Began |page=[https://archive.org/details/ihavelivedheresi0000raya/page/244 244] |isbn=978-1-55263-633-6 |publisher=Key Porter Books |year=2005 |url=https://archive.org/details/ihavelivedheresi0000raya/page/244 }}</ref>

Although not without conflict, [[Euro-Canadian|European Canadians]]' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.<ref>{{cite book |last=Preston |first=David L. |title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |year=2009 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7 |pages=43–44 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112102431/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |archivedate=January 12, 2016}}</ref> First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of [[Former colonies and territories in Canada|European colonies in Canada]], particularly for their role in assisting European [[coureur des bois]] and [[voyageurs]] in the exploration of the continent during the [[North American fur trade]].<ref name="Miller2009j">{{cite book |first=J.R. |last=Miller |title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-9227-5 |page=34 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102075453/http://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |archivedate=January 2, 2014}}</ref> [[The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples|The Crown and Indigenous peoples]] began [[Timeline of colonization of North America|interactions]] during the European colonization period, though the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with European settlers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/innu_culture.html |work=Innu Culture |title=3. Innu-Inuit 'Warfare' |year=1999 |last=Tanner |first=Adrian |publisher=Department of Anthropology, Memorial University of Newfoundland |accessdate=March 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230222741/http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/innu_culture.html |archivedate=December 30, 2014}}</ref> However, from the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged Indigenous peoples to assimilate into their own culture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Asch |first=Michael |title=Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference |url=https://books.google.com/?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&pg=PA28 |year=1997 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-0581-0 |page=28 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112102431/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&pg=PA28 |archivedate=January 12, 2016}}</ref> These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with [[Canadian Indian residential school system|forced integration]] and [[High Arctic relocation|relocations]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kirmayer |first1=Laurence J. |last2=Guthrie |first2=Gail Valaskakis |title=Healing Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=AXYDxvx3zSAC&pg=PA9 |year=2009 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-5863-2 |page=9 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112102431/https://books.google.com/books?id=AXYDxvx3zSAC&pg=PA9 |archivedate=January 12, 2016}}</ref> A period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada]] by the Government of Canada in 2008.<ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf |title=Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action |newspaper=Trc.ca |year=2015 |publisher=National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation |page=5 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615202024/http://www.trc.ca/websites/trcinstitution/File/2015/Findings/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf |archivedate=June 15, 2015 |access-date=July 9, 2016}}
</ref>

===European colonization===
The first European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer [[Leif Erikson]] (c.970–1020 AD).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Little |first1=Becky |title=Why Do We Celebrate Columbus Day and Not Leif Erikson Day? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/10/151011-columbus-day-leif-erikson-italian-americans-holiday-history/ |website=National Geographic |accessdate=May 28, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Wallace |first1=Birgitta |title=Leif Eriksson |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/leif-ericsson |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |accessdate=May 29, 2020}}</ref> The earliest European mention of Canada may occur in [[Vinland sagas|Norse sagas]], which refer to new lands west of [[Greenland]] as [[Vinland]].<ref name="JohansenPritzker2007p727">{{cite book|author1=Bruce E. Johansen|author2=Barry M. Pritzker|title=Encyclopedia of American Indian History [4 volumes]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGKL6E9_J6IC&pg=PA727|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-818-7|pages=727–728}}</ref> In approximately 1000 AD, the [[Vikings|Norse]] built a small encampment that only lasted a few years at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] on the northern tip of [[Newfoundland]].<ref name="CordellLightfoot2008">{{cite encyclopedia |first1=Linda S. |last1=Cordell |first2=Kent |last2=Lightfoot |first3=Francis |last3=McManamon |first4=George |last4=Milner |title=L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site |encyclopedia=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA82 |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-02189-3 |page=82}}</ref> No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer [[John Cabot]] explored and claimed Canada's [[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic coast]] in the name of King [[Henry VII of England]].<ref name="BlakeKeshen2017p19">{{cite book |first1=Raymond B. |last1=Blake |first2=Jeffrey |last2=Keshen |first3=Norman J. |last3=Knowles |first4=Barbara J. |last4=Messamore |title=Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z4kwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 |year=2017 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-3553-1 |page=19}}</ref> In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] where, on July 24, he planted a {{convert|10|m|ft|adj=on}} cross bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the territory New France in the name of [[Francis I of France|King Francis I]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cartier |first1=Jacques |last2=Biggar |first2=Henry Percival |last3=Cook |first3=Ramsay |title=The Voyages of Jacques Cartier |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagesofjacques0000cart |url-access=registration |year=1993 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-6000-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/voyagesofjacques0000cart/page/n79 26] }}</ref> The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the [[Basque people|Basque]] and [[Portuguese discoveries|Portuguese]] establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.<ref name="Kerr1987n">{{cite book |first=Donald Peter |last=Kerr |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: From the beginning to 1800 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=itsTLSnw8qgC&pg=PA47 |year=1987 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-2495-4 |page=47}}</ref> In general, early settlements during [[the Age of Discovery]] appear to have been [[Population of Canada#Ephemeral European settlements|short-lived]] due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Baten |first=Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=84 |isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref><ref name="Wynn2007">{{cite book |first=Graeme |last=Wynn |title=Canada and Arctic North America: An Environmental History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=bxGFaFvo2oMC&pg=PA49 |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-437-0 |page=49}}</ref>

In 1583, Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]], by the [[royal prerogative]] of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], founded [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's, Newfoundland]], as the first North American [[English overseas possessions|English colony]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Rose |first=George A |title=Cod: The Ecological History of the North Atlantic Fisheries |url=https://books.google.com/?id=tDNe7GOOwfwC&pg=PA209 |date=October 1, 2007 |publisher=[[Breakwater Books]] |isbn=978-1-55081-225-1 |page=209 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182027/https://books.google.com/books?id=tDNe7GOOwfwC&pg=PA209 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> French explorer [[Samuel de Champlain]] arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at [[Port Royal, Annapolis County, Nova Scotia|Port Royal]] (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ninette |last1=Kelley |first2=Michael J. |last2=Trebilcock |title=The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3IHyRvsCiKMC&pg=PA27 |date=September 30, 2010 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-9536-7 |page=27 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412205355/https://books.google.com/books?id=3IHyRvsCiKMC&pg=PA27 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Among the colonists of New France, ''[[French Canadian|Canadiens]]'' extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and [[Acadians]] settled the present-day [[The Maritimes|Maritimes]], while fur traders and [[Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery|Catholic missionaries]] explored the [[Great Lakes]], [[Hudson Bay]], and the [[Mississippi watershed]] to [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Howard Roberts |last=LaMar |authorlink=Howard R. Lamar |title=The Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West |year=1977 |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |isbn=978-0-690-00008-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/readersencyclope00lama_0/page/355 355] |url=https://archive.org/details/readersencyclope00lama_0/page/355}}</ref> The [[Beaver Wars]] broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C |last2=Arnold |first2=James |last3=Wiener |first3=Roberta |title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JsM4A0GSO34C&pg=PA394 |date=September 30, 2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-697-8 |page=394 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412162049/https://books.google.com/books?id=JsM4A0GSO34C&pg=PA394 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Benjamin West 005.jpg|thumb|alt=Benjamin West's "The Death of General Wolfe" dying in front of British flag while attended by officers and native allies|[[Benjamin West]]'s ''[[The Death of General Wolfe]]'' (1771) dramatizes [[James Wolfe]]'s death during the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] at Quebec.]]

The English established additional settlements in [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], beginning in 1610 and the [[Thirteen Colonies]] to the south were founded soon after.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Phillip Alfred |last1=Buckner |first2=John G. |last2=Reid |title=The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=_5AHjGRigpYC&pg=PA55 |year=1994 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-6977-1 |pages=55–56 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412160103/https://books.google.com/books?id=_5AHjGRigpYC&pg=PA55 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref name="hornsby">{{cite book |last=Hornsby |first=Stephen J |title=British Atlantic, American frontier: spaces of power in early modern British America |year=2005 |publisher=[[University Press of New England]] |isbn=978-1-58465-427-8 |pages=14, 18–19, 22–23}}</ref> A series of [[French and Indian Wars|four wars]] erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the [[Seven Years' War]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Nolan |first=Cathal J |title=Wars of the age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Nn_61ts-hQwC&pg=PA160 |year=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-33046-9 |page=160 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412205416/https://books.google.com/books?id=Nn_61ts-hQwC&pg=PA160 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Mainland [[Nova Scotia]] came under British rule with the 1713 [[Treaty of Utrecht]], and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Allaire |first=Gratien |title=From 'Nouvelle-France' to 'Francophonie canadienne': a historical survey |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |date=May 2007 |issue=185 |pages=25–52 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.024 |volume=2007}}</ref>

The [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]] established First Nation treaty rights, created the [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] out of New France, and annexed [[Cape Breton Island]] to Nova Scotia.<ref name="buckner" /> St. John's Island (now [[Prince Edward Island]]) became a separate colony in 1769.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=Bruce M |title=Use of Non-Traditional Evidence: A Case Study Using Heraldry to Examine Competing Theories for Canada's Confederation |journal=[[British Journal of Canadian Studies]] |date=March 2010 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=87–117 |doi=10.3828/bjcs.2010.5}}</ref> To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the ''[[Quebec Act]]'' of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and [[Ohio River|Ohio Valley]].<ref name="Hopkins1898">{{cite book |first=John Castell |last=Hopkins |title=Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the Country: The Canadian Dominion Considered in Its Historic Relations, Its Natural Resources, Its Material Progress and Its National Development, by a Corps of Eminent Writers and Specialists |url=https://archive.org/details/canadaencyclop05hopk |year=1898 |publisher=Linscott Publishing Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/canadaencyclop05hopk/page/125 125]}}</ref> More importantly, the ''Quebec Act'' afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.<ref>{{cite book |first=Eric |last=Nellis |title=An Empire of Regions: A Brief History of Colonial British America |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-b6YVX53fIsC&pg=PT331 |year=2010 |publisher=University of Toronto Press – University of British Columbia |isbn=978-1-4426-0403-2 |page=331 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412205454/https://books.google.com/books?id=-b6YVX53fIsC&pg=PT331 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> It re-established the [[French language in Canada|French language]], [[Catholicism in Canada|Catholic faith]], and [[Law of France|French civil law]] there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.<ref name="StuartSavage2011">{{cite book |first1=Peter |last1=Stuart |first2=Allan M. |last2=Savage |title=The Catholic Faith and the Social Construction of Religion: With Particular Attention to the Québec Experience |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Fdx4AV1kgCsC&pg=PA101 |year=2011 |publisher=WestBow Press |isbn=978-1-4497-2084-1 |pages=101–102}}</ref> The ''Proclamation'' and the ''Quebec Act'' in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the [[American Revolution]].<ref name="buckner" />

After the successful American War of Independence, the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|1783 Treaty of Paris]] recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Todd |last1=Leahy |first2=Raymond |last2=Wilson |title=Native American Movements |url=https://books.google.com/?id=999tRpj8VGQC&pg=PR49 |date=September 30, 2009 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |isbn=978-0-8108-6892-2 |page=49 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181942/https://books.google.com/books?id=999tRpj8VGQC&pg=PR49 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of [[Loyalists]], the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. [[New Brunswick]] was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes which led to the incorporation of [[Saint John, New Brunswick]] to become Canada's first city.<ref name="Newman2016">{{cite book |first=Peter C |last=Newman |authorlink=Peter C. Newman |title=Hostages to Fortune: The United Empire Loyalists and the Making of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=kBGzCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 |date=2016 |publisher=Touchstone |isbn=978-1-4516-8615-9 |page=117 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=kBGzCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref> To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the [[Constitutional Act 1791|''Constitutional Act'']] of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later [[Quebec#Canadian Confederation|Quebec]]) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later [[Ontario#Canada West|Ontario]]), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.<ref>{{cite book |last=McNairn |first=Jeffrey L |title=The capacity to judge |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2000 |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=T_A3pZQrHzIC&pg=PA24 |isbn=978-0-8020-4360-3 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142512/https://books.google.com/books?id=T_A3pZQrHzIC&pg=PA24 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>
[[File:Laura Secord warns Fitzgibbons, 1813.jpg|right|thumb|alt=Painting of Laura Secord warning British commander James FitzGibbon of an impending American attack at Beaver Dams|
[[War of 1812]] heroine [[Laura Secord]] warning British commander [[James FitzGibbon]] of an [[Battle of Beaver Dams|impending American attack at Beaver Dams]]]]

The Canadas were the main front in the [[War of 1812]] between the United States and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.<ref>{{cite book |first=Richard Colebrook |last=Harris |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: The land transformed, 1800–1891 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=tWkxht1Oa8EC&pg=PA21 |year=1987 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |page=21 |display-authors=etal |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423190803/https://books.google.com/books?id=tWkxht1Oa8EC&pg=PA21 |archivedate=April 23, 2016 |isbn=978-0-8020-3447-2}}</ref> New arrivals included refugees escaping the [[Great Irish Famine]] as well as [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]]-speaking Scots displaced by the [[Highland Clearances]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1935-36/Gallagher.html |work=cchahistory.ca |title=The Irish Emigration of 1847 and Its Canadian Consequences |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707141525/http://www.cchahistory.ca/journal/CCHA1935-36/Gallagher.html |archivedate=July 7, 2014}}</ref> Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.<ref name="dying" />

The desire for [[responsible government]] resulted in the abortive [[Rebellions of 1837]].<ref name="Read1985">{{cite book |first=Colin |last=Read |title=Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=OWhXHCXuVvcC&pg=PR99 |year=1985 |publisher=MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-8406-8 |page=99 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=OWhXHCXuVvcC&pg=PR99 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref> The [[Report on the Affairs of British North America|Durham Report]] subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.<ref name="buckner" /> The [[Act of Union 1840|''Act of Union'']] merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America by 1849.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Romney |first=Paul |date=Spring 1989 |title=From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture |journal=Law and History Review |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=121–174 |doi=10.2307/743779 |jstor=743779}}</ref> The signing of the [[Oregon Treaty]] by Britain and [[Mexican Cession|the United States in 1846]] ended the [[Oregon boundary dispute]], extending the border westward along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]]. This paved the way for British colonies on [[Colony of Vancouver Island|Vancouver Island (1849)]] and in [[Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)|British Columbia (1858)]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Evenden |first=Leonard J |last2=Turbeville |first2=Daniel E |title=Geographical snapshots of North America |editor=Janelle, Donald G |publisher=Guilford Press |year=1992 |page=[https://archive.org/details/geographicalsnap0000unse/page/52 52] |chapter=The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier |isbn=978-0-89862-030-6 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/geographicalsnap0000unse/page/52 }}</ref> The [[Alaska Purchase]] of 1867 by the United States established the border along the Pacific coast, although there would continue to be some disputes about the exact demarcation of the Alaska-Yukon and Alaska-BC border for years to come.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Farr |first1=Niko |title=The Alaska Boundary Dispute |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/alaska-boundary-dispute |website=The Canadian Encyclopedia |accessdate=October 30, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215092859/http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/alaska-boundary-dispute/ |archivedate=December 15, 2017}}</ref>

===Confederation and expansion===
[[File:Canada provinces evolution 2.gif|thumb|alt=Refer to caption|Animated map showing [[Territorial evolution of Canada|the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories]] since Confederation in 1867]]

Following several constitutional conferences, the ''[[Constitution Act, 1867|Constitution Act]]'' officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: [[Ontario]], Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Gertjan |last1=Dijkink |first2=Hans |last2=Knippenberg |title=The Territorial Factor: Political Geography in a Globalising World |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3RRJr-5q1H0C&pg=PA226 |year=2001 |publisher=[[Amsterdam University Press]] |isbn=978-90-5629-188-4 |page=226 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144931/https://books.google.com/books?id=3RRJr-5q1H0C&pg=PA226 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref name="bothwell">{{cite book |title=History of Canada Since 1867 |first=Robert |last=Bothwell |publisher=[[Michigan State University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-87013-399-2 |pages=31, 207–310}}</ref> Canada assumed control of [[Rupert's Land]] and the [[North-Western Territory]] to form the [[Northwest Territories]], where the Métis' grievances ignited the [[Red River Rebellion]] and the creation of the province of [[Manitoba]] in July 1870.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bumsted |first=JM |title=The Red River Rebellion |publisher=Watson & Dwyer |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-920486-23-8}}</ref> British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which [[United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia|had been united]] in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871, while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.<ref name="canatlas">{{cite web |url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060303140806/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En |archivedate=March 3, 2006 |title=Building a nation |work=Canadian Atlas |publisher=[[Canadian Geographic]] |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated southwards, to the U.S.<ref name="mdmols">{{cite book |last1=Denison |first1=Merrill |title=The Barley and the Stream: The Molson Story |date=1955 |publisher=McClelland & Stewart Limited |page=8}}</ref>

To open [[Western Canada|the West]] to European immigration, parliament also approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]), opening the prairies to settlement with the ''[[Dominion Lands Act]]'', and establishing the [[North-West Mounted Police]] to assert its authority over this territory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html |title=Sir John A. Macdonald |year=2008 |publisher=Library and Archives Canada |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614221958/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html |archivedate=June 14, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html |title=The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior |last=Cook |first=Terry |year=2000 |work=The Archivist |publisher=Library and Archives Canada |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614222015/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html |archivedate=June 14, 2011 }}</ref> In 1898, during the [[Klondike Gold Rush]] in the Northwest Territories, parliament created the Yukon Territory. [[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]] became provinces in 1905.<ref name="canatlas" />

===Early 20th century===
Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the ''Constitution Act, 1867'', its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought [[Military history of Canada during World War I|Canada into World War I]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Brian Douglas |last=Tennyson |title=Canada's Great War, 1914–1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation |url=https://books.google.com/?id=w2OeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |year=2014 |publisher=Scarecrow Press (Cape Breton University) |isbn=978-0-8108-8860-9 |page=4 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142336/https://books.google.com/books?id=w2OeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Volunteers sent to the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]] later became part of the [[Canadian Corps]], which played a substantial role in the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] and other major engagements of the war.<ref name="morton-milhist">{{cite book |last=Morton |first=Desmond |title=A military history of Canada |publisher=[[McClelland & Stewart]] |year=1999 |edition=4th |pages=130–158, 173, 203–233, 258 |isbn=978-0-7710-6514-9}}</ref> Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.<ref>{{cite book |first=J. L. |last=Granatstein |title=Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace |url=https://books.google.com/?id=jqxyhNcha3sC&pg=PA144 |year=2004 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-8696-9 |page=144 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152349/https://books.google.com/books?id=jqxyhNcha3sC&pg=PA144 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]] erupted when the [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionist]] Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with [[conscription]] was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.<ref name="McGonigal1962">{{cite book |first=Richard Morton |last=McGonigal |title=The Conscription Crisis in Quebec – 1917: a Study in Canadian Dualism |year=1962 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |page=Intro}}</ref> The ''Military Service Act'' brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.<ref name="McGonigal1962" /> In 1919, Canada joined the [[League of Nations]] independently of Britain,<ref name="morton-milhist" /> and the 1931 ''Statute of Westminster'' affirmed Canada's independence.<ref name="Morton2002">{{cite book |first=Frederick Lee |last=Morton |title=Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PA63 |year=2002 |publisher=University of Calgary Press |isbn=978-1-55238-046-8 |page=63}}</ref>

[[File:Crew of a Sherman-tank south of Vaucelles.jpg|upright=.65|thumb|alt=Crew of a Sherman-tank resting while parked|Canadian crew of a Sherman tank, south of [[Vaucelles]], France, during the [[Operation Overlord|Battle of Normandy]] in June 1944]]

The [[Great Depression in Canada]] during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.<ref>{{cite book |first=Robert B. |last=Bryce |title=Maturing in Hard Times: Canada's Department of Finance through the Great Depression |url=https://archive.org/details/maturinginhardti0000bryc |url-access=registration |date=June 1, 1986 |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's University Press|McGill-Queen's]] |isbn=978-0-7735-0555-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/maturinginhardti0000bryc/page/41 41] }}</ref> In response to the downturn, the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a [[welfare state]] (as pioneered by [[Tommy Douglas]]) in the 1940s and 1950s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mulvale |first=James P |title=Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility |journal=Basic Income Studies |date=July 11, 2008 |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.2202/1932-0183.1084}}</ref> On the advice of Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], [[Declaration of war by Canada#Nazi Germany|war with Germany was declared]] effective September 10, 1939, by King [[George VI]], seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.<ref name="morton-milhist" />

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War II and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Humphreys |title=Great Canadian Battles: Heroism and Courage Through the Years |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z-SsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT151 |year=2013 |publisher=Arcturus Publishing |isbn=978-1-78404-098-7 |page=151 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413032850/https://books.google.com/books?id=z-SsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT151 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref> Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 [[Dieppe Raid]], the [[Allied invasion of Italy]], the [[Normandy landings]], the Battle of Normandy, and the [[Battle of the Scheldt]] in 1944.<ref name="morton-milhist" /> Canada provided asylum for the [[Dutch monarchy]] while that country was [[Reichskommissariat Niederlande|occupied]] and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to [[Liberation Day (Netherlands)|its liberation]] from [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name="netherlands">{{cite book |last=Goddard |first=Lance |title=Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands |publisher=[[Dundurn Press]] |year=2005 |pages=225–232 |isbn=978-1-55002-547-7}}</ref>

The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military [[materiel]] for Canada, Britain, [[Republic of China (1912–49)|China]], and the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="morton-milhist" /> Despite another [[Conscription Crisis of 1944|Conscription Crisis]] in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bothwell |first=Robert |title=Alliance and illusion: Canada and the world, 1945–1984 |year=2007 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-1368-6 |pages=11, 31}}</ref>

===Contemporary era===

The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the [[Dominion of Newfoundland]] to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a [[crown colony]] ruled by a British governor.<ref name="Buckner20082ed">{{cite book |first=Phillip |last=Alfred Buckner |title=Canada and the British Empire |url=https://books.google.com/?id=KmXnLGX7FvEC&pg=PA135 |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-927164-1 |pages=135–138 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=KmXnLGX7FvEC&pg=PA135 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref> After two bitter [[1948 Newfoundland referendums|referendums]], Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.<ref>{{cite book |first=J. Patrick |last=Boyer |title=Direct Democracy in Canada: The History and Future of Referendums |url=https://books.google.com/?id=CWGN-RZcqNoC&pg=PA119 |year=1996 |publisher=Dundurn |isbn=978-1-4597-1884-5 |page=119 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412150716/https://books.google.com/books?id=CWGN-RZcqNoC&pg=PA119 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>
[[File:Alexander-NFLD.jpg|thumb|alt=Harold Alexander at desk receiving legislation|[[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|the Viscount Alexander of Tunis]] (centre) receiving the bill finalizing the union of [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] and Canada on March 31, 1949, at [[Rideau Hall]]]]

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new [[Canadian identity]], marked by the adoption of the [[Flag of Canada|Maple Leaf Flag]] in 1965,<ref>{{cite book |last=Mackey |first=Eva |title=The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8020-8481-1 |page=57}}</ref> the implementation of [[official bilingualism]] (English and French) in 1969,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Landry |first=Rodrigue |last2=Forgues |first2=Éric |title=Official language minorities in Canada: an introduction |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |date=May 2007 |issue=185 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.022 |volume=2007}}</ref> and the institution of [[Multiculturalism#Origins in Canada|official multiculturalism]] in 1971.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Esses |first=Victoria M |last2=Gardner |first2=RC |date=July 1996 |title=Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and current status |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science]] |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=145–152 |doi=10.1037/h0084934}}</ref> [[Social democracy|Socially democratic]] programs were also instituted, such as [[Medicare (Canada)|Medicare]], the [[Canada Pension Plan]], and [[Student loans in Canada|Canada Student Loans]], though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sd-01-09.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717075406/http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sd-01-09.pdf |archivedate=July 17, 2010 |title=Social Policies in Canada: A Model for Development |last=Sarrouh |first=Elissar |date=January 22, 2002 |work=Social Policy Series, No. 1 |publisher=United Nations |pages=14–16, 22–37 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref>

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the ''Canada Act'', the [[patriation]] of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/politics-government/proclamation-constitution-act-1982/Pages/proclamation-constitution-act-1982.aspx |title=Proclamation of the Constitution Act, 1982 |author= |date=May 5, 2014 |website=Canada.ca |publisher=Government of Canada |accessdate=February 10, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211083245/http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/politics-government/proclamation-constitution-act-1982/Pages/proclamation-constitution-act-1982.aspx |archivedate=February 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author= |date=March 17, 2009 |title=A statute worth 75 cheers |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/a-statute-worth-75-cheers/article1329730/ |newspaper=[[The Globe and Mail]] |location=Toronto |accessdate=February 10, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211081156/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/a-statute-worth-75-cheers/article1329730/ |archivedate=February 11, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/2017/canada-is-celebrating-150-years-of-what-exactly-1.3883315 |title=Canada is celebrating 150 years of... what, exactly? |last=Couture |first=Christa |date=January 1, 2017 |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=February 10, 2017 |quote=the Constitution Act itself cleaned up a bit of unfinished business from the Statute of Westminster in 1931, in which Britain granted each of the Dominions full legal autonomy if they chose to accept it. All but one Dominion – that would be us, Canada – chose to accept every resolution. Our leaders couldn't decide on how to amend the Constitution, so that power stayed with Britain until 1982. |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210001343/http://www.cbc.ca/2017/canada-is-celebrating-150-years-of-what-exactly-1.3883315 |archivedate=February 10, 2017}}</ref> Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country, although the Queen retained her role as monarch of Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.revparl.ca/27/2/27n2_04e_trepanier.pdf |title=Some Visual Aspects of the Monarchical Tradition |last=Trepanier |first=Peter |year=2004 |website=Canadian Parliamentary Review |publisher=[[Canadian Parliamentary Review]] |access-date=February 10, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002130/http://www.revparl.ca/27/2/27n2_04e_trepanier.pdf |archivedate=March 4, 2016}}</ref><ref name="bickerton">{{cite book |editor1=Bickerton, James |editor2=Gagnon, Alain |title=Canadian Politics |publisher=[[Broadview Press]] |edition=4th |isbn=978-1-55111-595-5 |year=2004 |pages=250–254, 344–347}}</ref> In 1999, [[Nunavut]] became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Légaré |first=André |year=2008 |title=Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=15 |issue=2–3 |pages=335–367 |doi=10.1163/157181108X332659 |jstor=24674996}}</ref>

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the [[Quiet Revolution]] of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular [[Quebec nationalism|nationalist]] movement.<ref name="RobertsClifton2005">{{cite book |first1=Lance W. |last1=Roberts |first2=Rodney A. |last2=Clifton |first3=Barry |last3=Ferguson |title=Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3VcVpWNSPfkC&pg=PA415 |year=2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MUniversity of Manitoba |isbn=978-0-7735-7314-7 |page=415 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=3VcVpWNSPfkC&pg=PA415 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref> The radical [[Front de libération du Québec]] (FLQ) ignited the [[October Crisis]] with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970<ref>{{cite journal |last=Munroe |first=HD |title=The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice |journal=Terrorism and Political Violence |year=2009 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=288–305 |doi=10.1080/09546550902765623}}</ref> and the [[Quebec sovereignty movement|{{Not a typo|sovereignist}}]] [[Parti Québécois]] was elected in 1976, organizing an [[1980 Quebec referendum|unsuccessful referendum]] on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the [[Meech Lake Accord]] failed in 1990.<ref name="sorens">{{cite journal |last=Sorens |first=J |title=Globalization, secessionism, and autonomy |journal=Electoral Studies |date=December 2004 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=727–752 |doi=10.1016/j.electstud.2003.10.003}}</ref> This led to the formation of the [[Bloc Québécois]] in Quebec and the invigoration of the [[Reform Party of Canada]] in the West.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/ |title=A brief history of the Bloc Québécois |newspaper=The Globe and Mail |first=Daniel |last=Leblanc |date=August 13, 2010 |accessdate=November 25, 2010 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100901151147/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/ |archivedate=September 1, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The new politics of the Right: neo-Populist parties and movements in established democracies |first1=Hans-Georg |last1=Betz |first2=Stefan |last2=Immerfall |url=https://books.google.com/?id=H9cGkDJgW7wC&pg=PA173 |page=173 |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-312-21134-9 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412133553/https://books.google.com/books?id=H9cGkDJgW7wC&pg=PA173 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> A [[1995 Quebec referendum|second referendum]] followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.<ref>{{cite book |first=Carol L. |last=Schmid |title=The Politics of Language : Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JIuO9HmX_8QC&pg=PA112 |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-803150-5 |page=112 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181747/https://books.google.com/books?id=JIuO9HmX_8QC&pg=PA112 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> In 1997, the [[Supreme Court of Canada|Supreme Court]] ruled [[Reference re Secession of Quebec|unilateral secession]] by a province would be unconstitutional and the ''[[Clarity Act]]'' was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.<ref name="sorens" />

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of [[Air India Flight 182]] in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622063429/http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/ |archivedate=June 22, 2008 |title=Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air India Flight 182 |publisher=Government of Canada |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> the [[École Polytechnique massacre]] in 1989, a [[school shooting|university shooting]] targeting female students;<ref>{{cite web |last=Sourour |first=Teresa K |url=http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf |year=1991 |title=Report of Coroner's Investigation |accessdate=March 8, 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228182645/http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf |archivedate=December 28, 2016 }}</ref> and the [[Oka Crisis]] of 1990,<ref>{{cite news |title=The Oka Crisis |url=http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110804233458/http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/ |archivedate=August 4, 2011 |format=Digital Archives |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |year=2000 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Indigenous groups.<ref>{{cite book |last=Roach |first=Kent |title=September 11: consequences for Canada |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2003 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/september11conse00roac/page/15 15, 59–61, 194] |isbn=978-0-7735-2584-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/september11conse00roac/page/15 }}</ref> Canada also joined the [[Gulf War]] in 1990 as part of a U.S.-led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the [[UNPROFOR]] mission in the [[Yugoslav wars|former Yugoslavia]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Learning the lessons of UNPROFOR: Canadian peacekeeping in the former Yugoslavia |doi=10.1080/11926422.1999.9673175 |first1=Lenard J. |last1=Cohen |first2=Alexander |last2=Moens |journal=[[Canadian Foreign Policy Journal]] |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=1999 |pages=85–100}}</ref>

Canada sent [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|troops to Afghanistan in 2001]], but declined to join the U.S.-led [[2003 Invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq in 2003]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jockel |first1=Joseph T |last2=Sokolsky |first2=Joel B |year=2008 |title=Canada and the war in Afghanistan: NATO's odd man out steps forward |journal=[[Journal of Transatlantic Studies]] |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=100–115 |doi=10.1080/14794010801917212}}</ref> In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the [[Libyan Civil War (2011)|Libyan Civil War]],<ref name="HehirMurray2013">{{cite book |first1=Aidan |last1=Hehir |first2=Robert |last2=Murray |title=Libya, the Responsibility to Protect and the Future of Humanitarian Intervention |url=https://books.google.com/?id=2TchAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT88 |year=2013 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-1-137-27396-3 |page=88 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145001/https://books.google.com/books?id=2TchAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT88 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> and also became involved in battling the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]] insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cgai.ca/canadas_policy_to_confront_the_islamic_state |title=Canada's Policy to Confront the Islamic State |publisher=[[Canadian Global Affairs Institute]] |year=2015 |first=Thomas |last=Juneau |accessdate=December 10, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211070017/http://www.cgai.ca/canadas_policy_to_confront_the_islamic_state |archivedate=December 11, 2015}}</ref>

==Geography, climate, and environment==
{{Main|Geography of Canada}}

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|second-largest country]] in the world, after [[Russia]]. By land area alone, however, Canada [[List of countries and outlying territories by land area|ranks fourth]], due to having the world's largest proportion of fresh water lakes.<ref name="Battram2010da">{{cite book|last=Battram|first=Robert A.|url=https://books.google.com/?id=pBc9349sw4QC&pg=PA1|title=Canada in Crisis: An Agenda for Survival of the Nation|publisher=[[Trafford Publishing]]|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4269-3393-6|page=1|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412141921/https://books.google.com/books?id=pBc9349sw4QC&pg=PA1|archivedate=April 12, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Of Canada's thirteen provinces and territories, eight share a border with the United States, and only two are landlocked (Alberta and Saskatchewan), with the remaining eight provinces and three territories directly bordering one of three oceans. Ontario and [[Quebec]] also send most of their shipping traffic through the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway|St. Lawrence Seaway]], which connects the Great Lakes to the St. Lawrence River, which flows into the [[Atlantic Ocean]].

Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north, and to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west,<ref name="cia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html|title=Canada|date=May 16, 2006|work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=CIA|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150711173434/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html|archivedate=July 11, 2015|accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of {{convert|243042|km|mi}}, and occupies much of the continent of North America.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/2012000/chap/geo/geo-eng.htm|title=Geography|website=statcan.gc.ca|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307051855/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/2012000/chap/geo/geo-eng.htm|archivedate=March 7, 2016|access-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> Moreover, Canada's border with the [[contiguous United States]] to the south and the U.S. state of [[Alaska]] to the northwest forms the longest international land border in the world, stretching {{Convert|8891|km||abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/boundary.html|title=The Boundary|year=1985|publisher=International Boundary Commission|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801080033/http://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/boundary.html|archivedate=August 1, 2008|accessdate=May 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2096.html#ca|title=Field Listing: Land Boundaries|last=|first=|date=May 31, 2007|work=The World Factbook|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004344/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2096.html|archive-date=June 13, 2007|access-date=}}</ref> In addition to the U.S., Canada shares a [[maritime boundary]] with Greenland to the northeast and with the [[France]]'s [[overseas collectivity]] of [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] to the southeast.<ref name="Gallay2015">{{cite book|last=Gallay|first=Alan|url=https://books.google.com/?id=22rbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT429|title=Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia|date=2015|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-48718-0|pages=429–|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=22rbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT429|archivedate=March 20, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> 
[[File:Canada Köppen.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of Canada]]
Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station Alert]], on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]]—latitude 82.5°N—which lies {{convert|817|km|mi}} from the North Pole.<ref>{{cite book |title=Canadian Geographic |year=2008 |publisher=[[Royal Canadian Geographical Society]] |page=20}}</ref> Much of the [[Northern Canada|Canadian Arctic]] is covered by ice and [[permafrost]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/jun/18/arctic-permafrost-canada-science-climate-crisis |title=Scientists shocked by Arctic permafrost thawing 70 years sooner than predicted |last=Reuters |date=June 18, 2019 |work=The Guardian |access-date=July 2, 2019 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Three of Canada's arctic islands{{snd}}[[Baffin Island]], [[Victoria Island (Canada)|Victoria Island]] and Ellesmere Island{{snd}}are among the ten largest in the world.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.kids-world-travel-guide.com/canada-facts.html |title=Canada Facts: 25 Interesting and Fun Facts – not only for Kids |access-date=June 27, 2018}}</ref>

Since the end of the last [[glacial period]], Canada has consisted of [[Forests of Canada#Regions|eight distinct forest regions]], including extensive [[taiga|boreal]] forest on the [[Canadian Shield]];<ref>{{cite book |title=National Atlas of Canada |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7705-1198-2 |page=1}}</ref> 42 percent of the land acreage is covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land), made up mostly of [[spruce]], [[Populus|poplar]], and [[pine]].<ref name="LuckertHaley2011">{{cite book |first1=Martin K. |last1=Luckert |first2=David |last2=Haley |first3=George |last3=Hoberg |title=Policies for Sustainably Managing Canada's Forests: Tenure, Stumpage Fees, and Forest Practices |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0Gm-rBnGghcC&pg=PA1 |year=2012 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2069-1 |page=1}}</ref> Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are greater than {{convert|100|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}—which is more than any other country, containing much of the world's [[fresh water]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Bailey |first=William G |last2=Oke |first2=TR |last3=Rouse |first3=Wayne R |title=The surface climates of Canada |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=1997 |page=124 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=oxNMhw-rRrQC&pg=PA244 |isbn=978-0-7735-1672-4 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142210/https://books.google.com/books?id=oxNMhw-rRrQC&pg=PA244 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/hydrology/watershed1/1 |title=The Atlas of Canada – Physical Components of Watersheds |date=December 5, 2012 |access-date=March 4, 2016 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121205125542/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/hydrology/watershed1/1 |archivedate=December 5, 2012}}</ref> There are also fresh-water glaciers in the [[Canadian Rockies]], the [[Coast Mountains]] and the [[Arctic Cordillera]].<ref name="Sandford2012">{{cite book |first=Robert William |last=Sandford |title=Cold Matters: The State and Fate of Canada's Fresh Water |url=https://books.google.com/?id=UANY2ftt4pEC&pg=PR11 |year=2012 |publisher=Biogeoscience Institute at the University of Calgary |isbn=978-1-927330-20-3 |page=11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=UANY2ftt4pEC&pg=PR11 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref>

Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably [[Mount Meager massif]], [[Mount Garibaldi]], [[Mount Cayley massif]], and the [[Mount Edziza volcanic complex]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Etkin |first=David |last2=Haque |first2=CE |last3=Brooks |first3=Gregory R |title=An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada |publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |date=April 30, 2003 |pages=569, 582, 583 |isbn=978-1-4020-1179-5}}</ref> The volcanic eruption of the [[Tseax Cone]] in 1775 was among Canada's worst natural disasters, killing an estimated 2,000 [[Nisga'a people]] and destroying their village in the [[Nass River]] valley of northern [[British Columbia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/canadas-worst-natural-disasters-all-time |title=Canada's Worst Natural Disasters of All Time |first=Adam |last=Shoalts |publisher=Canadian Geographic |year=2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923150031/http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/article/canadas-worst-natural-disasters-all-time |archivedate=September 23, 2016}}</ref> The eruption produced a {{convert|22.5|km|adj=on}} [[lava]] flow, and, according to Nisga'a legend, blocked the flow of the Nass River.<ref>{{cite book |last=Jessop |first=A |title=Geological Survey of Canada, Open File 5906 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z7IL9hO-_6cC&pg=PA18 |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |pages=18– |id=GGKEY:6DLTQFWQ9HG |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182124/https://books.google.com/books?id=z7IL9hO-_6cC&pg=PA18 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

Average winter and summer high [[Temperature in Canada|temperatures across Canada]] vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a [[continental climate]], where daily average temperatures are near {{Convert|-15|C|F|abbr=|lk=on}}, but can drop below {{convert|-40|°C|°F|abbr=on}} with severe [[wind chill]]s.<ref>{{cite web |author=The Weather Network |url=http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |title=Statistics, Regina SK |accessdate=January 18, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105062344/http://www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261 |archivedate=January 5, 2009 |author-link=The Weather Network}}</ref> In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from {{convert|25|to|30|C|F}}, with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding {{convert|40|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref name="ccnRegina">{{cite web |work=Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 |publisher=[[Environment Canada]] |url=http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=3002&lang=e&StationName=Regina&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |title=Regina International Airport |accessdate=May 12, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518084648/http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=3002&lang=e&StationName=Regina&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |archivedate=May 18, 2015 |date=September 25, 2013}}</ref>

==Government and politics==
{{Main|Government of Canada|Politics of Canada}}
[[File:Parliamenthill.jpg|thumb|alt=A building with a central clock tower rising from a block|[[Parliament Hill]], home of the federal government in Canada's capital city, Ottawa]]
Canada is described as a "[[Democracy Index#Classification definitions|full democracy]]",<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.eiu.com/topic/democracy-index |title=Democracy Index 2017– The Economist Intelligence Unit |website=eiu.com |access-date=November 29, 2017}}</ref> with a tradition of [[liberalism]],<ref name="WesthuesWharf2014">{{cite book |first1=Anne |last1=Westhues |first2=Brian |last2=Wharf |title=Canadian Social Policy: Issues and Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/?id=chTaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 |year=2014 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press |isbn=978-1-55458-409-3 |pages=10–11}}</ref> and an [[egalitarian]],<ref name="BickertonGagnon2009">{{cite book |first1=James |last1=Bickerton |first2=Alain |last2=Gagnon |title=Canadian Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=1jd6oqRHxLYC&pg=PA56 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0121-5 |page=56}}</ref> [[moderate]] political ideology.<ref name="Johnson2016">{{cite book |first=David |last=Johnson |title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada, Fourth Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |year=2016 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0 |pages=13–23 |quote=most Canadian governments, especially at the federal level, have taken a moderate, centrist approach to decision making, seeking to balance growth, stability, and governmental efficiency and economy...}}</ref> An emphasis on [[social justice]] has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.<ref name="Fierlbeck2006">{{cite book |first=Katherine |last=Fierlbeck |title=Political Thought in Canada: An Intellectual History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0bZBHlF4V8EC&pg=PA87 |year=2006 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-55111-711-9 |page=87}}</ref> [[Peace, order, and good government]], alongside an [[implied bill of rights]] are founding principles of the Canadian government.<ref name="DixonScheurell2016">{{cite book |first1=John |last1=Dixon |first2=Robert |last2=P. Scheurell |title=Social Welfare in Developed Market Countries |url=https://books.google.com/?id=npzDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |date=March 17, 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-36677-5 |page=48}}</ref><ref name="Boughey2017">{{cite book |first=Janina |last=Boughey |title=Human Rights and Judicial Review in Australia and Canada: The Newest Despotism? |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dgK-DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 |year=2017 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-5099-0788-5 |page=105}}</ref>

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively [[centrist]] parties practicing "brokerage politics",{{efn| name=politics|"Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful [[Big tent|big tent parties]] that embody a [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralistic]] catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and [[Electoral alliance|electoral coalitions]] to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."<ref name="MarlandGiasson2012">{{cite book |first1=Alex |last1=Marland |first2=Thierry |last2=Giasson |first3=Jennifer |last3=Lees-Marshment |title=Political Marketing in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GSeSaYPa2A4C&pg=PA257 |year=2012 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2231-2 |page=257}}</ref><ref name="CourtneySmith2010">{{cite book |first1=John |last1=Courtney |first2=David |last2=Smith |title=The Oxford Handbook of Canadian Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5KomEXgxvMcC&pg=PA195 |year=2010 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-533535-4 |page=195}}</ref>}}<ref name="Brooks2004">{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Brooks |title=Canadian Democracy: An Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/canadiandemocrac0000broo_m5a9 |url-access=registration |year=2004 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-541806-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/canadiandemocrac0000broo_m5a9/page/265 265] |quote=two historically dominant political parties have avoided ideological appeals in favour of a flexible centrist style of politics that is often labelled brokerage politics}}</ref><ref name="Johnson2016c">{{cite book |first=David |last=Johnson |title=Thinking Government: Public Administration and Politics in Canada, Fourth Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=I_HzDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |year=2016 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-3521-0 |pages=13–23 |quote=...most Canadian governments, especially at the federal level, have taken a moderate, centrist approach to decision making, seeking to balance growth, stability, and governmental efficiency and economy...}}</ref><ref name="Smith2014">{{cite book |first=Miriam |last=Smith |title=Group Politics and Social Movements in Canada: Second Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=iG4rAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |year=2014 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0695-1 |page=17 |quote=Canada's party system has long been described as a "brokerage system" in which the leading parties (Liberal and Conservative) follow strategies that appeal across major [[Cleavage (politics)|social cleavages]] in an effort to defuse potential tensions.}}</ref> the [[centre-left]] [[Liberal Party of Canada]] and the [[centre-right]] [[Conservative Party of Canada]] (or its [[Conservative Party of Canada#Predecessors|predecessors]]).<ref name="BaumerGold2015">{{cite book |first1=Donald C. |last1=Baumer |first2=Howard J. |last2=Gold |title=Parties, Polarization and Democracy in the United States |url=https://books.google.com/?id=uBbvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT152 |date=2015 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-25478-2 |page=152}}</ref> The historically predominant Liberal Party position themselves at the centre of the Canadian political spectrum,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Amanda |last1=Bittner |first2=Royce |last2=Koop |title=Parties, Elections, and the Future of Canadian Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=TdFTCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA300 |date=March 1, 2013 |publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-2411-8 |page=300 |quote=Domination by the Centre The central anomaly of the Canadian system, and the primary cause of its other peculiarities, has been its historical domination by a party of the centre. In none of the other countries is a centre party even a major player, much less the dominant....}}</ref> with the Conservative Party positioned on the right and the [[New Democratic Party]] occupying the [[left-wing|left]].<ref name="EvansGraaf2013">{{cite book |first1=Geoffrey |last1=Evans |first2=Nan Dirk |last2=de Graaf |title=Political Choice Matters: Explaining the Strength of Class and Religious Cleavages in Cross-National Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/?id=bZhcx6hLOMMC&pg=PA166 |year=2013 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-966399-6 |pages=166–167}}</ref><ref name="Johnston2017">{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Johnston |title=The Canadian Party System: An Analytic History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=aZAwDwAAQBAJ |year=2017 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-3610-4}}</ref> [[Far-right]] and [[far-left]] politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033 |title=Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=213–236 |year=2015 |last1=Ambrose |first1=Emma |last2=Mudde |first2=Cas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/27/world/canada/canadas-secret-to-resisting-the-wests-populist-wave.html |title=Canada's Secret to Resisting the West's Populist Wave |newspaper=The New York Times |year=2017 |last1=Taub |first1=Amanda}}</ref> Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the [[2019 Canadian federal election|2019 election]]—the Liberal Party, who currently form the government; the Conservative Party, who are the [[Official Opposition (Canada)|official opposition]]; the New Democratic Party; the Bloc Québécois; and the [[Green Party of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |title=CBC News: Election 2015 roundup |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022233012/http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/results-2015/ |archivedate=October 22, 2015}}</ref>

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the [[monarchy of Canada]] being the foundation of the executive, [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches.<ref>{{cite web |date=March 29, 1867 |title=Constitution Act, 1867: Preamble |publisher=[[Queen's Printer]] |url=http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100203024121/http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html |archivedate=February 3, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=David E |title=The Crown and the Constitution: Sustaining Democracy? |periodical=The Crown in Canada: Present Realities and Future Options |page=6 |publisher=[[Queen's University at Kingston|Queen's University]] |date=June 10, 2010 |url=http://www.queensu.ca/iigr/conf/ConferenceOnTheCrown/CrownConferencePapers/The_Crown_and_the_Constitutio1.pdf |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5qXvz463C?url=http://www.queensu.ca/iigr/conf/ConferenceOnTheCrown/CrownConferencePapers/The_Crown_and_the_Constitutio1.pdf |archivedate=June 17, 2010 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref name="MacLeod16">{{cite book |last=MacLeod |first=Kevin S |authorlink=Kevin S. MacLeod |title=A Crown of Maples |publisher=Queen's Printer for Canada |page=16 |edition=2nd |url=http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 |isbn=978-0-662-46012-1 |year=2012 |ref=harv |accessdate=March 8, 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204231448/http://canadiancrown.gc.ca/DAMAssetPub/DAM-CRN-jblDmt-dmdJbl/STAGING/texte-text/crnMpls_1336157759317_eng.pdf?WT.contentAuthority=4.4.4 |archivedate=February 4, 2016}}</ref> The [[reign]]ing monarch is [[Queen Elizabeth II]], who is also monarch of 15 other [[Commonwealth countries]] and each of Canada's 10 provinces. The person who is the Canadian monarch is the same as the [[British monarch]], although the two institutions are separate.<ref name="Johnson2018">{{cite book |first=David |last=Johnson |title=Battle Royal: Monarchists vs. Republicans and the Crown of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z2WHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT196 |date=2018 |publisher=Dundurn |isbn=978-1-4597-4015-0 |page=196 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=z2WHDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT196 |archivedate=March 20, 2018}}</ref> The Queen appoints a representative, the governor general (at present Julie Payette), to carry out most of her federal royal duties in Canada.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Governor General of Canada: Roles and Responsibilities |url=http://gg.ca/document.aspx?id=3 |publisher=Queen's Printer |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Commonwealth public administration reform 2004 |publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat |year=2004 |pages=54–55 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ATi5R5XNb2MC&pg=PA54 |isbn=978-0-11-703249-1 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412133750/https://books.google.com/books?id=ATi5R5XNb2MC&pg=PA54 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

The direct participation of the monarch and the governor general in areas of governance is limited.<ref name="MacLeod16" /><ref name="Forseyp1">{{cite book |last=Forsey |first=Eugene |authorlink=Eugene Forsey |title=How Canadians Govern Themselves |pages=1, 16, 26 |edition=6th |publisher=Queen's Printer |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-662-39689-5 |url=http://www2.parl.gc.ca/sites/lop/aboutparliament/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091229155255/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/AboutParliament/Forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf |archivedate=December 29, 2009 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Montpetit">{{cite web |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5 |last=Marleau |first=Robert |last2=Montpetit |first2=Camille |title=House of Commons Procedure and Practice: Parliamentary Institutions |publisher=Queen's Printer |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828112251/http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Lang=E&Print=2&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5 |archivedate=August 28, 2011}}</ref> In practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of [[Minister of the Crown|ministers of the Crown]] responsible to the elected House of Commons of Canada and chosen and headed by the prime minister (at present Justin Trudeau),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2015/11/04/new-government-to-be-sworn-in-today.html |title='A cabinet that looks like Canada:' Justin Trudeau pledges government built on trust |date=November 4, 2015 |work=Toronto Star |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128075156/https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2015/11/04/new-government-to-be-sworn-in-today.html |archivedate=January 28, 2017}}</ref> the [[head of government]]. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial [[advice (constitutional)|advice]].<ref name="Forseyp1" /> To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a [[plurality (voting)|plurality]] in the House of Commons.<ref>{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=David |title=Thinking government: public sector management in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2006 |edition=2nd |pages=[https://archive.org/details/thinkinggovernme02ndjohn/page/134 134–135, 149] |isbn=978-1-55111-779-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/thinkinggovernme02ndjohn/page/134 }}</ref> The [[Office of the Prime Minister (Canada)|Prime Minister's Office]] (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, [[Lieutenant governor (Canada)|lieutenant governors]], senators, federal court judges, and heads of [[Crown corporations of Canada|Crown corporations]] and government agencies.<ref name="Forseyp1" /> The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the [[Leader of the Official Opposition (Canada)|leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition]] and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Opposition in a Parliamentary System |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/researchpublications/bp47-e.htm |publisher=Library of Parliament |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125122354/http://www2.parl.gc.ca/content/lop/researchpublications/bp47-e.htm |archivedate=November 25, 2010}}</ref>

[[File:Cansenate.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Canadian Senate chamber long hall with two opposing banks of seats with historical paintings|The [[Senate of Canada|Senate chamber]] within the [[Centre Block]] on [[Parliament Hill]]]]

Each of the 338 members of parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an [[Canadian electoral district|electoral district]] or riding. [[Elections in Canada|General elections]] must be called by the governor general, either on the advice of the prime minister or if the government loses a [[confidence vote]] in the House.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Compilations/ElectionsAndRidings.aspx |title=About Elections and Ridings |accessdate=September 3, 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224103929/http://www.lop.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Compilations/ElectionsAndRidings.aspx |archivedate=December 24, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=O'Neal |first1=Brian |last2=Bédard |first2=Michel |last3=Spano |first3=Sebastian |date=April 11, 2011 |title=Government and Canada's 41st Parliament: Questions and Answers |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm |publisher=[[Library of Parliament]] |accessdate=June 2, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522071714/http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-37-e.htm |archivedate=May 22, 2011}}</ref> Constitutionally, an election may be held no more than five years after the preceding election, although the ''[[Canada Elections Act]]'' limits this to four years with a fixed election date in October. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ann L. |last1=Griffiths |first2=Karl |last2=Nerenberg |title=Handbook of Federal Countries |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GytLtJacxY8C&pg=PA116 |year=2003 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-7047-4 |page=116 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145132/https://books.google.com/books?id=GytLtJacxY8C&pg=PA116 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

[[Canada's federal structure]] divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. [[Legislative assemblies of Canadian provinces and territories|Provincial legislatures]] are [[unicameral]] and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.<ref name="Montpetit" /> Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&doc=difference-eng.htm |title=Difference between Canadian Provinces and Territories |year=2010 |publisher=Intergovernmental Affairs Canada |accessdate=November 23, 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151201135354/http://pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&doc=difference-eng.htm |archivedate=December 1, 2015 }}</ref> The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/visitors/what-consensus/differences-provincial-governments |title=Differences from Provincial Governments |year=2008 |publisher=Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories |accessdate=January 30, 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203044824/http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/visitors/what-consensus/differences-provincial-governments |archivedate=February 3, 2014}}</ref>

The [[Bank of Canada]] is the [[central bank]] of the country. In addition, the [[Minister of Finance (Canada)|minister of finance]] and [[Minister of Industry (Canada)|minister of industry]] utilize the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |title=About |publisher=Statistics Canada |year=2014 |accessdate=March 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115144515/http://statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/mandate-mandat-eng.htm |archivedate=January 15, 2015}}</ref> The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of [[Banknotes of the Canadian dollar|Canadian bank notes]].<ref name="GilbertHelleiner2003">{{cite book |first1=Emily |last1=Gilbert |first2=Eric |last2=Helleiner |title=Nation-States and Money: The Past, Present and Future of National Currencies |url=https://books.google.com/?id=gnWGfLxm4L8C&pg=PA39 |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-65817-6 |page=39 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181826/https://books.google.com/books?id=gnWGfLxm4L8C&pg=PA39 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The bank does not issue [[Coins of the Canadian dollar|Canadian coins]]; they are issued by the [[Royal Canadian Mint]].<ref name="CuhajMichael2011">{{cite book |first1=George S. |last1=Cuhaj |first2=Thomas |last2=Michael |title=Coins of the World: Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZheUkxvWhs8C&pg=PT4 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Krause Publications]] |isbn=978-1-4402-3129-2 |page=4 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181433/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZheUkxvWhs8C&pg=PT4 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

===Law===
{{Main|Law of Canada}}
The [[Constitution of Canada]] is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.<ref name="Dodek2016">{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Dodek |title=The Canadian Constitution |url=https://books.google.com/?id=86s7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 |year=2016 |publisher=Dundurn – University of Ottawa Faculty of Law. |isbn=978-1-4597-3505-7 |page=13 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920174329/https://books.google.com/books?id=86s7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT13 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> The ''Constitution Act, 1867'' (known as the ''[[British North America Acts|British North America Act]]'' prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.<ref name="Olive2015">{{cite book |first=Andrea |last=Olive |title=The Canadian Environment in Political Context |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Bvw_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |date=2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0871-9 |pages=41–42 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920174329/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bvw_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> The ''Statute of Westminster 1931'' granted full autonomy and the ''[[Constitution Act, 1982]]'', ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the ''Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms''.<ref name="VishnooShirur1997">{{cite book |first1=Vishnoo |last1=Bhagwan |first2=Bhushan |last2=Vidya |title=World Constitutions |url=https://books.google.com/?id=YatgyeA5R4sC&pg=PA550 |year=2004 |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-1937-8 |pages=549–550 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/https://books.google.com/books?id=YatgyeA5R4sC&pg=PA550 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a [[Section Thirty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|notwithstanding clause]] allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bakan |first=Joel |last2=Elliot |first2=Robin M |title=Canadian Constitutional Law |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2003 |pages=3–8, 683–687, 699 |isbn=978-1-55239-085-6}}</ref>
[[File:Supreme court of Canada in summer.jpg|thumb|alt=Supreme Court of Canada building|The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill]]

[[Court system of Canada|Canada's judiciary]] plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December 18, 2017 by Chief Justice [[Richard Wagner (judge)|Richard Wagner]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfcju-jucp-eng.aspx |title=Current and Former Chief Justices |date=December 18, 2017 |website=Supreme Court of Canada |archive-url=https://archive.today/20180116062534/http://www.scc-csc.ca/judges-juges/cfcju-jucp-eng.aspx |archive-date=January 16, 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=January 16, 2018}}</ref> Its nine members are appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Richard |last1=Yates |first2=Penny |last2=Bain |first3=Ruth |last3=Yates |title=Introduction to law in Canada |year=2000 |publisher=Prentice Hall Allyn and Bacon Canada |isbn=978-0-13-792862-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00yate/page/93 93] |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontola00yate/page/93}}</ref>

[[Common law]] prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] predominates. [[Criminal law of Canada|Criminal law]] is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sworden |first=Philip James |title=An introduction to Canadian law |publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications |year=2006 |pages=22, 150 |isbn=978-1-55239-145-7}}</ref> Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |title=Ontario Provincial Police |publisher=OPP official website |year=2009 |accessdate=October 24, 2012 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826073944/http://www.opp.ca/index.php?id=123 |archivedate=August 26, 2016}}</ref> However, in most rural areas and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nbpei-ecn.ca/documents/ECN-Forensics.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706190335/http://www.nbpei-ecn.ca/documents/ECN-Forensics.pdf |archivedate=July 6, 2011 |last=Royal Canadian Mounted Police |title=Keeping Canada and Our Communities Safe and Secure |publisher=Queen's Printer |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref>

The ''[[Indian Act]]'', various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and native peoples.<ref name="FN">{{cite report |title=Aboriginal roundtable on Kelowna Accord: Aboriginal policy negotiations 2004–2006 |last=Patterson |first=Lisa Lynne |url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf |series=1 |year=2004 |page=3 |publisher=Parliamentary Information and Research Service, Library of Parliament |ref=harv |accessdate=October 23, 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141126203243/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/LoPBdP/PRB-e/PRB0604-e.pdf |archivedate=November 26, 2014}}</ref> Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the [[Numbered Treaties]] were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.<ref>{{cite web |title=Treaty areas |publisher=Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat |date=October 7, 2002 |url=http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/EB/prb9916-e.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107103722/http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection-R/LoPBdP/EB/prb9916-e.htm |archive-date=January 7, 2009 |accessdate=May 23, 2011}}</ref> These treaties are agreements with the Canadian [[Queen-in-Council|Crown-in-Council]], administered by [[Canadian Aboriginal law]], and overseen by the [[minister of Crown–Indigenous Relations]]. The role of the treaties and the rights they support were reaffirmed by [[Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982]].<ref name="FN" /> These rights may include provision of services, such as health care, and exemption from taxation.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gary Brent |last=Madison |title=Is There a Canadian Philosophy?: Reflections on the Canadian Identity |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3AgrpoLkscMC&pg=PA128 |year=2000 |publisher=[[University of Ottawa Press]] |isbn=978-0-7766-0514-2 |page=128 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152416/https://books.google.com/books?id=3AgrpoLkscMC&pg=PA128 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

===Property rights and regulation===
{{Main|Property rights in Canada|Expropriation in Canada}}
Although Canadian law protects property through common law, statutes, land-title systems, expropriation legislation, and constitutional limits on arbitrary state action, Canada does not entrench a general right to own, use, or enjoy private property in the ''[[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]''. The [[Canadian Bill of Rights]] recognizes enjoyment of property at the federal statutory level, but it is not part of the Constitution and applies more narrowly than Charter rights.<ref name="CCSPropertyRights">{{cite web |url=https://www.constitutionalstudies.ca/2019/07/property-rights/ |title=Property Rights |publisher=Centre for Constitutional Studies, University of Alberta |date=July 4, 2019 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref><ref name="IRPPPropertyRights">{{cite web |url=https://policyoptions.irpp.org/2022/04/private-property-rights-halifax-park/ |title=Canadians’ rights to property need additional protection |first=Christine |last=Van Geyn |publisher=Policy Options |date=April 14, 2022 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

This feature of Canadian constitutional law has been criticized by property-rights advocates, small-business owners, landowners, and civil-liberties commentators who argue that zoning, environmental regulation, heritage controls, development freezes, asset forfeiture, and expropriation can substantially reduce the practical value of property without the same level of constitutional scrutiny given to expressive, criminal-procedure, equality, or mobility rights. Critics of the Canadian model argue that residents may own property in a practical and statutory sense but do not hold a deeply entrenched constitutional right against uncompensated regulatory taking. Defenders of the existing approach argue that constitutionalizing property rights could restrict democratic land-use planning, public infrastructure, environmental protection, housing policy, and resource regulation.<ref name="CCSPropertyRights" />

===Foreign relations and military===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Canada|Military history of Canada}}

[[File:Public Domain Image of Canadian UN delegation.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Canadian Delegation to the United Nations seated around conference table|The Canadian delegation to the [[United Nations Conference on International Organization]], San Francisco, May 1945]]

Canada is recognized as a [[middle power]] for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue [[multilateralism|multilateral]] solutions.<ref name="Chapnick2011a">{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Chapnick |title=The Middle Power Project: Canada and the Founding of the United Nations |url=https://books.google.com/?id=S2DPElbLK5sC&pg=PA2 |year=2011 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-4049-1 |pages=2–5 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412150158/https://books.google.com/books?id=S2DPElbLK5sC&pg=PA2 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions.<ref name="SensStoett2013a">{{cite book |first1=Allen |last1=Sens |first2=Peter |last2=Stoett |title=Global Politics 5e |url=https://books.google.com/?id=LLc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |year=2013 |publisher=Nelson Education |isbn=978-0-17-648249-7 |page=6 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145749/https://books.google.com/books?id=LLc8BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> [[Canadian peacekeeping|Canada's peacekeeping role]] during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image.<ref name="SobelShiraev2002b">{{cite book |first1=Richard |last1=Sobel |first2=Eric |last2=Shiraev |first3=Robert |last3=Shapiro |title=International Public Opinion and the Bosnia Crisis |url=https://books.google.com/?id=RsY3pK_993EC&pg=PA21 |year=2002 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-0480-4 |page=21 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412141129/https://books.google.com/books?id=RsY3pK_993EC&pg=PA21 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The strategy of the [[Foreign relations of Canada#Foreign aid|Canadian government's foreign aid policy]] reflects an emphasis to meet the [[Millennium Development Goals]], while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://canadiangovernmentexecutive.ca/millennium-development-goals-a-sprint-to-2015-and-the-way-forward/ |title=Millennium Development Goals: A sprint to 2015 and the way forward |newspaper=Canadian Government Executive |year=2014 |accessdate=November 12, 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113033750/http://canadiangovernmentexecutive.ca/millennium-development-goals-a-sprint-to-2015-and-the-way-forward/ |archivedate=November 13, 2016}}</ref>

Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the [[World Trade Organization]], the G20 and the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD).<ref name="Chapnick2011a" /> Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/organisations.aspx?lang=eng |title=International Organizations and Forums |publisher=Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada |year=2013 |accessdate=March 3, 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227153935/http://www.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/organisations.aspx?lang=eng |archivedate=February 27, 2014}}</ref> Canada acceded to the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] in 1976.<ref name="Clément2016">{{cite book |first=Dominique |last=Clément |title=Human Rights in Canada: A History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=elteDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |date=2016 |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]] |isbn=978-1-77112-164-4 |page=98 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118035914/https://books.google.com/books?id=elteDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |archivedate=January 18, 2017}}</ref> Canada joined the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the [[3rd Summit of the Americas]] in 2001.<ref>{{cite book |first=Peter |last=McKenna |title=Canada Looks South: In Search of an Americas Policy |url=https://books.google.com/?id=IoputVv15MEC&pg=PA91 |year=2012 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-1108-5 |page=91 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152532/https://books.google.com/books?id=IoputVv15MEC&pg=PA91 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada seeks to expand its ties to [[Pacific Rim]] economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).<ref>{{cite book |author=IBP USA |title=Canada Intelligence, Security Activities and Operations Handbook Volume 1 Intelligence Service Organizations, Regulations, Activities |url=https://books.google.com/?id=7jNg1U2tf6wC&pg=PA27 |publisher=Int'l Business Publications |isbn=978-0-7397-1615-1 |page=27 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144751/https://books.google.com/books?id=7jNg1U2tf6wC&pg=PA27 |archivedate=April 12, 2016 |date=July 31, 2015}}</ref>

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's [[Canada–United States trade relations|largest trading partner]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Haglung |first=David G |date=Autumn 2003 |title=North American Cooperation in an Era of Homeland Security |journal=[[Orbis (journal)|Orbis]] |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=675–691 |doi=10.1016/S0030-4387(03)00072-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2089.htm?goMobile=0 |title=Canada |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |year=2014 |accessdate=February 13, 2015}}</ref> Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full [[Canada–Cuba relations|relations with Cuba]], and declining to officially participate in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].<ref name="BickertonGagnon2014">{{cite book |first1=James |last1=Bickerton |first2=Alain-G. |last2=Gagnon |title=Canadian Politics: Sixth Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=q2ErAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA423 |year=2014 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0703-3 |page=423 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142648/https://books.google.com/books?id=q2ErAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA423 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada also maintains historic ties to the [[Canada–United Kingdom relations|United Kingdom]] and [[Canada–France relations|France]] and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie.<ref>{{cite book |last=James |first=Patrick |title=Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy |editor=Michaud, Nelson |editor2=O'Reilly, Marc J |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 |pages=213–214, 349–362 |isbn=978-0-7391-1493-3}}</ref> Canada is noted for having a positive [[Canada–Netherlands relations|relationship with the Netherlands]], owing, in part, to its contribution to the [[Netherlands in World War II#Liberation|Dutch liberation during World War II]].<ref name="netherlands" />

Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the [[Second Boer War]], World War I and World War II.<ref name="DeRouen">{{cite book |first=Karl R. |last=DeRouen |title=Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wdeBgfmZI0cC&pg=PA90 |year=2005 |publisher=[[University of Alabama Press]] |isbn=978-1-85109-781-4 |page=90 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703005113/https://books.google.com/books?id=wdeBgfmZI0cC&pg=PA90 |archivedate=July 3, 2017}}</ref> Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Teigrob |first=Robert |title='Which Kind of Imperialism?' Early Cold War Decolonization and Canada–US Relations |journal=Canadian Review of American Studies |date=September 2010 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=403–430 |doi=10.3138/cras.37.3.403}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Canada's international policy statement: a role of pride and influence in the world |publisher=Government of Canada |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-662-68608-8}}</ref> During the [[Canada in the Cold War|Cold War]], Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the [[Korean War]] and founded the [[North American Aerospace Defense Command]] (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book |last=Finkel |first=Alvin |title=Our lives: Canada after 1945 |publisher=Lorimer |year=1997 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ourlivescanadaaf0000fink/page/105 105–107, 111–116] |isbn=978-1-55028-551-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/ourlivescanadaaf0000fink/page/105 }}</ref>
[[File:CF-18 Cold Lake Alberta.jpg|thumb|alt=A fighter jet taking off from a runway|A Canadian [[CF-18 Hornet]] in [[Cold Lake, Alberta]]. CF-18s have supported NORAD air sovereignty patrols and participated in combat during the Gulf War and the [[Kosovo]] and [[Bosnia]] crisis.]]
During the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956, future Prime Minister [[Lester B. Pearson]] eased tensions by proposing the inception of the [[United Nations peacekeeping|United Nations Peacekeeping Force]], for which he was awarded the 1957 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Holloway |first=Steven Kendall |title=Canadian foreign policy: defining the national interest |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2006 |pages=102–103 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=MSHy65g7M7wC&pg=PA102 |isbn=978-1-55111-816-1 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412135852/https://books.google.com/books?id=MSHy65g7M7wC&pg=PA102 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.<ref name="Mays2010">{{cite book |first=Terry M. |last=Mays |title=Historical Dictionary of Multinational Peacekeeping |url=https://books.google.com/?id=pVR1vPCXObsC&pg=PA218 |date=December 16, 2010 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7516-6 |pages=218– |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182059/https://books.google.com/books?id=pVR1vPCXObsC&pg=PA218 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,<ref name="morton-milhist" /> and has since maintained forces in international missions in [[Rwanda]], the former [[Yugoslavia]], and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 [[Somalia Affair]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/27/world/torture-by-army-peacekeepers-in-somalia-shocks-canada.html |title=Torture by Army Peacekeepers in Somalia Shocks Canada |last=Farnsworth |first=Clyde H |date=November 27, 1994 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501200128/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/11/27/world/torture-by-army-peacekeepers-in-somalia-shocks-canada.html |archivedate=May 1, 2011}}</ref>

In 2001, Canada deployed troops to [[Afghanistan]] as part of the U.S. stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led [[International Security Assistance Force]].<ref name="KlassenAlbo2013">{{cite book |first1=Jerome |last1=Klassen |first2=Greg |last2=Albo |title=Empire's Ally: Canada and the War in Afghanistan |url=https://books.google.com/?id=XVvfcPGEofgC&pg=RA3-PT79 |date=January 10, 2013 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-6496-8 |pages=3– |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144919/https://books.google.com/books?id=XVvfcPGEofgC&pg=RA3-PT79 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> In February 2007, Canada, Italy, the United Kingdom, Norway, and Russia announced their joint commitment to a $1.5-billion project to help develop vaccines for developing nations, and called on other countries to join them.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL06661675._CH_.2400 |title=Rich nations to sign $1.5 bln vaccine pact in Italy |last=Vagnoni |first=Giselda |date=February 5, 2007 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522093757/http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL06661675._CH_.2400 |archivedate=May 22, 2010}}</ref> In August 2007, Canada's [[territorial claims in the Arctic]] were challenged after a [[Arktika 2007|Russian underwater expedition]] to the [[North Pole]]; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.<ref>{{cite news |last=Blomfield |first=Adrian |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1559165/Russia-claims-North-Pole-with-Arctic-flag-stunt.html |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |title=Russia claims North Pole with Arctic flag stunt |date=August 3, 2007 |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110428173155/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1559165/Russia-claims-North-Pole-with-Arctic-flag-stunt.html |archivedate=April 28, 2011}}</ref>

The nation employs a professional, volunteer military force of approximately 79,000 active personnel and 32,250 reserve personnel.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Global Firepower |url=http://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=Canada |title=Military Strength of Canada |year=2017 |accessdate=July 5, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625141201/http://www.globalfirepower.com/country-military-strength-detail.asp?country_id=Canada |archivedate=June 25, 2017}}</ref> The unified [[Canadian Forces]] (CF) comprise the [[Canadian Army]], [[Royal Canadian Navy]], and [[Royal Canadian Air Force]]. In 2013, Canada's [[List of countries by military expenditure|military expenditure]] totalled approximately C$19 billion, or around one percent of the country's GDP.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/canadian-military-spending-by-the-numbers |title=Canadian military spending by the numbers |work=[[Ottawa Citizen]] |date=September 3, 2014 |accessdate=January 25, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228043243/http://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/canadian-military-spending-by-the-numbers |archivedate=December 28, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://milexdata.sipri.org/result.php4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622144856/http://milexdata.sipri.org/result.php4 |archive-date=June 22, 2008 |title=Military expenditure of Canada |publisher=[[SIPRI]] |year=2011 |accessdate=May 3, 2012}}</ref> Following the 2016 Defence Policy Review, the Canadian government announced a 70 percent increase to the country's defence budget over the next decade. The Canadian Forces will acquire 88 fighter planes and 15 naval surface combatants, the latter as part of the [[National Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy]]. Canada's total military expenditure is expected to reach C$32.7 billion by 2027.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/liberal-sajjan-garneau-defence-policy-1.4149473 |first=Murray |last=Brewster |title=More soldiers, ships and planes for military in Liberal defence plan |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=June 7, 2017 |accessdate=August 23, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170822100919/http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/liberal-sajjan-garneau-defence-policy-1.4149473 |archivedate=August 22, 2017}}</ref>

===Provinces and territories===
{{Main|Provinces and territories of Canada}}
{{See also|Canadian federalism}}

[[File:Political map of Canada.png|upright=1.8|thumb|right|alt=Labelled map of Canada detailing its provinces and territories|Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories|link=Provinces and territories of Canada]]

Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three [[territory (administrative division)|territories]]. In turn, these may be grouped into [[List of regions of Canada|four main regions]]: Western Canada, [[Central Canada]], Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (''[[Eastern Canada]]'' refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).<ref name="HamelKeil2015">{{cite book |first1=Pierre |last1=Hamel |first2=Roger |last2=Keil |title=Suburban Governance: A Global View |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rB-NBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA81 |year=2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-6357-2 |page=81}}</ref> Provinces have more autonomy than territories, having responsibility for social programs such as [[Health care in Canada|health care]], [[Education in Canada|education]], and [[Social programs in Canada|welfare]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=G. Bruce |last1=Doern |first2=Allan M. |last2=Maslove |first3=Michael J. |last3=Prince |title=Canadian Public Budgeting in the Age of Crises: Shifting Budgetary Domains and Temporal Budgeting |url=https://books.google.com/?id=FBXaFRZtKJsC&pg=RA1-PA1976 |year=2013 |publisher=MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-8853-0 |page=1 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142903/https://books.google.com/books?id=FBXaFRZtKJsC&pg=RA1-PA1976 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the ''[[Canada Health Act]]''; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. [[Equalization payments]] are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Jason |last1=Clemens |first2=Niels |last2=Veldhuis |title=Beyond Equalization: Examining Fiscal Transfers in a Broader Context |url=https://books.google.com/?id=yc6RakXxLy0C&pg=PA8 |year=2012 |publisher=[[Fraser Institute]] |isbn=978-0-88975-215-3 |page=8 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412150638/https://books.google.com/books?id=yc6RakXxLy0C&pg=PA8 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the ''Constitution Act, 1867'', whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada.<ref name="OliverMacklem2017a">{{cite book |first1=Peter |last1=Oliver |first2=Patrick |last2=Macklem |first3=Nathalie |last3=Des Rosiers |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Canadian Constitution |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ulsvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA498 |year=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-066482-4 |pages=498–499}}</ref> The powers flowing from the ''Constitution Act'' are divided between the Government of Canada (the federal government) and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively.<ref name="Meligrana2004">{{cite book |first=John |last=Meligrana |title=Redrawing Local Government Boundaries: An International Study of Politics, Procedures, and Decisions |url=https://books.google.com/?id=uL9hLqPSdi0C&pg=PA75 |year=2004 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-0934-4 |page=75}}</ref> A change to the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces requires a [[Amendments to the Constitution of Canada|constitutional amendment]], whereas a similar change affecting the territories can be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada or government.<ref name="Nicholson1979">{{cite book |first=Norman L. |last=Nicholson |title=The boundaries of the Canadian Confederation |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ek7cloNk3E8C&pg=PA174 |year=1979 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |isbn=978-0-7705-1742-7 |pages=174–175}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Canada}}
{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Canadian exports 2017 <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/can/all/show/2017/|title=Products exported by Canada (2017)|website=The Observatory of Economic Complexity|year=2019}}</ref>
| label1 = Mineral products (mainly crude petroleum)
| value1 =24
| color1 =brown
| label2 =Transportation (mainly vehicles)
| value2 =19
| color2 =blue
| label3 = Machines
| value3 =10
| color3 =purple
| label4 =Basic metals
| value4 =8.4
| color4 =grey
| label5 = Chemicals
| value5 =6.7
| color5 =red
| label6 = Raw vegetables
| value6 =5.8
| color6 =green
| label7 = Plastic and rubber products
| value7 =4.2
| color7 =pink
| label8 = Paper goods
| value8 =3.9
| color8 =black
| label9 = Food goods
| value9=3.7
| color9 =orange
| label10 = Precious metals
| value10 =3.1
| color10 =yellow
| label11 = Animal products
| value11 =3.1
| color11 = Salmon
| label12 = Wood products
| value12 =2
| color12 =Cyan
| label13 = Instruments
| value13 =1.4
| color13 = Khaki
| label14 = Textiles, animal by-products and others
| value14 =7.8
| color14 = Magenta
}}

Canada is the world's tenth-largest economy {{As of|2018|lc=y|}}, with a [[nominal GDP]] of approximately US$1.73 trillion.<ref name="GDP IMF">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=44&pr.y=11&sy=2018&ey=2018&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C668%2C914%2C672%2C612%2C946%2C614%2C137%2C311%2C546%2C213%2C962%2C911%2C674%2C314%2C676%2C193%2C548%2C122%2C556%2C912%2C678%2C313%2C181%2C419%2C867%2C513%2C682%2C316%2C684%2C913%2C273%2C124%2C868%2C339%2C921%2C638%2C948%2C514%2C943%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C836%2C918%2C558%2C748%2C138%2C618%2C196%2C624%2C278%2C522%2C692%2C622%2C694%2C156%2C142%2C626%2C449%2C628%2C564%2C228%2C565%2C924%2C283%2C233%2C853%2C632%2C288%2C636%2C293%2C634%2C566%2C238%2C964%2C662%2C182%2C960%2C359%2C423%2C453%2C935%2C968%2C128%2C922%2C611%2C714%2C321%2C862%2C243%2C135%2C248%2C716%2C469%2C456%2C253%2C722%2C642%2C942%2C643%2C718%2C939%2C724%2C734%2C576%2C644%2C936%2C819%2C961%2C172%2C813%2C132%2C726%2C646%2C199%2C648%2C733%2C915%2C184%2C134%2C524%2C652%2C361%2C174%2C362%2C328%2C364%2C258%2C732%2C656%2C366%2C654%2C144%2C336%2C146%2C263%2C463%2C268%2C528%2C532%2C923%2C944%2C738%2C176%2C578%2C534%2C537%2C536%2C742%2C429%2C866%2C433%2C369%2C178%2C744%2C436%2C186%2C136%2C925%2C343%2C869%2C158%2C746%2C439%2C926%2C916%2C466%2C664%2C112%2C826%2C111%2C542%2C298%2C967%2C927%2C443%2C846%2C917%2C299%2C544%2C582%2C941%2C474%2C446%2C754%2C666%2C698&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a=#cs120 |title=World Economic Outlook Database |date=April 2, 2019 |publisher=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> It is one of the [[Corruption Perceptions Index|least corrupt countries in the world]],<ref name="RotbergCarment2018">{{cite book |first1=Robert I. |last1=Rotberg |first2=David |last2=Carment |title=Canada's Corruption at Home and Abroad |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ujOoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT12 |year=2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-57924-7 |page=12}}</ref> and is one of the world's top ten [[trading nation]]s, with a highly [[globalized]] economy.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=World Trade Organization |url=http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres08_e/pr520_e.htm |title=Latest release |date=April 17, 2008 |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605043028/http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres08_e/pr520_e.htm |archivedate=June 5, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch/ |publisher=KOF |title=Index of Globalization 2010 |accessdate=May 22, 2012 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531222435/http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch/ |archivedate=May 31, 2012}}</ref> Canada has a [[mixed economy]] ranking above the U.S. and most western European nations on [[The Heritage Foundation]]'s [[Index of Economic Freedom]],<ref>{{cite web |year=2013 |publisher=The Heritage Foundation-[[The Wall Street Journal]] |title=Index of Economic Freedom |url=http://www.heritage.org/Index/ |accessdate=June 27, 2013 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629215405/http://www.heritage.org/index/ |archivedate=June 29, 2013}}</ref> and experiencing a relatively low level of [[economic inequality|income disparity]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/jonathan-kay-the-key-to-canadas-economic-advantage-over-the-united-states-less-income-inequality |title=Jonathan Kay: The key to Canada's economic advantage over the United States? Less income inequality |work=[[National Post]] |date=December 13, 2012 |accessdate=December 14, 2012 |url-status=live |archiveurl=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515131854/http%3A//news.nationalpost.com/full%2Dcomment/jonathan%2Dkay%2Dthe%2Dkey%2Dto%2Dcanadas%2Deconomic%2Dadvantage%2Dover%2Dthe%2Dunited%2Dstates%2Dless%2Dincome%2Dinequality |archivedate=May 15, 2016}}</ref> The country's average household [[disposable income]] per capita is "well above" the OECD average.<ref name="OECDBLI">{{cite book |author=OECD |title=Better Policies Policies for Stronger and More Inclusive Growth in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GEIoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP3 |date=June 16, 2017 |publisher=OECD Publishing |isbn=978-92-64-27794-6 |pages=3–}}</ref> The [[Toronto Stock Exchange]] is the ninth-largest [[stock exchange]] in the world by [[market capitalization]], listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.world-exchanges.org/our-work/statistics |title=Monthly Reports - World Federation of Exchanges |publisher=WFE}}{{asof|2018|November|lc=y}}</ref>

===Economic criticism, taxation, and productivity===
Canada is often described internationally as a wealthy and stable economy, but critics argue that headline GDP and quality-of-life rankings can obscure weak growth in living standards, high household debt, low business investment, and a declining sense of economic mobility among residents. The OECD's 2025 Economic Survey of Canada stated that recent economic growth had been supported by strong population growth while per-capita growth remained weak, with elevated household debt and debt-service costs weighing on consumption.<ref name="OECDCanadaMacro2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2025/05/oecd-economic-surveys-canada-2025_ee18a269/full-report/macroeconomic-developments-and-policy-challenges_fc10c1ae.html |title=OECD Economic Surveys: Canada 2025 — Macroeconomic developments and policy challenges |publisher=[[OECD]] |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> The same survey identified weak productivity as a structural problem, noting that in 2023 Canada's GDP per hour worked was below several comparable advanced economies and well below the United States.<ref name="OECDCanadaProductivity2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2025/05/oecd-economic-surveys-canada-2025_ee18a269/full-report/raising-business-sector-productivity_443bcd88.html |title=OECD Economic Surveys: Canada 2025 — Raising business sector productivity |publisher=[[OECD]] |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Taxation is another recurring source of criticism. Opponents of Canada's fiscal model argue that combined federal, provincial, municipal, payroll, consumption, property, fuel, carbon, and regulatory costs are excessive relative to the services residents actually receive, particularly in housing, health care, policing, transportation, and infrastructure. The OECD reported that Canada's tax-to-GDP ratio rose to 34.9 percent in 2024, above the OECD average of 34.1 percent and the highest Canadian level in the period covered by its country note.<ref name="OECDCanadaRevenue2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2025/12/revenue-statistics-2025-country-notes_3708be73/canada_3aa043fb/795aaca9-en.pdf |title=Revenue Statistics 2025 — Canada |publisher=[[OECD]] |date=2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Supporters of the Canadian tax system argue that higher public revenue funds universal health care, social insurance, public education, infrastructure, and redistribution; critics respond that the tax burden increasingly coexists with long health-care waits, unaffordable housing, and visible infrastructure deficits.

In 2018, Canadian trade in goods and services reached {{CAD|1.5}} trillion.<ref name=econ/> Canada's exports totalled over {{CAD|585}} billion, while its imported goods were worth over {{CAD|607}} billion, of which approximately {{CAD|391}} billion originated from the United States, {{CAD|216}} billion from non-U.S. sources.<ref name=econ>{{cite journal |url=https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/publications/economist-economiste/state_of_trade-commerce_international-2019.aspx?lang=eng |title=Canada's State of Trade 2019 |journal=Canada's State of Trade |year=2019 |publisher=Global Affairs Canada |edition=20 |issn=2562-8313}}[https://www.international.gc.ca/gac-amc/assets/pdfs/publications/State-of-Trade-2019_eng.pdf PDF version]</ref> In 2018, Canada had a [[trade deficit]] in goods of {{CAD|22}} billion and a trade deficit in services of {{CAD|25}} billion.<ref name=econ/>

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.<ref name="HarrisMatthews1987l">{{cite book |first1=R. Cole |last1=Harris |first2=Geoffrey J. |last2=Matthews |title=Historical Atlas of Canada: Addressing the twentieth century, 1891–1961 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=pD7vTXLqkugC&pg=PA2 |year=1987 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-3448-9 |page=2 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=pD7vTXLqkugC&pg=PA2 |archivedate=March 20, 2018}}</ref> Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service industry]], which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm |publisher=Statistics Canada |title=Employment by Industry |date=January 8, 2009 |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524063742/http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm |archivedate=May 24, 2011}}</ref> However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its [[primary sector of the economy|primary sector]], in which the [[Forestry in Canada|forestry]] and [[Petroleum production in Canada|petroleum industries]] are two of the most prominent components.<ref name="SueyoshiGoto2018">{{cite book |first1=Toshiyuki |last1=Sueyoshi |first2=Mika |last2=Goto |title=Environmental Assessment on Energy and Sustainability by Data Envelopment Analysis |url=https://books.google.com/?id=s0RKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA496 |year=2018 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-118-97933-4 |page=496}}</ref>

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.<ref name="SueyoshiGoto2018" /><ref name="energy">{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Charles E |title=World energy resources |publisher=Springer |year=2002 |pages=323, 378–389 |isbn=978-3-540-42634-9}}</ref> Atlantic Canada possesses vast [[offshore drilling|offshore]] deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the [[Athabasca oil sands]] and other assets results in Canada having a 13 percent share of global [[oil reserves]], comprising the world's third-largest share after [[Oil reserves in Venezuela|Venezuela]] and [[Oil reserves in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="Lopez-Vallejo2016">{{cite book |first=Marcela |last=Lopez-Vallejo |title=Reconfiguring Global Climate Governance in North America: A Transregional Approach |url=https://books.google.com/?id=fgDtCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-07042-9 |page=82}}</ref> Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, [[canola]], and other grains.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fcc-fac.ca/fcc/knowledge/ag-economist/trade-ranking-report-agriculture-e.pdf |title=Trade Ranking Report: Agriculture |publisher=FCC Ag Economics |year=2017 |access-date=June 28, 2020 |archive-date=October 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003070556/https://www.fcc-fac.ca/fcc/knowledge/ag-economist/trade-ranking-report-agriculture-e.pdf |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Canada's Department of Natural Resources provides statistics regarding its major exports; the country is a leading exporter of [[zinc]], [[uranium]], [[gold]], [[nickel]], [[PGMs|platinoids]], [[aluminum]], [[steel]], [[iron ore]], [[coking coal]], [[lead]], [[copper]], [[molybdenum]], [[cobalt]], and [[cadmium]].<ref name="Haldar2016">{{cite book |first=Swapan Kumar |last=Haldar |title=Platinum-Nickel-Chromium Deposits: Geology, Exploration and Reserve Base |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3CDfCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 |year=2016 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=978-0-12-802086-9 |page=108}}</ref> Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and [[aeronautics]] representing particularly important industries.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ibisworld.com/media/2015/01/22/mapping-canadas-top-manufacturing-industries/ |title=Mapping Canada's Top Manufacturing Industries : Industry Insider |website=ibisworld.com}}</ref>

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since [[World War II]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Dr David |last1=Mosler |first2=Pr Bob |last2=Catley |title=The American Challenge: The World Resists US Liberalism |url=https://books.google.com/?id=l00i5PKYDwcC&pg=PA38 |year=2013 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4094-9852-0 |page=38 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412133120/https://books.google.com/books?id=l00i5PKYDwcC&pg=PA38 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The [[Automotive Products Trade Agreement]] of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry.<ref name="KerrPerdikis2014">{{cite book |first1=William |last1=Kerr |first2=Nicholas |last2=Perdikis |title=The Economics of International Commerce |url=https://books.google.com/?id=FEsjBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 |year=2014 |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-78347-668-8 |page=96 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/https://books.google.com/books?id=FEsjBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister [[Pierre Trudeau]]'s Liberal government to enact the [[National Energy Program]] (NEP) and the [[Foreign Investment Review Agency]] (FIRA).<ref>{{cite book |last=Morck |first=Randall |last2=Tian |first2=Gloria |last3=Yeung |first3=Bernard |title=Governance, multinationals, and growth |editor=Eden, Lorraine |editor2=Dobson, Wendy |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |year=2005 |page=50 |chapter=Who owns whom? Economic nationalism and family controlled pyramidal groups in Canada |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q4gt2xhqpSIC&pg=PA50 |isbn=978-1-84376-909-5 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413033210/https://books.google.com/books?id=q4gt2xhqpSIC&pg=PA50 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref> In the 1980s, Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]]'s Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to [[Invest in Canada|Investment Canada]], to encourage foreign investment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hale |first=Geoffrey |title=The Dog That Hasn't Barked: The Political Economy of Contemporary Debates on Canadian Foreign Investment Policies |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Political Science]] |date=October 2008 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=719–747 |doi=10.1017/S0008423908080785 |jstor=25166298}}</ref> The [[Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement]] (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include [[Mexico]] in 1994.<ref name="Nzongola-NtalajaKrieger2001">{{cite book |editor-first1=Joel |editor-last1=Krieger |title=The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World |url=https://books.google.com/?id=2wd30pXJxpYC&pg=PA569 |edition=2 |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511739-4 |page=569}}</ref> Canada has a strong [[cooperative banking]] sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in [[credit union]]s.<ref name="KobrakMartin2018">{{cite book |first1=Christopher |last1=Kobrak |first2=Joe |last2=Martin |title=From Wall Street to Bay Street: The Origins and Evolution of American and Canadian Finance |url=https://books.google.com/?id=yw9aDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA220 |year=2018 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-1625-7 |page=220}}</ref>

===Housing affordability and cost of living===
{{Main|Housing in Canada|Canadian housing affordability crisis}}
Housing affordability has become one of the most prominent domestic criticisms of Canada. In major metropolitan areas such as [[Toronto]], [[Vancouver]], [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]], [[Ottawa]], [[Montreal]], and parts of the [[Greater Golden Horseshoe]], residents have faced high rents, high home prices relative to incomes, elevated mortgage costs, and growing difficulty forming independent households. Critics attribute the crisis to a combination of restrictive zoning, slow permitting, infrastructure bottlenecks, speculative demand, financialization of housing, high construction costs, foreign and domestic investment demand, and population growth that outpaced housing completions.

The [[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation]] estimated in 2025 that Canadian housing starts would need to nearly double to roughly 430,000 to 480,000 units per year until 2035 to restore affordability, compared with a projected rate of about 250,000 units annually.<ref name="CMHCHousingShortage2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/professionals/housing-markets-data-and-research/housing-research/research-reports/accelerate-supply/canadas-housing-supply-shortages-a-new-framework |title=Canada’s Housing Supply Shortages: Moving to a New Framework |publisher=[[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation]] |date=June 19, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Critics argue that Canada's housing shortage has redistributed wealth from renters and younger workers to established owners, encouraged high household leverage, reduced labour mobility, increased homelessness, and made immigration and family formation more politically contentious. Supporters of current reform efforts point to federal, provincial, and municipal programs intended to accelerate construction, legalize denser forms of housing, and increase rental supply.

===Banking and debanking===
{{Main|Banking in Canada|Debanking in Canada}}
Canada's banking system is dominated by a small number of large national banks and is frequently praised for stability. The Bank of Canada reported in 2025 that Canadian banks had maintained elevated capital buffers and high liquidity, while the OECD described the banking sector as stable and well capitalized but exposed to the domestic mortgage market.<ref name="BOCFSR2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.bankofcanada.ca/2025/05/financial-stability-report-2025/ |title=Financial Stability Report—2025 |publisher=[[Bank of Canada]] |date=May 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref><ref name="OECDCanadaMacro2025" /> Critics, however, argue that the sector's concentration contributes to high fees, slow innovation, limited consumer bargaining power, and weak competition in payments, mortgages, and small-business banking.

A related criticism concerns [[debanking]], the closure or restriction of personal or business accounts by banks or payment providers. Canadian consumers have statutory rights when opening basic bank accounts and accessing certain low-cost or no-cost accounts, but there is no general right to maintain a relationship with a particular bank.<ref name="FCACBankingRights">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/services/rights-responsibilities/rights-banking.html |title=Banking: know your rights |publisher=[[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]] |date=October 22, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref><ref name="FCACLowCostAccounts">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/services/industry/laws-regulations/low-cost-no-cost-accounts.html |title=Commitment on Low-Cost and No-Cost Accounts |publisher=[[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]] |date=December 1, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> The [[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]] has stated in a consumer case that Canadian banking law and regulations allow banks to end consumer relationships and do not require banks to provide a reason or notice in every circumstance.<ref name="OBSIDebankingCase">{{cite web |url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/news/posts/consumer-surprised-when-bank-gives-him-30-days-to-close-his-account/ |title=Consumer surprised when bank gives him 30 days to close his account |publisher=[[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]] |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Critics argue that this gives financial institutions disproportionate power over residents and small businesses, especially when account closures are based on automated risk flags, anti-money-laundering concerns, political or reputational risk, or unexplained internal policy decisions. Banks and regulators respond that account restrictions are sometimes necessary to comply with anti-money-laundering, fraud-prevention, sanctions, and risk-management obligations.

===Science and technology===
{{Main|Science and technology in Canada}}
[[File:STS-116 Payload (NASA S116-E-05364).jpg|thumb|alt=A shuttle in space, with Earth in the background. A mechanical arm labelled "Canada" rises from the shuttle.|The [[Canadarm]] robotic manipulator in action on [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']] during the [[STS-116]] mission in 2006]]

In 2018, Canada spent approximately C$34.5 billion on domestic [[research and development]], of which around $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/181212/dq181212c-eng.htm |title=The Daily – Spending on research and development, 2018 intentions |first=Government of Canada, Statistics |last=Canada |website=statcan.gc.ca |accessdate=September 19, 2019 |date=December 22, 2018}}</ref> {{As of|2018}}, the country has produced fourteen [[List of Nobel laureates by country|Nobel laureates]] in [[Nobel Prize in Physics|physics]], [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|chemistry]], and [[Nobel Prize in Medicine|medicine]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Canadian Nobel Prize in Science Laureates |url=http://www.science.ca/scientists/nobellaureates.php |publisher=Science.ca |accessdate=September 19, 2019}}</ref> and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/canada-ranked-fourth-in-the-world-for-scientific-research/article4571162/ |first=Anne |last=McIlroy |title=Canada ranked fourth in the world for scientific research |work=The Globe and Mail |date=September 26, 2012 |accessdate=October 17, 2012 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004001349/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/canada-ranked-fourth-in-the-world-for-scientific-research/article4571162/ |archivedate=October 4, 2012}}</ref> It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.branham300.com/index.php?year=2014&listing=1 |title=Top 250 Canadian Technology Companies |year=2014 |publisher=Branham Group Inc |accessdate=February 13, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150315075119/http://www.branham300.com/index.php?year=2014&listing=1 |archivedate=March 15, 2015}}</ref> Canada [[List of countries by number of Internet users|has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world]], with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats14.htm#north |title=Internet Usage and Population in North America |publisher=Internet World Stats |date=June 2014 |accessdate=February 7, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150207003832/http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats14.htm#north |archivedate=February 7, 2015}}</ref>

Some of the most notable scientific developments in Canada include the creation of the [[alkaline battery]] and the [[polio vaccine]], along with the discovery of the [[atomic nucleus]].<ref name=topten>{{cite web|url=http://www.science.ca/askascientist/topachievements.php|title=Top ten canadian scientific achievements|work=GCS Research Society|year=2015}}</ref> Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the [[artificial cardiac pacemaker]], mapping the [[visual cortex]],<ref>{{cite news |first=Evelyn |last=Strauss |title=2005 Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award |url=http://www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/2005_b_description.htm |publisher=[[Lasker Award|Lasker Foundation]] |year=2005 |accessdate=November 23, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100716192333/http://www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/2005_b_description.htm |archive-date=July 16, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=topten/> the development of the [[electron microscope]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://web.mit.edu/Invent/iow/hillier.html |title=James Hillier |accessdate=November 20, 2008 |work=Inventor of the Week |publisher=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808192011/http://web.mit.edu/Invent/iow/hillier.html |archive-date=August 8, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Jeremy |last=Pearce |title=James Hillier, 91, Dies; Co-Developed Electron Microscope |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/22/science/22hillier.html |work=The New York Times |date=January 22, 2007 |accessdate=November 20, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325113042/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/22/science/22hillier.html |archive-date=March 25, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[plate tectonics]], [[deep learning]], [[multi-touch]] technology and the identification of the first [[black hole]], [[Cygnus X-1]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bolton | first=C. T. | year=1972 | title=Identification of Cygnus X-1 with HDE 226868 | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume=235 | issue=2 | pages=271–273 | doi=10.1038/235271b0 | bibcode=1972Natur.235..271B}}</ref> Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include [[stem cell]]s, [[site-directed mutagenesis]], [[T-cell receptor]] and the identification of the genes that cause [[Fanconi anemia]], [[cystic fibrosis]] and [[early-onset Alzheimer's disease]], among numerous other diseases.<ref name=topten/><ref>{{cite journal |first=C.A. |last =Strathdee |author2=Gavish, H. |author3=Shannon, W. |author4= Buchwald, M. |year=1992 |title=Cloning of cDNAs for Fanconi's anemia by functional complementation |journal=Nature |volume=356 |issue=6372 |pages=763–767 |doi=10.1038/356763a0 |pmid=1574115|bibcode = 1992Natur.356..763S }}</ref>

The [[Canadian Space Agency]] operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/about/milestones.asp |title=Canadian Space Milestones |publisher=Canadian Space Agency |year=2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091008060654/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/about/milestones.asp |archivedate=October 8, 2009}}</ref> Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the [[Soviet space program|Soviet Union]] and the United States, with the 1962 [[Alouette 1]] launch.<ref name="Angelo2009s">{{cite book |first=Joseph A. |last=Angelo |title=Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VUWno1sOwnUC&pg=PA22 |year=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1018-9 |page=22 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152522/https://books.google.com/books?id=VUWno1sOwnUC&pg=PA22 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada is a participant in the [[International Space Station]] (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the [[Canadarm]], [[Canadarm2]] and [[Dextre]] robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's [[Space Shuttle]].<ref name="Bidaud2012">{{cite book |first1=Philippe |last1=Bidaud |first2=Erick |last2=Dupuis |title=Field Robotics: Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Climbing and Walking Robots and the Support Technologies for Mobile Machines |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TSlqDQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA35 |year=2012 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=978-981-4374-27-9 |pages=35–37 |chapter=An overview of Canadian space robotics activities |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920174329/https://books.google.com/books?id=TSlqDQAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA35 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}} University Pierre Et Marie Curie (UPMC), Paris, France, September 6–8, 2011.</ref> Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including [[Radarsat-1]] and [[Radarsat-2|2]], [[ISIS (satellite)|ISIS]] and [[Microvariability and Oscillations of STars telescope|MOST]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2010/11/c9200.html |title=The Canadian Aerospace Industry praises the federal government for recognizing Space as a strategic capability for Canada |publisher=Newswire |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609224813/http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2010/11/c9200.html |archivedate=June 9, 2011}}</ref> Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used [[sounding rocket]]s, the [[Black Brant (rocket)|Black Brant]]; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.<ref name="Godefroy2017">{{cite book |first=Andrew B. |last=Godefroy |title=The Canadian Space Program: From Black Brant to the International Space Station |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JVLJDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-40105-8 |page=41}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Canada|List of cities in Canada}}
[[File:Quebec-Windsor Corridor.svg|thumb|alt=Two-colour map of Windsor area with towns along the St. Lawrence river|The [[Quebec City–Windsor Corridor]] is the most densely populated and heavily industrialized region of Canada, spanning {{convert|1200|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="McMurryShepherd2004">{{cite book |first1=Peter H. |last1=McMurry |first2=Marjorie F. |last2=Shepherd |first3=James S. |last3=Vickery |title=Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment |url=https://books.google.com/?id=1giH-mvhhw8C&pg=PA391 |year=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84287-7 |page=391 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142432/https://books.google.com/books?id=1giH-mvhhw8C&pg=PA391 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>]]

The [[2016 Canadian Census]] enumerated a [[Population of Canada by year|total population]] of 35,151,728, an increase of around 5.0 percent over the 2011 figure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/toronto-montreal-vancouver-now-home-to-one-third-of-canadians-census-1.3275666 |title=Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver now home to one-third of Canadians: census |last=Press |first=Jordan |date=February 8, 2017 |website=CTV News |access-date=February 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208145820/http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/toronto-montreal-vancouver-now-home-to-one-third-of-canadians-census-1.3275666 |archivedate=February 8, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table.cfm?Lang=Eng&T=101&S=50&O=A |title=2016 Census: Population and dwelling counts |date=February 8, 2017 |publisher=Statistics Canada |accessdate=February 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211082635/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table.cfm?Lang=Eng&T=101&S=50&O=A |archivedate=February 11, 2017}}</ref> Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people, with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase.<ref>{{cite news |last=Campion-Smith |first=Bruce |date=February 8, 2017 |title=Canada's population grew 1.7M in 5 years, latest census shows |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2017/02/08/canadas-population-grew-17m-in-5-years.html |newspaper=Toronto Star |location=Toronto |access-date=February 8, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208142923/https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2017/02/08/canadas-population-grew-17m-in-5-years.html |archivedate=February 8, 2017}}</ref> Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/publications/statistics/trends10/chapter3.cfm |title=Energy Efficiency Trends in Canada, 1990 to 2008 |publisher=Natural Resources Canada |year=2011 |accessdate=December 13, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222162432/http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/publications/statistics/trends10/chapter3.cfm |archivedate=December 22, 2015}}</ref> The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Barry |last1=Edmonston |first2=Eric |last2=Fong |title=The Changing Canadian Population |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VVYOgvFPvBEC&pg=PA181 |year=2011 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-3793-4 |page=181 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152653/https://books.google.com/books?id=VVYOgvFPvBEC&pg=PA181 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=kv4nlSWLT8UC&pg=PA51 |page=51 |title=Canada |first=Karla |last=Zimmerman |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |year=2008 |edition=10th |isbn=978-1-74104-571-0 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412135044/https://books.google.com/books?id=kv4nlSWLT8UC&pg=PA51 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> driven mainly by [[Economic impact of immigration to Canada|economic policy]] and, to a lesser extent, [[Immigration to Canada#Immigration categories|family reunification]].<ref name="HollifieldMartin2014" /><ref name="BeaujotKerr2007j">{{cite book |first1=Roderic P. |last1=Beaujot |first2=Donald W. |last2=Kerr |title=The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population |url=https://books.google.com/?id=CofPBh5BRhwC&pg=PA178 |year=2007 |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |isbn=978-1-55130-322-2 |page=178 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182054/https://books.google.com/books?id=CofPBh5BRhwC&pg=PA178 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The Canadian public, as well as the major political parties, support the current level of immigration.<ref name="HollifieldMartin2014">{{cite book |first1=James |last1=Hollifield |first2=Philip |last2=Martin |first3=Pia |last3=Orrenius |title=Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective, Third Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ys9jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |year=2014 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8047-8627-0 |page=11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106124820/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ys9jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |archivedate=January 6, 2017}}</ref><ref name="FreemanHansen2013">{{cite book |first1=Gary P. |last1=Freeman |first2=Randall |last2=Hansen |first3=David L. |last3=Leal |title=Immigration and Public Opinion in Liberal Democracies |url=https://books.google.com/?id=A0s03B_RjhIC&pg=PA8 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-21161-4 |page=8 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106131629/https://books.google.com/books?id=A0s03B_RjhIC&pg=PA8 |archivedate=January 6, 2017}}</ref> In 2019, a total of 341,180 immigrants were admitted to Canada, mainly from Asia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Immigrants Flock To Canada, While U.S. Declines|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/stuartanderson/2020/02/18/immigrants-flock-to-canada-while-us-declines/#12abbd306e54|last=Anderson|first=Stuart|date=|year=2020|website=Forbes|publisher=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|accessdate=April 16, 2020}}</ref> India, Philippines and China are the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.<ref>{{cite news |title=Is Canada asking countries for a million immigrants? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-48466771 |publisher=BBC News |date=June 6, 2019}}</ref> New immigrants settle mostly in major [[List of the 100 largest population centres in Canada|urban areas]] such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.<ref>{{cite book |first=Herbert G. |last=Grubel |title=The Effects of Mass Immigration on Canadian Living Standards and Society |url=https://books.google.com/?id=48LOyfxYihoC&pg=PA5 |year=2009 |publisher=Fraser Institute |isbn=978-0-88975-246-7 |page=5 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412162354/https://books.google.com/books?id=48LOyfxYihoC&pg=PA5 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada also accepts large numbers of [[refugee]]s,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/media/releases/2010/2010-11-01a.asp |title=Government of Canada Tables 2011 Immigration Plan |publisher=Canada News Centre |accessdate=December 12, 2010 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203235801/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/media/releases/2010/2010-11-01a.asp |archivedate=December 3, 2010}}</ref> accounting for over 10 percent of annual global [[third country resettlement|refugee resettlements]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Alan |last=Simmons |title=Immigration and Canada: Global and Transnational Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/?id=K0YwAJ7MpswC&pg=PA92 |year=2010 |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |isbn=978-1-55130-362-8 |page=92 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412135840/https://books.google.com/books?id=K0YwAJ7MpswC&pg=PA92 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jason |first1=Markusoff |title=Canada now brings in more refugees than the U.S. |url=https://www.macleans.ca/news/canada/refugee-resettlement-canada/ |website=macleans.ca |publisher=Rogers Media |date=January 23, 2019}}</ref>

===Immigration, population growth, and integration criticism===
{{Main|Immigration to Canada}}
Canada has historically maintained one of the developed world's most expansive immigration systems and has used immigration to support labour-force growth, demographic renewal, family reunification, refugee protection, and international education. Critics of recent policy settings argue that permanent and temporary admissions grew faster than housing supply, health-care capacity, transportation networks, schools, and labour-market absorption in many communities. In January 2026, Statistics Canada estimated that Canada had 2,676,441 non-permanent residents, even as quarterly population growth slowed following policy changes affecting international migration.<ref name="StatCan2026Q4Pop" /> The federal immigration levels plan for 2026 set targets of 380,000 new permanent residents, 155,000 new student arrivals, and 230,000 new temporary worker arrivals, with the student and temporary-worker targets reduced from the previous year's targets.<ref name="IRCCLevels2026">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/mandate/corporate-initiatives/levels.html |title=Canada's immigration levels |publisher=[[Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada]] |date=November 6, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

Immigration critics argue that rapid population growth has intensified rental-market competition, suppressed wages in some lower-paid sectors, strained public services, and weakened public consent for immigration. Statistics Canada research has found that immigrants and non-permanent residents use housing differently from Canadian-born residents, with non-permanent residents particularly concentrated in the rental market.<ref name="StatCanImmigrantHousing2025">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/36-28-0001/2025005/article/00003-eng.htm |title=Housing use of immigrants and non-permanent residents in ownership and rental markets |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] |date=May 28, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Supporters of immigration respond that newcomers are essential to labour supply, entrepreneurship, universities, caregiving, construction, and public finances, and that the core problem is not immigration itself but Canada's failure to build enough housing, recognize credentials efficiently, and expand infrastructure in line with population growth.

Canada's policy of [[multiculturalism in Canada|official multiculturalism]] is similarly praised as a source of pluralism and criticized by some residents as weakening shared civic identity, language cohesion, and social trust. Others argue that cultural tensions are often downstream of economic pressures, especially unaffordable housing, insecure work, regional inequality, and poor access to services.

Canada's population density, at {{convert|3.7|PD/km2}}, is among the lowest in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=101&SR=1&S=10&O=A |title=Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, 2011 and 2006 censuses |first=Government of Canada, Statistics |last=Canada |website=www12.statcan.ca |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006234239/http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=101&SR=1&S=10&O=A |archivedate=October 6, 2014}}</ref> Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.<ref name="OECD2014" /> About four-fifths of the population lives within {{convert|150|km|mi}} of the border with the contiguous United States.<ref>{{cite book |last=Custred |first=Glynn |title=Immigration policy and the terrorist threat in Canada and the United States |editor=Moens, Alexander |publisher=Fraser Institute |year=2008 |page=[https://archive.org/details/immigrationpolic0000unse/page/96 96] |chapter=Security Threats on America's Borders |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmiqBgnkAXYC&pg=PA96 |isbn=978-0-88975-235-1 |url-status=live |url=https://archive.org/details/immigrationpolic0000unse/page/96 }}</ref> The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the [[Quebec City–Windsor Corridor]] in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.<ref name="McMurryShepherd2004" /><ref name="OECD2014">{{cite book |author=OECD |title=OECD Environmental Performance Reviews OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Canada 2004 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=_mjWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |year=2014 |publisher=OECD Publishing |isbn=978-92-64-10778-6 |pages=142– |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160903062445/https://books.google.com/books?id=_mjWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 |archivedate=September 3, 2016}}</ref> An additional 30 percent live along the British Columbia [[Lower Mainland]] and the [[Calgary–Edmonton Corridor]] in Alberta.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-221-x/00503/t/th/4062283-eng.htm |title=Urban-rural population as a proportion of total population, Canada, provinces, territories and health regions |year=2001 |publisher=Statistics Canada |accessdate=May 23, 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610194606/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-221-x/00503/t/th/4062283-eng.htm |archivedate=June 10, 2011}}</ref>

The majority of Canadians (69.9 percent) live in family households, 26.8 percent report living alone, and those living with unrelated persons reported at 3.7 percent.<ref name="fam">{{cite web |url=http://vanierinstitute.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/CFT_2011-06-00_EN.pdf |title=Changing Families, New Understandings |publisher=Vanier institute (York University) |page=6 (PDF p 12) |year=2011 |first=Meg |last=Luxton |accessdate=February 2, 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204230715/http://vanierinstitute.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/CFT_2011-06-00_EN.pdf |archivedate=February 4, 2016}}</ref> The average size of a household in 2006 was 2.5 people.<ref name="fam" />
{{Largest metropolitan areas of Canada}}{{-}}

===Health===
{{Main|Healthcare in Canada}}
Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of [[publicly funded health care]], informally called Medicare.<ref name="AaseWaring2017">{{cite book |first1=Karina |last1=Aase |first2=Justin |last2=Waring |first3=Lene |last3=Schibevaag |title=Researching Quality in Care Transitions: International Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Jvs1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-62346-7 |pages=128–129}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/healthcare/public_vs_private.html |title=Public vs. private health care |publisher=CBC News |date=December 1, 2006}}</ref> It is guided by the provisions of the ''Canada Health Act'' of 1984,<ref name="Bégin1988">{{cite book |first=Monique |last=Bégin |title=Medicare: Canada's Right to Health |year=1988 |publisher=Optimum Pub. International |isbn=978-0-88890-219-1 |page=Intro}}</ref> and is [[Universal health care|universal]].<ref name="LeattMapa2003">{{cite book |first1=Peggy |last1=Leatt |first2=Joseph |last2=Mapa |title=Government Relations in the Health Care Industry |url=https://books.google.com/?id=2_y6J647QFoC&pg=PA81 |year=2003 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-56720-513-8 |page=81}}</ref> Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country."<ref>{{cite report|title=The Health of Canadians – The Federal Role |section-url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/content/sen/committee/372/soci/rep/repoct02vol6part7-e.htm |publisher=Parliament of Canada |accessdate=January 5, 2017 |section=17.2 Universality}}</ref> However, 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.<ref name="Kroll2012">{{cite book |first=David J. |last=Kroll |title=Capitalism Revisited: How to Apply Capitalism in Your Life |url=https://books.google.com/?id=STnr1N89LIUC&pg=PA126 |year=2012 |publisher=Dorrance Publishing |isbn=978-1-4349-1768-3 |page=126}}</ref> This mostly goes towards services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as [[prescription drug]]s, [[dentistry]] and [[optometry]].<ref name="Kroll2012" /> Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or utilizes secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities.<ref name="Chen2018">{{cite book |first=Tsai-Jyh |last=Chen |title=An International Comparison of Financial Consumer Protection |url=https://books.google.com/?id=1bBhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |year=2018 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-10-8441-6 |page=93}}</ref><ref name="Kroll2012" />

[[File:Health care cost rise.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Health care cost rise based on total expenditure on health as percent of GDP. Countries shown are the United States, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and Canada.]]

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a cost increase due to a [[demographic transition|demographic shift]] towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age was 39.5 years;<ref>{{cite web |last=Martel |first=Laurent |last2=Malenfant |first2=Éric Caron |title=2006 Census: Portrait of the Canadian Population in 2006, by Age and Sex |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=September 22, 2009 |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-551/index-eng.cfm?CFID=3347169&CFTOKEN=19485112 |access-date=June 28, 2020 |archive-date=September 20, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-551/index-eng.cfm?CFID=3347169&CFTOKEN=19485112 |dead-url=yes }}</ref> within twelve years it had risen to 42.4 years,<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html |title=The World FactBook – Canada |date=July 12, 2018 |work=The World Factbook |access-date=June 28, 2020 |archive-date=April 30, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430234227/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> with a life expectancy of 81.1 years.<ref>{{cite web |first=Thomas G. |last=Weiss |authorlink=Thomas G. Weiss |url=https://www.disabled-world.com/calculators-charts/ca-lifespan.php |title=Canadian Male and Female Life Expectancy Rates by Province and Territory |website=Disabled World |year=2017}}</ref> A 2016 report by the [[Chief Public Health Officer of Canada]] found that 88 percent of Canadians; one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/corporate/publications/chief-public-health-officer-reports-state-public-health-canada/2016-health-status-canadians/page-7-how-healthy-are-we-perceived-health.html |title=Health Status of Canadians - How healthy are we? - Perceived health |publisher=Report of the Chief Public Health Officer - Public Health Agency of Canada |year=2016}}</ref> 80 percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease; smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.<ref name="GregoryStephens2019">{{cite book |first1=David |last1=Gregory |first2=Tracey |last2=Stephens |first3=Christy |last3=Raymond-Seniuk |first4=Linda |last4=Patrick |title=Fundamentals: Perspectives on the Art and Science of Canadian Nursing |url=https://books.google.com/?id=uEeCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT75 |year=2019 |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health |isbn=978-1-4963-9850-5 |page=75}}</ref> Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries attributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of [[diabetes]] (types 1 and 2 combined).<ref name="GregoryStephens2019" /> Four chronic diseases; [[cancer]] (leading cause of death), [[cardiovascular diseases]], [[respiratory diseases]] and diabetes account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/publications/healthy-living/how-healthy-canadians.html#s1 |title=How Healthy are Canadians? |first=Public Health Agency of |last=Canada |year=2017 |website=canada.ca}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/health/health-systems/Health-at-a-Glance-2019-Chartset.pdf|title=Health at a Glance 2019 |work=OECD|year=2019}}</ref>

In 2017, the [[Canadian Institute for Health Information]] reported that healthcare spending reached $242{{nbsp}}billion, or 11.5 percent of Canada's [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) for that year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cihi.ca/en/total-health-spending-in-canada-reaches-242-billion|title=Total health spending in Canada reaches $242{{nbsp}}billion|year=2017|publisher=Canadian Institute for Health Information|quote=Spending on drugs is expected to outpace spending on hospitals and doctors.|access-date=April 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421231735/https://www.cihi.ca/en/total-health-spending-in-canada-reaches-242-billion|archive-date=April 21, 2019}}</ref> Canada's per-capita spending ranks as seventh on the [[list of countries by total health expenditure per capita]] in the OECD and above the average of 8.8 percent of GDP.<ref name=OECDstats>[http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SHA Health expenditure and financing]. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). Choose options from dropdown menus.</ref> Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/canada/Health-at-a-Glance-2017-Key-Findings-CANADA.pdf |title=Health at a Glance 2017 |publisher=OECD Publishing |year=2017}}</ref> In 2017 Canada ranked above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/health/health-systems/health-at-a-glance-19991312.htm |title=Health at a Glance - OECD Indicators by country |year=2017 |publisher=OECD Publishing}}</ref> A comprehensive study from 2017 of the top 11 countries ranked Canada's health care system third-to-last.<ref name="urlCanadathird-last">{{cite web |url=https://interactives.commonwealthfund.org/2017/july/mirror-mirror// |title=International Comparison Reflects Flaws and Opportunities for Better U.S. Health Care |format= |work=Commonwealth Fund |accessdate=March 6, 2020}}</ref> Identified weaknesses of Canada's system were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.<ref name="urlCanadathird-last"/>

====Wait times, access, and medical assistance in dying====
Canadian Medicare is frequently defended as a symbol of equality, but it is also criticized for long wait times, weak access to primary care, shortages of family physicians, limited public coverage for dental care, prescription drugs, mental health, and allied health services, and political resistance to private or mixed delivery models. In 2025, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that patients waited longer for diagnostic imaging in 2024 than in 2019, with median wait times rising by 15 days for MRI scans and by 3 days for CT scans.<ref name="CIHIWaitTimes2025">{{cite web |url=https://www.cihi.ca/en/wait-times-for-priority-procedures-in-canada-2025 |title=Wait times for priority procedures in Canada, 2025 |publisher=[[Canadian Institute for Health Information]] |date=June 12, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> CIHI also reported that the share of Canadian adults with a regular doctor or place of care declined from 93 percent in 2016 to 86 percent in 2023, the lowest proportion among ten countries surveyed, representing an estimated four million adults without a primary-care provider.<ref name="CIHIPrimaryCare2023">{{cite web |url=https://www.cihi.ca/en/international-survey-shows-canada-lags-behind-peer-countries-in-access-to-primary-health-care |title=International survey shows Canada lags behind peer countries in access to primary health care |publisher=[[Canadian Institute for Health Information]] |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

[[Medical assistance in dying in Canada]] is another major subject of domestic and international debate. Health Canada reported that 16,499 people received MAID in 2024, representing 5.1 percent of deaths in Canada; 95.6 percent of cases were under Track 1, where natural death was reasonably foreseeable, while 4.4 percent were under Track 2, where natural death was not reasonably foreseeable.<ref name="HealthCanadaMAID2024">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/health-system-services/annual-report-medical-assistance-dying-2024.html |title=Sixth Annual Report on Medical Assistance in Dying in Canada, 2024 |publisher=[[Health Canada]] |date=November 28, 2025 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref> Supporters frame MAID as an autonomy and dignity right protected by safeguards. Critics, including disability-rights groups, argue that expanding MAID while disability supports, housing, palliative care, and mental-health services remain inadequate risks normalizing death as a response to poverty, isolation, or treatable suffering. Disability-rights organizations have challenged the constitutionality of Canada's assisted-dying framework for people whose deaths are not reasonably foreseeable.<ref name="ReutersMAIDDisabilityChallenge2024">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/disability-rights-groups-challenge-canadas-assisted-death-framework-2024-09-26/ |title=Disability rights groups challenge Canada's assisted death framework |publisher=[[Reuters]] |date=September 26, 2024 |access-date=July 5, 2026}}</ref>

===Education===
{{main|Education in Canada|Higher education in Canada}}
[[File:14th G7 summit.jpg|thumb|[[14th G7 summit]] leaders at the [[University of Toronto]]: (left to right) [[Jacques Delors]], [[Ciriaco De Mita]], [[Margaret Thatcher]], [[Ronald Reagan]], Brian Mulroney, [[François Mitterrand]], [[Helmut Kohl]] and [[Noboru Takeshita]].]]
Education in Canada is for the most part provided [[public education|publicly]], funded and overseen by federal, [[Provinces of Canada|provincial]], and [[local government]]s.<ref name = "2015 federal budget">{{cite web |author=Lucy Scholey |title=2015 federal budget 'disappointing' for post-secondary students: CFS |url=http://metronews.ca/news/canada/1347155/2015-federal-budget-disappointing-for-post-secondary-students-cfs/ |accessdate=June 1, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603103455/http://metronews.ca/news/canada/1347155/2015-federal-budget-disappointing-for-post-secondary-students-cfs/ |archive-date=June 3, 2015}}</ref> Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province.<ref>{{Cite book | title =Canada 1956 the Official Handbook of Present Conditions and Recent Progress | year =1959 | location =Ottawa | publisher = Canada Year Book Section Information Services Division Dominion Bureau of Statistics}}</ref> Education in Canada is generally divided into [[primary education]], followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.<ref name="Epstein2008">{{cite book |first=Irving |last=Epstein |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Children's Issues Worldwide |url=https://books.google.com/?id=FI3zJQzOdcIC&pg=PA73 |year=2008 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-313-33617-1 |page=73 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412153142/https://books.google.com/books?id=FI3zJQzOdcIC&pg=PA73 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education provision.<ref name="MontesinosVela2013">{{cite book |first1=Vicente |last1=Montesinos |first2=José |last2=Manuel Vela |title=Innovations in Governmental Accounting |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rqzwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA305 |year=2013 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-4757-5504-6 |page=305 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412205344/https://books.google.com/books?id=rqzwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA305 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada has a large number of Universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.<ref name="ShanahanNilson2016">{{cite book|author1=Theresa Shanahan|author2=Michelle Nilson|author3=Li Jeen Broshko|title=The Handbook of Canadian Higher Education|url=https://books.google.com/?id=VpcHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59|year=2016|publisher=MQUP|isbn=978-1-55339-506-5|page=59}}</ref> Established in 1663, [[Université Laval]] is the oldest post-secondary [[Higher education in Canada|institution in Canada]].<ref name="BlakeKeshen2017p249">{{cite book|author1=Raymond B. Blake|author2=Jeffrey A. Keshen|author3=Norman J. Knowles|author4=Barbara J. Messamore|title=Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada|url=https://books.google.com/?id=PqEvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA249|year=2017|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-3555-5|page=249}}</ref> The largest University is the University of Toronto with over 85,000 students.<ref name="Richards2019">{{cite book|author=Larry Wayne Richards|title=University of Toronto: An Architectural Tour (The Campus Guide) 2nd Edition|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZTKODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11|year=2019|publisher=Princeton Architectural Press|isbn=978-1-61689-824-3|page=11}}</ref> Four Universities are regularly ranked among the top 100 world-wide, namely University of Toronto, [[University of British Columbia]], [[McGill University]] and [[McMaster University]] , with a total of 18 [[Rankings of universities in Canada|Universities ranked]] in the top 500 worldwide.<ref name="ARWU2019 | Canada Universities ">{{cite web |url=http://www.shanghairanking.com/World-University-Rankings-2019/Canada.html |title=World University Rankings - 2019 | Canada Universities in Top 1000 universities | Academic Ranking of World Universities - 2019 | Shanghai Ranking - 2019 |accessdate=March 6, 2020 |archive-date=August 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812221131/http://www.shanghairanking.com/World-University-Rankings-2019/Canada.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref>

According to a 2019 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;<ref name="world">{{cite web |url=http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/most-educated-countries/ |title=Most Educated Countries 2019 |publisher=World Population Review |year=2019 |accessdate=September 7, 2019}}</ref> the country ranks first worldwide in the number of adults having [[tertiary education]], with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.<ref name="world" /> Canada spends about 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS |title=Government expenditure on education as % of GDP (%) |publisher=World Bank |year=2015 |accessdate=January 4, 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105103625/http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS |archivedate=January 5, 2016}}</ref> The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/48630868.pdf |title=Financial and human resources invested in Education |publisher=OECD |year=2011 |accessdate=July 4, 2014 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308202848/http://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/48630868.pdf |archivedate=March 8, 2014}}</ref> {{As of|2014}}, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.<ref name="OECDBLI2">{{cite web |url=http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/ |title=Canada |work=[[OECD Better Life Index]] |publisher=OECD |year=2014 |accessdate=February 13, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218152526/http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/ |archivedate=February 18, 2015}}</ref>

The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Council of Ministers of Education, Canada |title=Overview of Education in Canada |url=http://www.educationau-incanada.ca/index.aspx?action=educationsystem-systemeeducation&lang=eng |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100214200211/http://www.educationau-incanada.ca/index.aspx?action=educationsystem-systemeeducation&lang=eng |archivedate=February 14, 2010 |accessdate=October 20, 2010}}</ref> contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.<ref name="cia" /> In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Department of Finance Canada |title=Creating Opportunities for All Canadians |url=http://www.fin.gc.ca/ec2005/agenda/agc4-eng.asp |date=November 14, 2005 |accessdate=May 22, 2006 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100423192244/http://www.fin.gc.ca/ec2005/agenda/agc4-eng.asp |archivedate=April 23, 2010}}</ref> The [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] indicates Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/12/46643496.pdf |title=Comparing countries' and economies' performances |publisher=OECD |year=2009 |accessdate=May 22, 2012 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307105640/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/54/12/46643496.pdf |archivedate=March 7, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadian-education-among-best-in-the-world-oecd-1.583143 |title=Canadian education among best in the world: OECD |publisher=CTV News |date=December 7, 2010 |accessdate=February 15, 2013 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528085955/http://www.ctvnews.ca/canadian-education-among-best-in-the-world-oecd-1.583143 |archivedate=May 28, 2013}}</ref> ranking the overall knowledge and skills of Canadian 15-year-olds as the sixth-best in the world. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |title=PISA - Results in Focus |publisher=OECD |url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf|pages=5|year=2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Canada - Student performance (PISA 2015) |publisher=OECD |url=http://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?plotter=h5&primaryCountry=CAN&treshold=10&topic=PI}}</ref>

===Ethnicity===
{{main|Canadians}}

According to the 2016 Canadian Census, the country's largest [[Ethnic origins of people in Canada|self-reported ethnic origin]] is Canadian (accounting for 32 percent of the population),{{efn| name=Canadian|1=All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by [[Canadian nationality law|Canada's nationality laws]]. However, "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire. "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones), however no-longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Kate |last1=Bezanson |first2=Michelle |last2=Webber |title=Rethinking Society in the 21st Century, Fourth Edition: Critical Readings in Sociology |url=https://books.google.com/?id=oWO_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA455 |year=2016 |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |isbn=978-1-55130-936-1 |pages=455–456}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Barry |last1=Edmonston |first2=Eric |last2=Fong |title=The Changing Canadian Population |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VVYOgvFPvBEC&pg=PA294 |year=2011 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-3793-4 |pages=294–296}}</ref>}} followed by [[English Canadian|English]] (18.3 percent), [[Scottish Canadian|Scottish]] (13.9 percent), French (13.6 percent), [[Irish Canadian|Irish]] (13.4 percent), [[Canadians of German ethnicity|German]] (9.6 percent), [[Chinese Canadian|Chinese]] (5.1 percent), [[Italian Canadians|Italian]] (4.6 percent), First Nations (4.4 percent), [[Indo-Canadians|Indian]] (4.0 percent), and [[Ukrainian Canadian|Ukrainian]] (3.9 percent).<ref name="ethnicity">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D |title=Immigration and Ethnocultural Diversity Highlight Tables |publisher=statcan.gc.ca |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027195802/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/hlt-fst/imm/Table.cfm?Lang=E&T=31&Geo=01&SO=4D |archivedate=October 27, 2017 |date=October 25, 2017}}</ref> There are 600 recognized [[List of First Nations peoples|First Nations governments or bands]], encompassing a total of 1,525,565 people.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aboriginal Identity (8), Sex (3) and Age Groups (12) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census – 20% Sample Data |work=2006 Census: Topic-based tabulations |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=June 12, 2008 |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=837928&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=89122&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=73&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |accessdate=September 18, 2009 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018234534/http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=837928&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=89122&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=73&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |archivedate=October 18, 2011}}</ref> Canada's Indigenous population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and four percent of Canada's population claimed an Indigenous identity in 2006. Another 22.3 percent of the population belonged to a non-Indigenous [[visible minority]].<ref name="Census Profile, 2016 Census">{{cite web |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census |work=Statistics Canada |date=February 8, 2017 |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 | access-date=February 16, 2018 | url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015095154/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |archivedate=October 15, 2017}}</ref> In 2016, the largest visible minority groups were [[South Asian Canadian|South Asian]] (5.6 percent), Chinese (5.1 percent) and [[Black Canadians|Black]] (3.5 percent).<ref name="Census Profile, 2016 Census" /> Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.<ref name="Census Profile, 2016 Census" /> In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible minority groups.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml |title=Visible Minorities and Aboriginal Peoples in Vancouver's Labour Market |last=Pendakur |first=Krishna |publisher=Simon Fraser University |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516021011/http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml |archivedate=May 16, 2011 |accessdate=June 30, 2014}}</ref> Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority under the ''[[Employment equity (Canada)|Employment Equity Act]]'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Classification of visible minority |work=Statistics Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |date=July 25, 2008 |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |accessdate=September 18, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714060402/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/concepts/definitions/minority01-minorite01a-eng.htm |archivedate=July 14, 2011}}
</ref> and this is the definition that Statistics Canada also uses.
===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of Canada}}
[[File:Bilinguisme au Canada-fr.svg|thumb|alt=Map of Canada with English speakers and French speakers at a percentage|Approximately 98 percent of Canadians can speak either or both English and French:<ref name="Highlights">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-555/p1-eng.cfm |title=2006 Census: The Evolving Linguistic Portrait, 2006 Census: Highlights |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]], {{Text|Dated 2006}}|accessdate=October 12, 2010 |url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429013140/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-555/p1-eng.cfm|archivedate=April 29, 2011}}</ref><small>{{Legend|#FFE400|English – 56.9%}}{{Legend|#D8A820|English and French – 16.1%}}{{Legend|#B07400|French – 21.3%}}{{Legend|#F5F5DC|Sparsely populated area ( < 0.4 persons per km<sup>2</sup>)}}</small>]]
A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the [[official language]]s) being the [[first language|mother tongues]] of approximately 56 percent and 21 percent of Canadians, respectively.<ref name="Highlightsb">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |title=Population by mother tongue and age groups (total), 2016 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015095154/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&TABID=1 |archivedate=October 15, 2017 |date=February 8, 2017}}</ref> As of the 2016 Census, just over 7.3 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (1,227,680 first-language speakers), [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (501,680), Spanish (458,850), [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (431,385), [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (419,895), German (384,040), and Italian (375,645).<ref name="Highlightsb" /> Canada's federal government practices official bilingualism, which is applied by the [[Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages|Commissioner of Official Languages]] in consonance with [[Section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] and the Federal ''[[Official Languages Act (Canada)|Official Languages Act]]'' English and French have equal status in federal courts, parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French and official-[[minority language|language minorities]] are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.<ref>{{cite web |title=Official Languages and You |publisher=Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages |date=June 16, 2009 |url=http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php |accessdate=September 10, 2009 |archive-date=October 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027121057/http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/html/faq1_e.php |dead-url=yes }}</ref>

The 1977 [[Charter of the French Language]] established French as the official language of Quebec.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bourhis |first=Richard Y |last2=Montaruli |first2=Elisa |last3=Amiot |first3=Catherine E |title=Language planning and French-English bilingual communication: Montreal field studies from 1977 to 1997 |journal=[[International Journal of the Sociology of Language]] |date=May 2007 |issue=185 |pages=187–224 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2007.031 |volume=2007}}</ref> Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial [[Francophone]] populations in [[Demographics of New Brunswick|New Brunswick]], [[Franco-Albertan|Alberta]], and [[Franco-Manitoban|Manitoba]]; [[Franco-Ontarian|Ontario]] has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.<ref name="Webber2015">{{cite book |first=Jeremy |last=Webber |title=The Constitution of Canada: A Contextual Analysis |url=https://books.google.com/?id=f357BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 |year=2015 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-78225-631-1 |page=214 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181644/https://books.google.com/books?id=f357BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA214 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population.<ref name="Auer2010b">{{cite book |first=Peter |last=Auer |title=Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation. Theories and methods |url=https://books.google.com/?id=2_aPmMkzK_AC&pg=PA387 |year=2010 |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-018002-2 |page=387 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182158/https://books.google.com/books?id=2_aPmMkzK_AC&pg=PA387 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hayday |first=Matthew |title=Bilingual Today, United Tomorrow: Official Languages in Education and Canadian Federalism |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2005 |page=49 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=3D6LPBGT59kC&pg=PA49 |isbn=978-0-7735-2960-1 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412142623/https://books.google.com/books?id=3D6LPBGT59kC&pg=PA49 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.<ref>{{cite book |last=Heller |first=Monica |title=Crosswords: language, education and ethnicity in French Ontario |year=2003 |publisher=[[Mouton de Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-017687-2 |pages=72, 74}}</ref> There are 11 [[Languages of Canada#Aboriginal languages|Indigenous language groups]], composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-589-x/4067801-eng.htm |title=Aboriginal languages |publisher=Statistics Canada |accessdate=October 5, 2009 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429005405/https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-589-x/4067801-eng.htm |archivedate=April 29, 2011}}</ref> Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fettes |first=Mark |last2=Norton |first2=Ruth |title=Aboriginal education: fulfilling the promise |editor=Castellano, Marlene Brant |editor2=Davis, Lynne |editor3=Lahache, Louise |publisher=UBC Press |year=2001 |page=39 |chapter=Voices of Winter: Aboriginal Languages and Public Policy in Canada |isbn=978-0-7748-0783-8}}</ref> [[Inuktitut]] is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.<ref>{{cite book |last=Russell |first=Peter H |title=Unfinished constitutional business?: rethinking indigenous self-determination |editor-last=Hocking |editor-first=Barbara |publisher=[[Aboriginal Studies Press]] |year=2005 |page=180 |chapter=Indigenous Self-Determination: Is Canada as Good as it Gets? |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mxreMX_cf4EC&pg=PA180 |isbn=978-0-85575-466-2 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144722/https://books.google.com/books?id=mxreMX_cf4EC&pg=PA180 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

Additionally, Canada is home to many [[sign language]]s, some of which are Indigenous.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cad.ca/issues-positions/language/ |title=Sign languages |publisher=Canadian Association of the Deaf – Association des Sourds du Canada |year=2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730163508/http://cad.ca/issues-positions/language/ |archivedate=July 30, 2017}}</ref> [[American Sign Language]] (ASL) is spoken across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.<ref name="JepsenClerck2015">{{cite book |last1=Jepsen |first1=Julie Bakken |last2=Clerck |first2=Goedele De |last3=Lutalo-Kiingi |first3=Sam |title=Sign Languages of the World: A Comparative Handbook |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA702 |year=2015 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=978-1-61451-817-4 |page=702 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106131756/https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZqnCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA702 |archivedate=January 6, 2017}}</ref> Due to its historical relation to the francophone culture, [[Quebec Sign Language]] (LSQ) is spoken primarily in Quebec, although there are sizeable Francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba.<ref name="BaileyDolby2002">{{cite book |last1=Bailey |first1=Carole Sue |last2=Dolby |first2=Kathy |last3=Campbell |first3=Hilda Marian |title=The Canadian Dictionary of ASL Canadian Cultural Society of the Dead |url=https://books.google.com/?id=_D_ZRFm_4EsC&pg=PR11 |year=2002 |publisher=University of Alberta |isbn=978-0-88864-300-1 |page=11 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106130556/https://books.google.com/books?id=_D_ZRFm_4EsC&pg=PR11 |archivedate=January 6, 2017}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Canada}}

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. Canada has no official church, and the government is officially committed to [[religious pluralism]].<ref name="Moon2008">{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Moon |title=Law and Religious Pluralism in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ah66SQsk4hAC&pg=PA1 |year=2008 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-1497-3 |pages=1–4 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181629/https://books.google.com/books?id=ah66SQsk4hAC&pg=PA1 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> [[Freedom of religion in Canada]] is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.<ref name="Scott2012n">{{cite book |first=Jamie S. |last=Scott |title=The Religions of Canadians |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GbZJ2ZszYw8C&pg=PA345 |year=2012 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0516-9 |page=345 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412205504/https://books.google.com/books?id=GbZJ2ZszYw8C&pg=PA345 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.<ref name="BoyleSheen2013">{{cite book |first1=Kevin |last1=Boyle |first2=Juliet |last2=Sheen |title=Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JxgFWwK8dXwC&pg=PT219 |year=2013 |publisher=University of Essex – Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-72229-7 |page=219 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152401/https://books.google.com/books?id=JxgFWwK8dXwC&pg=PT219 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> With [[Christianity]] in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,<ref name="Roberts2005w">{{cite book |first=Lance W. |last=Roberts |title=Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=qnPOqwsR5UsC&pg=PA359 |year=2005 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-2955-7 |page=359 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413032901/https://books.google.com/books?id=qnPOqwsR5UsC&pg=PA359 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref> Canada has become a [[Postchristianity|post-Christian]], [[secularity|secular]] state.<ref name="BramadatSeljak2009">{{cite book |first1=Paul |last1=Bramadat |first2=David |last2=Seljak |title=Religion and Ethnicity in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VymssyK1Hs0C&pg=PA3 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-1018-7 |page=3 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413033108/https://books.google.com/books?id=VymssyK1Hs0C&pg=PA3 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Bowen2004">{{cite book |first=Kurt |last=Bowen |title=Christians in a Secular World: The Canadian Experience |url=https://books.google.com/?id=__38sGZLrvYC&pg=PA174 |year=2004 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-7194-5 |page=174 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181907/https://books.google.com/books?id=__38sGZLrvYC&pg=PA174 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref name="GregoryJohnston2009">{{cite book |first1=Derek |last1=Gregory |first2=Ron |last2=Johnston |first3=Geraldine |last3=Pratt |first4=Michael |last4=Watts |first5=Sarah |last5=Whatmore |title=The Dictionary of Human Geography |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5liCbG4J9LYC&pg=PT672 |year=2009 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-4443-1056-6 |page=672 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412160737/https://books.google.com/books?id=5liCbG4J9LYC&pg=PT672 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref name="BermanBhargava2013b">{{cite book |first1=Bruce J. |last1=Berman |first2=Rajeev |last2=Bhargava |first3=Andre |last3=Lalibert |title=Secular States and Religious Diversity |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wrYAAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |year=2013 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-2515-3 |page=103 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412155519/https://books.google.com/books?id=wrYAAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The majority of Canadians consider [[Importance of religion by country|religion to be unimportant]] in their daily lives,<ref name="Punnett2015a">{{cite book |first=Betty Jane |last=Punnett |title=International Perspectives on Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management |url=https://books.google.com/?id=tG2mBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |year=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-46745-8 |page=116 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107053830/https://books.google.com/books?id=tG2mBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116 |archivedate=January 7, 2016}}</ref> but still believe in God.<ref name="Haskell2009">{{cite book |first=David M. |last=Haskell |title=Through a Lens Darkly: How the News Media Perceive and Portray Evangelicals |url=https://books.google.com/?id=TzJMfNOR5O0C&pg=PA50 |year=2009 |publisher=Clements Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-894667-92-0 |page=50 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413033206/https://books.google.com/books?id=TzJMfNOR5O0C&pg=PA50 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref>

According to the 2011 National Household Survey, 67.3 percent of Canadians identify as Christian; of these, [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] make up the largest group, accounting for 38.7 percent of the population. Much of the remainder is made up of [[Protestantism|Protestants]], who accounted for approximately 27 percent in a 2011 survey.<ref name="2011NHSreligiondetailed">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=105399&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=95&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |title=Tabulation: Religion (108), Immigrant Status and Period of Immigration (11), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey |publisher=Statistics Canada |date=January 7, 2016 |accessdate=November 15, 2016 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220034621/http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=105399&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=95&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= |archivedate=December 20, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2013/06/27/canadas-changing-religious-landscape/ |title=Canada's Changing Religious Landscape | Pew Research Center |publisher=[[Pew Research Center|Pewforum.org]] |date=June 27, 2013 |accessdate=April 21, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310042724/http://www.pewforum.org/2013/06/27/canadas-changing-religious-landscape/ |archivedate=March 10, 2017}}</ref> The largest Protestant [[Christian denomination|denomination]] is the [[United Church of Canada]] (accounting for 6.1 percent of Canadians), followed by the [[Anglican Church of Canada]] (5.0 percent), and [[Baptists in Canada|various Baptist sects]] (1.9 percent).<ref name="statcan1" /> Secularization has been growing since the 1960s.<ref>Hans Mol, "The secularization of Canada." ''Research in the social scientific study of religion'' (1989) 1:197–215.</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Mark A. |last=Noll |title=A History of Christianity in the United States and Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VGF3wbzzy9QC&pg=PR15 |year=1992 |pages=15–17 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412133318/https://books.google.com/books?id=VGF3wbzzy9QC&pg=PR15 |archivedate=April 12, 2016 |isbn=978-0-8028-0651-2}}</ref> In 2011, 23.9 percent declared [[irreligion|no religious affiliation]], compared to 16.5 percent in 2001.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/15/no-religion-is-increasingly-popular-for-canadians-report_n_3283268.html |title='No Religion' Is Increasingly Popular For Canadians: Report |work=[[HuffPost]] |date=May 15, 2013 |accessdate=May 19, 2013 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609215833/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/15/no-religion-is-increasingly-popular-for-canadians-report_n_3283268.html |archivedate=June 9, 2013}}</ref> Islam is the largest non-Christian religion in Canada, constituting 3.2 percent of its population. It is also the fastest growing religion in Canada.<ref name="nationalpost1">{{cite news|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/2013/05/08/survey-shows-muslim-population-is-fastest-growing-religion-in-canada/ |title=Muslims fastest growing religious population in Canada | National Post |publisher=News.nationalpost.com |accessdate=July 14, 2013}}</ref> 1.5 percent of the Canadian population is Hindu and 1.4 percent is Sikh.<ref name="statcan1" />

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Canada}}
[[File:Canflagcartoon.jpg|thumb|right|A political cartoon from 1910 on Canada's early European multicultural identity, depicting the [[French tricolor|French tricolour]], the [[Union Jack]], the [[maple leaf]], and [[fleurs-de-lis]]]]

Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a "[[just society]]" are constitutionally protected.<ref name="LaSelva1996k">{{cite book |first=Samuel Victor |last=LaSelva |title=The Moral Foundations of Canadian Federalism: Paradoxes, Achievements, and Tragedies of Nationhood |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rcqMl9MK_x0C&pg=PA86 |year=1996 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-1422-5 |page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Rand |last=Dyck |title=Canadian Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BUOoN8e5Ps0C&pg=PA88 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |isbn=978-0-17-650343-7 |page=88 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412160000/https://books.google.com/books?id=BUOoN8e5Ps0C&pg=PA88 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Newman2012">{{cite book |first=Stephen L. |last=Newman |title=Constitutional Politics in Canada and the United States |url=https://books.google.com/?id=ELWjuzADl7UC&pg=PA203 |date=2012 |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |isbn=978-0-7914-8584-2 |page=203 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412151520/https://books.google.com/books?id=ELWjuzADl7UC&pg=PA203 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people.<ref name="GuoWong2015">{{cite book |first1=Shibao |last1=Guo |first2=Lloyd |last2=Wong |title=Revisiting Multiculturalism in Canada: Theories, Policies and Debates |url=https://books.google.com/?id=HW8iCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA317 |year=2015 |publisher=University of Calgary |isbn=978-94-6300-208-0 |page=317 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413033116/https://books.google.com/books?id=HW8iCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA317 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref> Multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments,<ref name="Sikka2014v">{{cite book |first=Sonia |last=Sikka |title=Multiculturalism and Religious Identity: Canada and India |url=https://books.google.com/?id=e4NLBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 |year=2014 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-9220-9 |page=237 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412145209/https://books.google.com/books?id=e4NLBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.<ref name="JohnsonJoseph-Salisbury2018">{{cite book |first1=Azeezat |last1=Johnson |first2=Remi |last2=Joseph-Salisbury |first3=Beth |last3=Kamunge |title=The Fire Now: Anti-Racist Scholarship in Times of Explicit Racial Violence |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Ib2rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT148 |date=2018 |publisher=Zed Books |isbn=978-1-78699-382-3 |page=148}}</ref><ref name="Caplow2001a">{{cite book |first=Theodore |last=Caplow |title=Leviathan Transformed: Seven National States in the New Century |url=https://books.google.com/?id=JRunB0w4G-EC&pg=PA146 |year=2001 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-2304-3 |page=146 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152627/https://books.google.com/books?id=JRunB0w4G-EC&pg=PA146 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and there is a [[Culture of Quebec|French Canadian culture]] that is distinct from English Canadian culture.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=NtvKidOH9pgC&pg=PA61 |page=61 |title=Political culture and constitutionalism: a comparative approach |first1=Daniel P |last1=Franklin |first2=Michael J |last2=Baun |publisher=Sharpe |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-56324-416-2 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152401/https://books.google.com/books?id=NtvKidOH9pgC&pg=PA61 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> However, as a whole, Canada is, in theory, a [[cultural mosaic]]—a collection of regional ethnic subcultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Garcea |first=Joseph |last2=Kirova |first2=Anna |last3=Wong |first3=Lloyd |title=Multiculturalism Discourses in Canada |journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies |date=January 2009 |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1353/ces.0.0069}}</ref>

Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective [[economic migrant|immigration]], [[social integration]], and [[Suppression of dissent|suppression]] of far-right politics, has wide public support.<ref name="Ambrosea">{{Cite journal |title=Canadian Multiculturalism and the Absence of the Far Right – Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=213–236 |doi=10.1080/13537113.2015.1032033 |year=2015 |first1=Emma |last1=Ambrosea |first2=Cas |last2=Muddea}}</ref> Government policies such as publicly-funded health care, [[Income taxes in Canada|higher taxation]] to [[Canadian federal budget|redistribute wealth]], the outlawing of [[Capital punishment in Canada|capital punishment]], strong efforts to eliminate [[poverty in Canada|poverty]], strict [[Gun politics in Canada|gun control]]; alongside legislation with a [[social liberal]] attitude toward [[Feminism in Canada|women's rights]] (like [[Abortion in Canada|pregnancy termination]]), [[LGBT rights in Canada|LGBTQ rights]], [[Euthanasia in Canada|assisted euthanasia]] and [[cannabis in Canada|cannabis use]] are indicators of Canada's political and [[Canadian values|cultural values]].<ref name="HollifieldMartin2014b">{{cite book |first1=James |last1=Hollifield |first2=Philip L. |last2=Martin |first3=Pia |last3=Orrenius |title=Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective, Third Edition |url=https://books.google.com/?id=oec_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |year=2014 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-8735-2 |page=103}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Darrell |last1=Bricker |first2=John |last2=Wright |title=What Canadians think about almost everything |publisher=Doubleday Canada |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-385-65985-7 |pages=8–28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nanosresearch.com/sites/default/files/POLNAT-S15-T705.pdf |title=Exploring Canadian values |date=October 2016 |author=Nanos Research |accessdate=February 1, 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405113447/http://nanosresearch.com/sites/default/files/POLNAT-S15-T705.pdf |archivedate=April 5, 2017}}</ref> Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the [[National Parks of Canada|National park system]] and the ''Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms''.<ref name="polls">{{cite web |url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/research/por-multi-imm/sec02-1.asp |title=A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006–2009 |publisher=Government of Canada |year=2011 |accessdate=December 18, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222133226/http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/research/por-multi-imm/sec02-1.asp |archivedate=December 22, 2015}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=http://www.queensu.ca/cora/_files/fc2010report.pdf |title=Focus Canada (Final Report) |publisher=Queen's University |department=The Environics Institute |year=2010 |page=4 (PDF page 8) |accessdate=December 12, 2015 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204231952/http://www.queensu.ca/cora/_files/fc2010report.pdf |archivedate=February 4, 2016}}
</ref>

Historically, Canada has been influenced by [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British]], [[French culture|French]], and Indigenous cultures and traditions. Through their language, [[Native American art|art]] and [[First Nations music|music]], Indigenous peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA3 |pages=3–6 |title=Aboriginal peoples of Canada: a short introduction |first=Paul R |last=Magocsi |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8020-3630-8 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181938/https://books.google.com/books?id=GkAuYRVjlE8C&pg=PA3 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.<ref name="TetteyPuplampu2005">{{cite book |first1=Wisdom |last1=Tettey |first2=Korbla P. |last2=Puplampu |title=The African Diaspora in Canada: Negotiating Identity & Belonging |url=https://books.google.com/?id=QpoxptJZ73sC&pg=PA100 |year=2005 |publisher=University of Calgary |isbn=978-1-55238-175-5 |page=100 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412140508/https://books.google.com/books?id=QpoxptJZ73sC&pg=PA100 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> [[Canadian humour]] is an integral part of the Canadian identity and is reflected in its [[Canadian folklore|folklore]], literature, music, art, and media. The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony, parody, and satire.<ref name="Nieguth2015">{{cite book |first=Tim |last=Nieguth |title=The Politics of Popular Culture: Negotiating Power, Identity, and Place |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wMjMCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |year=2015 |publisher=MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-9685-6 |page=188 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182002/https://books.google.com/books?id=wMjMCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Many [[List of Canadian comedians|Canadian comedians]] have achieved international success in the American TV and film industries and are amongst the most recognized in the world.<ref name="LeeYork2016">{{cite book |first1=Katja |last1=Lee |first2=Lorraine |last2=York |title=Celebrity Cultures in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=8r0eDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT180 |year=2016 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-1-77112-224-5 |page=180 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=8r0eDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT180 |archivedate=March 20, 2018}}</ref>

Canada has a well-developed [[Media of Canada|media sector]], but its cultural output; particularly in [[Cinema of Canada|English films]], [[Television in Canada|television shows]], and [[List of Canadian magazines|magazines]], is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.<ref name="Vipond2011y">{{cite book |first=Mary |last=Vipond |title=The Mass Media in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-0eDs29g49YC&pg=PA57 |edition=4 |year=2011 |publisher=James Lorimer Company |isbn=978-1-55277-658-2 |page=57 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412162022/https://books.google.com/books?id=-0eDs29g49YC&pg=PA57 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the [[National Film Board of Canada]] (NFB), and the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC).<ref name="Edwardson2008c">{{cite book |first=Ryan |last=Edwardson |title=Canadian Content: Culture and the Quest for Nationhood |url=https://archive.org/details/canadiancontentc0000edwa |url-access=registration |year=2008 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-9519-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/canadiancontentc0000edwa/page/59 59] }}</ref>

===Symbols===
{{main|National symbols of Canada}}
[[File:Beaver sculpture, Centre Block.jpg|thumb|alt=''The mother beaver'' sculpture outside the House of Commons|''The mother beaver'' on the Canadian parliament's [[Peace Tower]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/about/house/collections/collection_profiles/CP_mother_beaver-e.htm |title=The mother beaver – Collection Profiles |publisher=The House of Commons Heritage |year=2013 |first=David |last=Monaghan |accessdate=December 12, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222075619/http://www.parl.gc.ca/about/house/collections/collection_profiles/CP_mother_beaver-e.htm |archivedate=December 22, 2015}}</ref> The five flowers on the shield each represent an ethnicity—[[Tudor rose]]: [[English people|English]]; [[Fleur de lis]]: [[French people|French]]; [[thistle]]: [[Scottish people|Scottish]]; [[shamrock]]: [[Irish people|Irish]]; and [[leek]]: [[Welsh people|Welsh]].]]

Canada's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Indigenous sources. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and [[Canadian Red Ensign|previous flags]], and on the [[Arms of Canada]].<ref name="symbol1" /> The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the [[royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom]] with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.<ref name="Gough2010g">{{cite book |first=Barry M. |last=Gough |title=Historical Dictionary of Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z4xK6CasigkC&pg=PA71 |date=2010 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7504-3 |page=71 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181920/https://books.google.com/books?id=z4xK6CasigkC&pg=PA71 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Other prominent symbols include the national motto "{{lang|la|A Mari Usque Ad Mare|italics=on}}" ("From Sea to Sea"),<ref name="Nischik2008">{{cite book|first=Reingard M. |last= Nischik|title=History of Literature in Canada: English-Canadian and French-Canadian|url=https://books.google.com/?id=VYgTaGwa4nsC&pg=PA113|year=2008|publisher=Camden House|isbn=978-1-57113-359-5|pages=113–114}}</ref> the sports of [[ice hockey]] and [[lacrosse]], the [[beaver]], [[Canada goose]], [[common loon]], [[Canadian horse]], the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,<ref name="symbol1">{{cite book |author=Canadian Heritage |title=Symbols of andCanada |url=http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.693005/publication.html |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-660-18615-3 |publisher=Canadian Government Publishing}}</ref> and more recently the [[totem pole]] and [[Inuksuk]].<ref name="Nels">{{cite book |title=Sociology in Action, Canadian Edition, 2nd ed. |url=https://books.google.com/?id=R0hwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT92 |publisher=Nelson Education-McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=978-0-17-672841-0 |page=92}}</ref> Material items such as [[Canadian beer]], [[maple syrup]], [[Knit cap#Canadian tuque|tuques]], [[canoes]], [[nanaimo bar]]s, [[butter tart]]s and the Quebec dish of [[poutine]] are defined as uniquely Canadian.<ref name="Nels" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Hutchins |first=Donna |last2=Hutchins |first2=Nigel |title=The Maple Leaf Forever: A Celebration of Canadian Symbols |publisher=The Boston Mills Press |year=2006 |location=Erin |isbn=978-1-55046-474-0 |page=iix intro}}</ref> Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the [[loonie|$1 coin]], the Arms of Canada on the [[50-cent piece (Canadian coin)|50¢ piece]], the beaver on the [[Nickel (Canadian coin)|nickel]].<ref name="Berman2008">{{cite book |first=Allen G |last=Berman |title=Warman's Coins And Paper Money: Identification and Price Guide |url=https://books.google.com/?id=LRFWcmAr68YC&pg=PA137 |year=2008 |publisher=Krause Publications |isbn=978-1-4402-1915-3 |page=137 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412160324/https://books.google.com/books?id=LRFWcmAr68YC&pg=PA137 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The [[penny (Canadian coin)|penny]], removed from circulation in 2013, featured the maple leaf.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mint.ca/store/mint/about-the-mint/phasing-out-the-penny-6900002 |title=Phasing out the penny |publisher=Royal Canadian Mint |year=2015 |accessdate=December 11, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212032210/http://www.mint.ca/store/mint/about-the-mint/phasing-out-the-penny-6900002 |archivedate=December 12, 2015}}</ref> The Queen' s image appears on $20 bank notes, and on the obverse of all current Canadian coins.<ref name="Berman2008" />

===Literature===
{{main|Canadian literature}}
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.<ref>{{cite book |first=W. J. |last=Keith |title=Canadian literature in English |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rGawhTGpGK0C&pg=PA19 |year=2006 |publisher=[[The Porcupine's Quill]] |isbn=978-0-88984-283-0 |page=19 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144827/https://books.google.com/books?id=rGawhTGpGK0C&pg=PA19 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> There are four major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature; nature, frontier life, Canada's position within the world, all three of which tie into the [[garrison mentality]].<ref>{{cite book |first=William H. |last=New |title=Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Mkh2vJ_9GpEC&pg=PA259 |year=2002 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-0761-2 |pages=259–261 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152115/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mkh2vJ_9GpEC&pg=PA259 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.<ref name="Dominic2010">{{cite book |first=K. V. |last=Dominic |title=Studies in Contemporary Canadian Literature |url=https://books.google.com/?id=spW-K5UiJVkC&pg=PT9 |year=2010 |publisher=Pinnacle Technology |isbn=978-1-61820-640-4 |page=9 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181844/https://books.google.com/books?id=spW-K5UiJVkC&pg=PT9 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Canada's ethnic and cultural diversity are reflected in its literature, with many of its most prominent modern writers focusing on ethnic life.<ref>{{cite book |first=K. V. |last=Dominic |authorlink=K. V. Dominic |title=Studies in Contemporary Canadian Literature |url=https://books.google.com/?id=spW-K5UiJVkC&pg=PT8 |year=2010 |publisher=Pinnacle Technology |isbn=978-1-61820-640-4 |page=8 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412153250/https://books.google.com/books?id=spW-K5UiJVkC&pg=PT8 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Arguably, the best-known living Canadian writer internationally (especially since the deaths of [[Robertson Davies]] and [[Mordecai Richler]]) is [[Margaret Atwood]], a prolific novelist, poet, and literary critic.<ref>{{cite book |first=Reingard M. |last=Nischik |title=Margaret Atwood: Works and Impact |url=https://books.google.com/?id=s_xIap0GDbwC&pg=PA46 |year=2000 |publisher=Camden House |isbn=978-1-57113-139-3 |page=46 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412133550/https://books.google.com/books?id=s_xIap0GDbwC&pg=PA46 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Numerous other [[List of Canadian writers|Canadian authors]] have accumulated international literary awards;<ref>{{cite book |first=William H. |last=New |title=Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Mkh2vJ_9GpEC&pg=PA55 |year=2012 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-0761-2 |page=55 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181819/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mkh2vJ_9GpEC&pg=PA55 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> including [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Laureate]] [[Alice Munro]], who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;<ref>{{cite book |title=Broadview Anthology of British Literature, The. Concise Edition, Volume B |url=https://books.google.com/?id=hJI_vgWiJiMC&pg=PA1459 |year=2006 |publisher=Broadview Press |page=1459 |id=GGKEY:1TFFGS4YFLT |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412141422/https://books.google.com/books?id=hJI_vgWiJiMC&pg=PA1459 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> and [[Booker Prize]] recipient [[Michael Ondaatje]], who is perhaps best known for the novel ''[[The English Patient]]'', which was adapted as a [[The English Patient (film)|film of the same name]] that won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Robert |last1=Giddings |first2=Erica |last2=Sheen |title=From Page To Screen: Adaptations of the Classic Novel |url=https://books.google.com/?id=9ZGUDrLW2yYC&pg=PA197 |year=2000 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-5231-6 |page=197 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413033226/https://books.google.com/books?id=9ZGUDrLW2yYC&pg=PA197 |archivedate=April 13, 2016}}</ref>

===Visual arts===
{{main|Canadian art}}
[[File:The Jack Pine, by Tom Thomson.jpg|thumb|alt=Oil on canvas painting of a tree dominating its rocky landscape during a sunset|''[[The Jack Pine]]'' by [[Tom Thomson]]. Oil on canvas, 1916, in the collection of the [[National Gallery of Canada]].]]

Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as Tom Thomson – the country's most famous painter – and by the [[Group of Seven (artists)|Group of Seven]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Marylin J. |last=McKay |title=Picturing the Land: Narrating Territories in Canadian Landscape Art, 1500–1950 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BZWhNZwppdIC&pg=PA229 |year=2011 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-3817-7 |page=229 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412144946/https://books.google.com/books?id=BZWhNZwppdIC&pg=PA229 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Thomson's career painting Canadian landscapes spanned a decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brock |first=Richard |title=Envoicing Silent Objects: Art and Literature at the Site of the Canadian Landscape |journal=Canadian Journal of Environmental Education |year=2008 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=50–61 |url=https://cjee.lakeheadu.ca/article/view/904 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913232415/https://cjee.lakeheadu.ca/article/view/904 |archivedate=September 13, 2017}}</ref> The Group of Seven were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—[[Lawren Harris]], [[A. Y. Jackson]], [[Arthur Lismer]], [[J. E. H. MacDonald]], and [[Frederick Varley]]—were responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by [[Frank Johnston (artist)|Frank Johnston]], and by commercial artist [[Franklin Carmichael]]. [[A. J. Casson]] became part of the Group in 1926.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hill |first=Charles C |title=The Group of Seven – Art for a Nation |publisher=National Gallery of Canada |year=1995 |pages=15–21, 195 |isbn=978-0-7710-6716-7}}</ref> Associated with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist, [[Emily Carr]], known for her landscapes and portrayals of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Newlands |first=Anne |title=Emily Carr |publisher=Firefly Books |year=1996 |pages=8–9 |isbn=978-1-55209-046-6}}</ref> Since the 1950s, works of [[Inuit art]] have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.<ref>{{cite book |first=Pamela R. |last=Stern |title=Daily life of the Inuit |url=https://books.google.com/?id=0y95_2m0pGUC&pg=PA151 |date=June 30, 2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-36311-5 |page=151 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412182141/https://books.google.com/books?id=0y95_2m0pGUC&pg=PA151 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref>

===Music===
{{main|Music of Canada}}
The Canadian music industry is the sixth-largest in the world producing internationally renowned [[List of Canadian composers|composers]], [[List of Canadian musicians|musicians]] and [[List of bands from Canada|ensembles]].<ref name="HullHutchison2011a">{{cite book |first1=Geoffrey P. |last1=Hull |first2=Thomas William |last2=Hutchison |first3=Richard |last3=Strasser |title=The Music Business and Recording Industry: Delivering Music in the 21st Century |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BWUil8OuXS8C&pg=PA304 |year=2011 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0-415-87560-8 |page=304 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412181543/https://books.google.com/books?id=BWUil8OuXS8C&pg=PA304 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.<ref name="AchesonMaule2009">{{cite book |first1=Archibald Lloyd Keith |last1=Acheson |first2=Christopher John |last2=Maule |title=Much Ado about Culture: North American Trade Disputes |url=https://books.google.com/?id=5gCzOUo6YhkC&pg=PA181 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-02241-0 |page=181 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152538/https://books.google.com/books?id=5gCzOUo6YhkC&pg=PA181 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The [[Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences]] presents Canada's music industry awards, the [[Juno Award]]s, which were first awarded in 1970.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/canadiancontentc0000edwa |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/canadiancontentc0000edwa/page/127 127] |title=Canadian content, culture and the quest for nationhood |first=Ryan |last=Edwardson |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8020-9759-0 }}</ref> The [[Canadian Music Hall of Fame]] established in 1976 honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.<ref name="Hoffmann2004">{{cite book |first=Frank |last=Hoffmann |title=Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-FOSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA324 |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-94950-1 |page=324 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412134940/https://books.google.com/books?id=-FOSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA324 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> [[Anthems and nationalistic songs of Canada|Patriotic music in Canada]] dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the Canadian Confederation by over 50 years. The earliest, ''[[The Bold Canadian]]'', was written in 1812.<ref>{{cite book |first=Adam |last=Jortner |title=The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier |url=https://books.google.com/?id=l6whyXqA7BUC&pg=PA217 |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-976529-4 |page=217 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412134841/https://books.google.com/books?id=l6whyXqA7BUC&pg=PA217 |archivedate=April 12, 2016}}</ref> The national anthem of Canada, "O Canada", was originally commissioned by the [[Lieutenant Governor of Quebec]], the Honourable [[Théodore Robitaille]], for the 1880 [[Fête nationale du Québec|St. Jean-Baptiste Day]] ceremony, and was officially adopted in 1980.<ref>{{cite web |author1link=Helmut Kallmann |first1=Helmut |last1=Kallmann |first2=Gilles |last2=Potvin |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/o-canada |title=O Canada |publisher=Encyclopedia of Music in Canada |accessdate=November 27, 2013 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203021353/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/o-canada/ |archivedate=December 3, 2013}}</ref> [[Calixa Lavallée]] wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir [[Adolphe-Basile Routhier]]. The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906.<ref>{{cite web |title=Hymne national du Canada |publisher=Canadian Heritage |date=June 23, 2008 |url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/anthem-fra.cfm |accessdate=June 26, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129084708/http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/anthem-fra.cfm |archivedate=January 29, 2009}}</ref>

===Sports===
{{main|Sports in Canada}}
[[File:Canada2010WinterOlympicsOTcelebration.jpg|thumb|alt=Hockey players and fans celebrating|Canada's [[ice hockey]] victory at the [[2010 Winter Olympics]] in Vancouver]]

The [[History of Canadian sports|roots of organized sports in Canada]] date back to the 1770s,<ref>{{cite book |first=Henry |last=Roxborough |title=The Beginning of Organized Sport in Canada |location=Canada |year=1975 |pp=30–43}}</ref> culminating in the development and popularization of the major professional games of ice hockey, lacrosse, [[basketball]], [[baseball]] and [[football]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sports-history |title=Canadian Sports History|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |date=September 30, 2016}}</ref> Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Sports of Canada Act |publisher=Government of Canada |date=November 5, 2015 |url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/n-16.7/page-1.html |accessdate=November 23, 2015 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124142348/http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/n-16.7/page-1.html |archivedate=November 24, 2015}}</ref> [[Golf]], soccer, baseball, [[tennis]], [[skiing]], [[badminton]], [[volleyball]], [[cycling]], [[swimming (sport)|swimming]], [[bowling]], [[rugby union]], [[canoeing]], [[equestrianism|equestrian]], [[squash (sport)|squash]] and the study of [[martial arts]] are widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/pc-ch/CH24-1-2012-eng.pdf |title=Canadian sport participation – Most frequently played sports in Canada (2010) |newspaper=Publications.gc.ca |year=2013 |page=34 |author=Canadian Heritage |accessdate=January 27, 2017 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110193033/http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/pc-ch/CH24-1-2012-eng.pdf |archivedate=January 10, 2017}}</ref>

Canada shares several [[Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada|major professional sports leagues]] with the United States.<ref name="ButenkoGil-Lafuente2010">{{cite book |first1=Sergiy |last1=Butenko |first2=Jaime |last2=Gil-Lafuente |first3=Panos M. |last3=Pardalos |title=Optimal Strategies in Sports Economics and Management |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Lh7tPTtYelUC&pg=PA42 |year=2010 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-642-13205-6 |pages=42–44 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920184936/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lh7tPTtYelUC&pg=PA42 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the [[National Hockey League]], as well as three [[Soccer in Canada#Major League Soccer|Major League Soccer]] teams and one team in each of [[Major League Baseball]] and the [[National Basketball Association]]. Other popular professional sports in Canada include [[Canadian football]], which is played in the [[Canadian Football League]], [[National Lacrosse League]] lacrosse, and [[curling]].<ref name="MorrowWamsley2016">{{cite book |first1=Don |last1=Morrow |first2=Kevin B. |last2=Wamsley |title=Sport in Canada: A History |year=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-902157-4 |pages=xxI – intro}}</ref>

Canada has participated in almost every Olympic Games since [[Canada at the 1900 Summer Olympics|its Olympic debut in 1900]],<ref name="MallonHeijmans2011">{{cite book |first1=Bill |last1=Mallon |first2=Jeroen |last2=Heijmans |title=Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement |url=https://books.google.com/?id=9mM0XzW03AcC&pg=PA71 |year=2011 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7522-7 |page=71 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=9mM0XzW03AcC&pg=PA71 |archivedate=March 20, 2018}}</ref> and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the [[1976 Summer Olympics]],<ref name="Howell2009">{{cite book |first=Paul Charles |last=Howell |title=Montreal Olympics: An Insider's View of Organizing a Self-financing Games |url=https://books.google.com/?id=E2mTzjIKkNcC&pg=PA3 |year=2009 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |isbn=978-0-7735-7656-8 |page=3 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320150918/https://books.google.com/books?id=E2mTzjIKkNcC&pg=PA3 |archivedate=March 20, 2018}}</ref> the [[1988 Winter Olympics]],<ref name="HorneWhannel2016">{{cite book |first1=John |last1=Horne |first2=Garry |last2=Whannel |title=Understanding the Olympics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=UQozDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT157 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-49519-2 |page=157 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920174329/https://books.google.com/books?id=UQozDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT157 |archivedate=September 20, 2017}}</ref> the [[1994 Basketball World Championship]],<ref name="Blevins2012">{{cite book |first=David |last=Blevins |title=The Sports Hall of Fame Encyclopedia: Baseball, Basketball, Football, Hockey, Soccer |url=https://books.google.com/?id=aB8sCV5nVaoC&pg=PA1222 |year=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8108-6130-5 |page=1222 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160627220327/https://books.google.com/books?id=aB8sCV5nVaoC |archivedate=June 27, 2016}}</ref> the [[2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup]],<ref name="ParentChappelet2015">{{cite book |first1=Milena M. |last1=Parent |first2=Jean-Loup |last2=Chappelet |title=Routledge Handbook of Sports Event Management |url=https://books.google.com/?id=9mLABgAAQBAJ&pg=PT464 |date=February 20, 2015 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-135-10437-5 |page=464}}</ref> the 2010 Winter Olympics<ref name="Development2006">{{cite book |author=United States Senate Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism and Economic Development |title=The economic impact of the 2010 Vancouver, Canada, Winter Olympics on Oregon and the Pacific Northwest: hearing before the Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism, and Economic Development of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, first session, August 5, 2005 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=l4XN6eyYqiUC |date=January 2006 |publisher=U.S. G.P.O.}}</ref><ref name="Fromm2006">{{cite book |first=Zuzana |last=Fromm |title=Economic Issues of Vancouver-Whistler 2010 Olympics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=kXYgkSsrnaMC |year=2006 |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-197843-0}}</ref> and the [[2015 FIFA Women's World Cup]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Temporary Importations Using the FIFA Women?s World Cup Canada 2015 Remission Order |url=https://books.google.com/?id=QY2lnQAACAAJ |year=2015 |publisher=Canada Border Services Agency}}</ref> Most recently, Canada staged the [[2015 Pan American Games]] and [[2015 Parapan American Games]], the former being the largest sporting event hosted by the country.<ref>{{cite news |first=David |last=Peterson |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-debate/why-toronto-should-get-excited-about-the-pan-am-games/article19543736/ |title=Why Toronto should get excited about the Pan Am Games |work=The Globe and Mail |date=July 10, 2014}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal-inline|Canada}}
* [[Index of Canada-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Canada]]
* [[Banking in Canada]]
* [[Debanking in Canada]]
* [[Debanking]]
* [[Canadian housing affordability crisis]]
* [[Healthcare in Canada]]
* [[Medical assistance in dying in Canada]]
* [[Taxation in Canada]]
* [[Property rights in Canada]]
* [[Immigration to Canada]]
* [[List of Canada-related topics by provinces and territories|Topics by provinces and territories]]{{-}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{main|Bibliography of Canada|Bibliography of Canadian history}}
{{refbegin}}
{| style="width:100%;"
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|width=47%|
'''Overview'''
*{{cite book |first=James H. |last=Marsh |title=The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wR_-aSFyvuYC&pg=PP1 |year=1999 |publisher=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |isbn=978-0-7710-2099-5}}
'''History'''
* {{cite book |first=J. M. S. |last=Careless |title=Canada: A Story of Challenge |url=https://books.google.com/?id=mARx1-EGwR0C&pg=PR1 |edition=revised |year=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-67581-0}}
* {{cite book |title=Journeys: A History of Canada |first1=RD |last1=Francis |first2=Richard |last2=Jones |first3=Donald B |last3=Smith |publisher=Nelson Education |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-17-644244-6 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&pg=PP1}}
* {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Martin Brook |first2=Doug |last2=Owram |year=1994 |title=Canadian History |volume=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FamJrJEvymIC&pg=PP1 1] & [https://books.google.com/books?id=HKmAjZJCJFoC&pg=PP1 2] |publisher=University of Toronto Press}} {{ISBN|978-0-8020-5016-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-8020-2801-3}}
'''Geography and climate'''
* {{cite book |first=Thomas A. |last=Rumney |title=Canadian Geography: A Scholarly Bibliography |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-qN8rBPg-8IC&pg=PP1 |year=2009 |publisher=[[State University of New York at Plattsburgh|Plattsburgh State University]] |isbn=978-0-8108-6718-5}}
* {{cite book |title=Canadian Oxford World Atlas |editor=Stanford, Quentin H |edition=6th |publisher=Oxford University Press (Canada) |isbn=978-0-19-542928-2 |year=2008}}
'''Government and law'''
* {{cite book |first=Joseph W. |last=Jacob |title=Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms: Democracy for the People and for Each Person |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rIbBxDxmUHwC&pg=PP1 |year=2007 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=978-1-4269-8016-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Malcolmson |first=Patrick |edition=4th |first2=Richard |last2=Myers |year=2009 |title=The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=-jpXFH_ZhY8C&pg=PP1 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-0047-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Morton |first=Frederick Lee |year=2002 |title=Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dj_4_H35nmYC&pg=PP1 |publisher=Frederick Lee |isbn=978-1-55238-046-8}}
'''Social welfare'''
* {{cite book |first=Alvin |last=Finkel |title=Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History |url=https://archive.org/details/socialpolicyprac0000fink |url-access=registration |date=2006 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-88920-475-1}}
* {{cite book |first=Valerie D. |last=Thompson |title=Health and Health Care Delivery in Canada |url=https://books.google.com/?id=rd51BwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |year=2015 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-1-927406-31-1}}
* {{cite book |first1=Sara Z. |last1=Burke |first2=Patrice |last2=Milewski |title=Schooling in Transition: Readings in Canadian History of Education |url=https://books.google.com/?id=apjYaExaI-QC&pg=PP1 |year=2011 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-9577-0}}
|width=2%|
|width=47%|
'''Foreign relations and military'''
* {{cite book |first1=Patrick |last1=James |first2=Nelson |last2=Michaud |first3=Marc J. |last3=O'Reilly |title=Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wGf_QsLu0DIC&pg=PP1 |year=2006 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-1493-3}}
* {{cite book |first=John |last=Conrad |title=Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at Canadian Peacekeeping |url=https://books.google.com/?id=G8ypARC5JJkC&pg=PP1 |year=2011 |publisher=Dundurn |isbn=978-1-55488-981-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Granatstein |first=J. L. |title=Canada's Army: Waging War and Keeping the Peace |url=https://books.google.com/?id=z7E-j1UWuOMC&pg=PP1 |year=2011 |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-1178-8}}
'''Economy'''
* {{cite book |first1=W.T. |last1=Easterbrook |first2=Hugh G. J. |last2=Aitken |title=Canadian Economic History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=wQGNBgAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |year=2015 |publisher=University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division |isbn=978-1-4426-5814-1}}
* {{cite book |publisher=OECD Economic Surveys |year=2018 |title=Economic Survey of Canada 2018 |url=http://www.oecd.org/eco/economic-survey-canada.htm}} – ([http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/oecd-economic-surveys-canada_19990081 Previous surveys])
*{{cite book |first1=Edward |last1=Jones-Imhotep |first2=Tina |last2=Adcock |title=Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History |url=https://books.google.com/?id=o4x8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |year=2018 |publisher=UBC Press |isbn=978-0-7748-3726-2}}
'''Demography and statistics'''
* {{cite book |author=Statistics Canada |title=Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967 |publisher=Federal Publications (Queen of Canada) |year=2008 |url=https://www5.statcan.gc.ca/bsolc/olc-cel/olc-cel?catno=11-402-X&chropg=1&lang=eng}}
* {{cite book |first1=David |last1=Carment |first2=David |last2=Bercuson |title=The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VNYqAxXOxNIC&pg=PP1 |year=2008 |publisher=MQUP |isbn=978-0-7735-7854-8}}
* {{cite journal |author=Statistics Canada |title=Canada Year Book |journal=Canada Yearbook |publisher=Federal Publications (Queen of Canada) |date=December 2012 |id=Catalogue no 11-402-XWE |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/11-402-x2012000-eng.htm |issn=0068-8142}}
'''Culture'''
* {{cite book |authorlink=Andrew Cohen (journalist) |first=Andrew |last=Cohen |title=The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are |url=https://archive.org/details/unfinishedcanadi00andr |url-access=registration |year=2007 |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |isbn=978-0-7710-2181-7}}
* {{cite book |first=Paul R |last=Magocsi |title=Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples |publisher=Society of Ontario, University of Toronto Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8020-2938-6 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC}}
* {{cite book |first=Jonathan F. |last=Vance |title=A History of Canadian Culture |url=https://books.google.com/?id=TOR9SwAACAAJ |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-544422-3}}
|}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-Canada.ogg|2008-01-04}}
{{Sister project links|collapsible=collapsed|voy=Canada|Canada}}
'''Overviews'''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090204012447/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/canada.htm Canada] from [[University of Colorado Boulder|UCB]] Libraries GovPubs
* {{curlie|Regional/North_America/Canada}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html Canada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430234227/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html |date=April 30, 2019 }} from the CIA's ''The World Factbook''
* [http://www.oecd.org/canada/ Canada profile] from the OECD
* [http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/canadiana/index-e.html Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada] from [[Library and Archives Canada]]
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=CA Key Development Forecasts for Canada] from [[International Futures]]

'''Government'''
* [http://www.gc.ca/ Official website of the Government of Canada]
* [http://www.gg.ca/ Official website of the Governor General of Canada]
* [http://pm.gc.ca/eng Official website of the Prime Ministers of Canada]

'''Travel'''
* [http://travel.gc.ca/ Canada's official website for travel and tourism]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130426213630/http://us.canada.travel/ Official website of Destination Canada]

'''Studies'''
* [http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/international-journal-canadian-studies.php A Guide to the Sources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822004757/http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/international-journal-canadian-studies.php |date=August 22, 2016 }} from [[International Council for Canadian Studies]]

{{Anchor|Related information}}
{{Canada topics}}
{{Navboxes
|title=Related topics
|list1={{Countries of North America}}
{{The Commonwealth}}}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:1867 establishments in Canada| ]]
[[Category:Countries in North America]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:Federal monarchies]]
[[Category:French-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:G20 nations]]
[[Category:G7 nations]]
[[Category:Group of Eight nations]]
[[Category:Member states of NATO]]
[[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1867]]

Banking in Canada

2026-07-06T03:59:36Z

MapleSource:

{{Short description|Overview of the Canadian banking system, regulation, competition, consumer protection and criticism}}

'''Banking in Canada''' refers to the system of banks, banking regulation, payment services, deposit-taking institutions, retail financial services and related consumer-protection rules in [[Canada]]. The Canadian banking sector is often described as stable, profitable and highly concentrated. The country's largest banks are among Canada's largest public companies, and the [[Big Five banks of Canada|Big Five]] or [[Big Six banks of Canada|Big Six]] dominate ordinary consumer banking, commercial banking, credit cards, mortgages, investment banking and wealth management.

Canada's banking system is frequently praised for prudential strength, including its avoidance of major domestic bank failures during the [[2008 financial crisis]]. At the same time, the same concentration and profitability have attracted sustained criticism from consumer advocates, competition authorities, policy commentators and affected customers. Common criticisms include weak retail competition, high monthly and incidental fees, poor deposit-rate pass-through, aggressive sales cultures, slow account switching, opaque account closures, limited external dispute-resolution power, and a legal framework that gives banks substantial discretion over whether to continue serving a customer.

Unlike a narrow article on [[debanking]], this article covers Canadian banking as a whole, while also treating access to banking, demarketing, consumer complaints and criticism of bank conduct as central parts of the Canadian banking system.

==Overview==
Canada has a federally regulated banking system in which banks are incorporated or permitted to operate under the federal ''[[Bank Act]]''. Credit unions and caisses populaires are generally provincially regulated, although some may operate federally. The result is a mixed financial-services landscape in which federally regulated banks dominate national retail and commercial banking, while credit unions, trust companies, securities dealers, insurance companies, payment firms and fintech companies provide overlapping services.

The Canadian model has traditionally emphasized prudential stability. Large banks are diversified across business lines, have national branch networks, and are supervised by federal regulators. Critics argue that the same model also entrenches a small group of incumbents, making it difficult for customers to obtain meaningful price competition or to punish poor service by switching providers. This criticism has become more prominent as banking has moved from branch-based service toward digital channels, call centres, sales-driven branch operations and automated risk controls.

==History==
Banking in Canada developed from colonial and overseas banking operations into a domestic system during the nineteenth century. The [[Bank of Montreal]] began operations in 1817 and was followed by other chartered banks. Early banks issued their own notes, but bank failures and concerns over confidence in private bank notes led to greater government involvement in currency and banking.

After [[Canadian Confederation]] in 1867, the federal government received jurisdiction over banking and currency. The federal [[Bank Act]] of 1871 helped bring chartered banks under common national regulation. The creation of the [[Bank of Canada]] in 1935 added a central bank responsible for monetary policy, financial-system functions and currency issuance.

The modern Canadian banking system is shaped by federal prudential regulation, deposit insurance, national branch banking, mortgage-market rules, securities and insurance regulation, payment-system oversight, and a high degree of concentration among a small number of large financial groups.

{{clear left}}

==Legal and regulatory framework==
Canada's federal government has constitutional jurisdiction over banking under section 91(15) of the ''[[Constitution Act, 1867]]''.<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web |title=Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982 |url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/const/FullText.html |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref> The principal federal statute governing banks is the ''[[Bank Act]]''.<ref name="BankAct">{{cite web |title=Bank Act, S.C. 1991, c. 46 |url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/B-1.01/FullText.html |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

The main federal bodies involved in banking and banking-related oversight include:

* the [[Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]] (OSFI), which supervises federally regulated financial institutions for prudential soundness;
* the [[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]] (FCAC), which supervises federally regulated financial institutions for market-conduct and consumer-protection obligations;
* the [[Bank of Canada]], which is Canada's central bank and has responsibilities relating to monetary policy, financial-system stability and payment systems;
* the [[Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]] (CDIC), which provides deposit insurance and resolution functions for member institutions; and
* the [[Department of Finance Canada]], which develops federal financial-sector policy.

===Bank Act schedules===
The ''Bank Act'' classifies banks into schedules:

* '''Schedule I banks''' are banks incorporated in Canada that are not subsidiaries of foreign banks. They include the large domestic banks such as [[Royal Bank of Canada]], [[Toronto-Dominion Bank]], [[Bank of Montreal]], [[Bank of Nova Scotia]], [[Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce]] and [[National Bank of Canada]].
* '''Schedule II banks''' are banks incorporated in Canada that are subsidiaries of foreign banks.
* '''Schedule III banks''' are foreign banks authorized to carry on business in Canada through branches, subject to restrictions.

This framework allows foreign participation while preserving the dominance of Canadian-incorporated banks in ordinary domestic retail banking.

==Structure and concentration==
{{main|Big Five banks of Canada|List of banks and credit unions in Canada}}

The Canadian banking sector is highly concentrated. The largest domestic banks dominate personal chequing accounts, savings accounts, mortgages, credit cards, small-business banking, commercial lending, investment banking, wealth management and brokerage services.

The term '''Big Five''' usually refers to:

* [[Royal Bank of Canada]] (RBC)
* [[Toronto-Dominion Bank]] (TD)
* [[Bank of Montreal]] (BMO)
* [[Bank of Nova Scotia]] (Scotiabank)
* [[Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce]] (CIBC)

The term '''Big Six''' adds:

* [[National Bank of Canada]]

The Big Six are also domestic systemically important banks. Their size gives them advantages in funding, brand recognition, branch coverage, technology spending, regulatory capacity and customer inertia. Supporters of the Canadian model argue that large national banks provide stability, diversified earnings and resilience. Critics argue that concentration produces oligopoly-like conditions, weak price competition and reduced consumer leverage.

In a 2025 speech, Bank of Canada senior deputy governor Carolyn Rogers described the Canadian banking system as an "oligopoly" and stated that the six largest banks collectively held about 93% of Canadian banking assets. Rogers argued that Canada's stability should be used to support greater contestability, new entrants and innovation rather than to protect incumbents from competition.<ref name="BoCRogers2025">{{cite web |last=Rogers |first=Carolyn |title=Productivity's competitive edge |url=https://www.bankofcanada.ca/2025/10/productivitys-competitive-edge/ |publisher=Bank of Canada |date=9 October 2025 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

==Stability and crisis experience==
Canada's banking system has often been cited for stability. Canadian banks avoided the pattern of major domestic bank failures seen in some other countries during the [[Great Depression]] and the [[2008 financial crisis]]. The system's resilience has been attributed to national branch banking, conservative mortgage underwriting, federal prudential supervision, diversified large banks, and a regulatory preference for stability.

Only a small number of deposit-taking institutions have failed in modern Canadian history. The best-known modern bank failures are the 1985 failures of [[Canadian Commercial Bank]] and [[Northland Bank]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The bank failures of 1985 |url=https://www.bankofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/bank.pdf |publisher=Bank of Canada |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

===2008 financial crisis===
During the 2008 financial crisis, Canadian banks avoided outright failure and were internationally praised for soundness. The crisis nevertheless involved significant public-sector support and liquidity measures, including measures through the [[Bank of Canada]], [[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation]] and foreign central-bank facilities. Critics of the "no bailout" narrative argue that Canadian banks' stability partly reflected government liquidity support, mortgage insurance and policy interventions, not only superior bank conduct or discipline.

==Deposit insurance and resolution==
{{main|Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation}}

The [[Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]] insures eligible deposits at member institutions up to prescribed limits. Deposit insurance is intended to protect depositors and reduce the risk of bank runs. CDIC also has resolution powers for member institutions and plays a role in planning for the failure of systemically important banks.

Canada's largest banks are designated as domestic systemically important banks. This designation recognizes that the failure of any one of them could seriously disrupt the financial system and the wider economy. It also subjects them to additional prudential expectations, including capital and resolution-planning requirements.

==Payment systems and access channels==
Canadian consumers use a mix of branches, ATMs, debit cards, credit cards, electronic funds transfers, online banking, mobile banking, Interac e-Transfer, pre-authorized payments and digital wallets. Canada has long had high adoption of debit cards and electronic banking. Federal government material has historically described Canada as having high ATM density and widespread use of debit, Internet and telephone banking.<ref name="Finance2002">{{cite web |title=Canada's Banks |url=http://www.fin.gc.ca/toc/2002/bank_-eng.asp |publisher=Department of Finance Canada |date=2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125180049/http://www.fin.gc.ca/toc/2002/bank_-eng.asp |archive-date=25 January 2010 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

The rise of digital banking has changed the role of branches. Routine transactions increasingly occur through online banking, mobile applications and ATMs, while branches and call centres have become more focused on sales, advice, problem resolution and customer acquisition. This shift has been controversial because customers may have fewer in-person service options while banks continue to use branches and call centres as sales channels.

==Competition, switching and open banking==
{{see also|Open banking}}

A recurring criticism of Canadian banking is that customers face high switching costs. Direct deposits, payroll arrangements, pre-authorized payments, bill payees, credit products, mortgages, credit cards, registered accounts and investment products can make changing banks time-consuming and risky. Even when competing products exist, the practical difficulty of switching may reduce pressure on incumbent banks.

The [[Competition Bureau]] has argued that lowering switching costs is central to financial-sector competition. In a 2024 submission, the Bureau recommended measures aimed at making it easier for consumers to switch financial institutions and stated that lower switching costs would force banks and other financial institutions to work harder to retain customers.<ref name="CompetitionBureau2024">{{cite web |title=Strengthening Competition in the Financial Sector: Submission by the Competition Bureau |url=https://competition-bureau.canada.ca/en/how-we-foster-competition/promotion-and-advocacy/strengthening-competition-financial-sector-submission-competition-bureau |publisher=Competition Bureau |date=1 May 2024 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

Canada has also moved toward '''consumer-driven banking''', commonly called open banking. The policy goal is to allow consumers to share financial data securely with accredited providers, reducing reliance on screen scraping and making it easier to compare or switch products. Critics argue that Canada has moved slowly compared with jurisdictions such as the United Kingdom and Australia, where switching services and consumer-data-sharing frameworks were implemented earlier.

==Account fees and deposit pricing==
Consumer banking fees are one of the main sources of criticism of Canadian banks. Fees may include monthly chequing account fees, transaction charges, overdraft fees, non-sufficient funds (NSF) fees, out-of-network ATM fees, wire-transfer fees, bank-draft fees, account-research fees and other service charges.

A 2014 FCAC research paper noted that Canada's banking sector was highly concentrated and that this concentration raised concern about whether fees on consumer deposit accounts were optimal for consumers. The paper found that monthly chequing-plan fees had risen moderately from 2005 to 2013, while some variable fees increased more quickly. It also noted that reducing transaction limits on low-cost accounts can function as an indirect fee increase.<ref name="FCACFees2014">{{cite web |last1=Gibney |first1=Charles |last2=Bibi |first2=Sami |last3=Lévesque |first3=Bruno |title=Banking Fees in Canada: Patterns and Trends |url=https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/canada/financial-consumer-agency/migration/eng/resources/researchsurveys/documents/bankingfees-fraisbancaires-eng.pdf |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=June 2014 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

Critics argue that common monthly fees are especially objectionable because banks profit from customer deposits while also charging customers to access basic payment services. Banks and industry groups respond that customers can choose from multiple account packages, low-cost accounts, no-cost accounts for eligible groups, online banks, credit unions and promotional offers.

===NSF fees===
NSF fees became a visible consumer-protection issue because they were often charged when a customer already lacked funds. In 2026, new federal regulations capped NSF fees charged by federally regulated banks at C$10.<ref name="FCACNSF2026">{{cite web |title=New NSF fee regulations bring down cost of banking for Canadians |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/news/2026/03/new-nsf-fee-regulations-bring-down-cost-of-banking-for-canadians.html |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=12 March 2026 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref> The cap was a significant example of government intervention in bank fees. Consumer advocates generally viewed it as an admission that market forces had not adequately restrained punitive fee practices.

===Deposit-rate pass-through===
Deposit pricing has also been criticized. Large Canadian banks may raise loan and mortgage rates quickly when market rates rise while passing less of the increase to ordinary depositors. A Bank of Canada working paper found that Canada's Big Six banks paid materially less for deposits than other domestic banks after controlling for risk factors and funding characteristics, suggesting a funding advantage for large banks.<ref name="BoCFundingAdvantage2013">{{cite web |last1=Beyhaghi |first1=Mehdi |last2=D'Souza |first2=Chris |last3=Roberts |first3=Gordon S. |title=Funding Advantage and Market Discipline in the Canadian Banking Sector |url=https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/banque-bank-canada/FB3-2-113-50-eng.pdf |publisher=Bank of Canada |date=2013 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

==Retail sales practices==
Canadian banks have faced criticism over sales practices in branches and call centres. In 2017, CBC's ''Go Public'' published reports from bank employees alleging intense pressure to meet sales targets. The reporting led to broader public scrutiny and regulatory review.

The [[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]] conducted a Domestic Bank Retail Sales Practices Review of the six largest banks. FCAC reviewed more than 4,500 complaints, more than 100,000 pages of bank documents and interviews with more than 400 bank employees. FCAC did not find widespread mis-selling, but it found that retail banking culture was predominantly focused on selling products and services, that performance-management programs and sales targets could increase the risk of mis-selling, and that controls to mitigate sales-practices risk were underdeveloped.<ref name="FCACSales2018">{{cite web |title=Domestic Bank Retail Sales Practices Review |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/programs/research/bank-sales-practices.html |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=20 March 2018 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

This finding is important to criticism of Canadian bank conduct because it came from the federal consumer regulator rather than from isolated customer anecdotes. Critics argue that a sales-oriented culture can distort advice, push consumers into higher-fee accounts, increase credit exposure, and cause employees to treat customer service as secondary to product penetration.

==Account access and debanking==
{{main|Debanking}}
{{see also|Financial Consumer Agency of Canada|Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments}}

Account access is a central consumer-protection issue in Canadian banking. Federal guidance states that banks must open a personal retail deposit account for an individual who presents acceptable identification, subject to exceptions such as suspected fraud, account misuse, illegal purpose, or where opening the account would expose the bank, employees or customers to physical harm.<ref name="FCACBasicBanking">{{cite web |title=Access to basic banking services: opening a retail deposit account |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/services/industry/bulletins/access-basic-banking.html |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=22 February 2023 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

The rules on opening an account do not create an equally strong right to keep an existing account. Account closure or broader relationship termination is often described as '''debanking''', '''de-risking''', '''demarketing''', '''client exit''' or '''relationship termination'''.

The [[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]] states that banks usually give reasonable notice of account closures, typically 30 days, but that banks are generally not required to explain the reason for ending a relationship. OBSI also states that it generally cannot force a bank to reopen an account or tell the customer why the bank made the decision.<ref name="OBSIRelationshipEnded">{{cite web |title=Relationship Ended |url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/how-we-work/our-approaches/relationship-ended/ |publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

In an OBSI case study involving a customer whose account was closed shortly after opening, OBSI stated that Canadian law and banking regulations allow banks to end business relationships without providing a reason or notice, so the investigation focused on whether the bank complied with the account agreement and exercised its rights reasonably.<ref name="OBSIMrK">{{cite web |title=Consumer surprised when bank gives him 30 days to close his account |url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/news/posts/consumer-surprised-when-bank-gives-him-30-days-to-close-his-account/ |publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

===Criticism of Canadian debanking rules===
Critics describe Canada's debanking framework as too permissive because it gives banks extensive discretion while leaving customers with limited practical remedies. The strongest criticisms are that:

* banks can terminate long-standing relationships with little explanation;
* customers may not know whether the closure was based on an error, risk model, complaint, employee discretion, suspicious-activity concern or reputational-risk decision;
* customers may be unable to correct incorrect internal information if they are not told what information was relied on;
* OBSI and other complaint bodies may review procedure but usually cannot reverse the business decision;
* a closure by one major bank can make a customer appear risky to other institutions, especially where the customer is a business, newcomer, politically exposed person, cryptocurrency user, sex worker, charity or cash-intensive operator;
* the loss of banking can make ordinary life or business operations impossible, even if no law has been broken.

This criticism does not mean that banks should be forced to maintain every relationship. Banks have anti-money-laundering, sanctions, fraud-prevention, safety and prudential obligations. The consumer-rights objection is that Canadian law often leaves the affected customer without a clear reason, a meaningful correction mechanism, or an external power capable of balancing risk management against access to essential financial services.

===Affected groups===
Canadian reporting and advocacy have identified several groups and sectors affected by account closures, freezes or restrictions. These include:

* money-services businesses and cheque-cashing businesses;
* cryptocurrency users and cryptocurrency-related businesses;
* adult-content creators and sex workers;
* some charities and religious or community organizations;
* customers involved in heated disputes with bank staff or complaint channels;
* politically controversial customers or organizations; and
* customers whose activity is considered outside a bank's risk appetite.

Because banking is essential to employment, rent, utilities, benefits, taxes and business operations, critics argue that debanking should be treated as a serious form of economic exclusion rather than as an ordinary private contract decision.

===Emergencies Act account freezes===
The 2022 [[Canada convoy protest]] produced one of Canada's most publicized banking-access controversies. Under emergency measures connected to the federal government's invocation of the [[Emergencies Act]], financial institutions froze accounts linked to the protests. These freezes differed from ordinary private-sector debanking because they were connected to government emergency powers, but they intensified public debate about due process, political neutrality, financial exclusion and the role of banks in restricting economic activity.

==Court cases and privacy requests==
Canadian legal disputes over account closures often turn on contract law, good faith, privacy law and notice rather than on a general right to be banked.

In ''[[Bertucci v. Royal Bank of Canada]]'', the [[Federal Court of Canada]] considered a request for personal information after RBC closed accounts without written explanation. The court held that RBC should have provided access to raw data with proprietary material redacted and stated that the standard for withholding personal information under the [[Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act]] because it would reveal confidential commercial information is very high.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bertucci v. Royal Bank of Canada, 2016 FC 332 |url=https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/fct/doc/2016/2016fc332/2016fc332.html |website=CanLII |date=2016 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Financial institution originally misuses confidential commercial information exemption to withhold personal information |url=https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-actions-and-decisions/investigations/investigations-into-businesses/2017/pipeda-2017-011/ |publisher=Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada |date=31 March 2017 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

In ''Pourshafiey v. Toronto-Dominion Bank'', a Quebec case involving a money-services business, TD gave 30 days' notice that it would close several accounts but immediately terminated a wire-transfer service that the business relied on. The court found that TD had a reasonable justification for ending the relationship and had the right to do so, but had to exercise that right responsibly and in good faith. Damages were awarded for inadequate notice and for stress and inconvenience caused by the bank's conduct.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pourshafiey c. Toronto-Dominion Bank, 2018 QCCS 3202 |url=https://www.canlii.org/fr/qc/qccs/doc/2018/2018qccs3202/2018qccs3202.html |website=CanLII |date=2018 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

These cases are frequently cited by critics because they show the limits of Canadian account-closure remedies. A customer may be able to obtain some personal information or damages for unreasonable implementation, but courts and ombuds services are generally reluctant to create a broad right to continued service.

==Dispute resolution and complaints==
Bank customers usually must first complain to the bank. If unresolved, complaints may proceed to an external complaint body. Historically, many banking complaints were handled by the [[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]] (OBSI). Some major banks have used other external complaint bodies, which has itself been controversial.

Consumer advocates have criticized fragmented dispute resolution, industry funding, limited transparency and limited remedial power. In 2018, CBC News reported criticism after Scotiabank left OBSI for another dispute-resolution provider. Critics argued that allowing banks to choose complaint bodies could weaken accountability and create incentives for providers to be more attractive to banks than to consumers.<ref>{{cite news |last=Evans |first=Pete |title=Scotiabank walks away from consumer dispute watchdog OBSI |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/scotiabank-obsi-1.4815023 |work=CBC News |date=7 September 2018 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

Dispute-resolution criticism overlaps with debanking criticism. Even where a complaint body reviews a closure, the remedy may be limited to whether the bank followed its own agreement, gave adequate notice, released funds and communicated properly. Critics argue that this can leave the core decision effectively insulated from meaningful review.

==Criticism and consumer-protection concerns==
The most common criticism of Canadian bank conduct is not that Canadian banks are unsafe. Rather, the criticism is that banks combine public trust, essential-service status, regulatory protection and high profitability with conduct that often places customers in a weak bargaining position.

Major areas of criticism include:

* '''Oligopoly and weak contestability''': the Big Six dominate assets and retail relationships, making competition less intense than it appears from the number of brands in the market.
* '''High and layered fees''': consumers may pay monthly fees plus incidental charges for overdrafts, NSF items, ATMs, wire transfers, drafts and account services.
* '''Low deposit-rate pass-through''': large banks may benefit from cheap customer deposits while ordinary savers receive relatively low interest.
* '''Sales pressure''': FCAC found that sales targets and performance-management programs could increase the risk of mis-selling.
* '''Opacity in account closures''': customers may lose access to banking without being told the reason.
* '''Limited remedies''': external complaint systems may award compensation in some cases but usually cannot force a bank to continue a relationship.
* '''Switching friction''': the difficulty of moving accounts, payments, mortgages and investments limits consumer discipline.
* '''Public-private imbalance''': banks receive the benefits of public confidence, deposit insurance, central-bank liquidity and systemic importance while retaining broad private discretion over service termination.

Banks and industry groups respond that the Canadian system is stable, well capitalized, widely accessible, technologically advanced and subject to extensive regulation. They also argue that banks must be able to manage fraud, money laundering, sanctions, abuse, safety, credit risk and operational risk. The consumer-protection debate therefore centres on whether the balance has shifted too far toward bank discretion and too far away from transparency, switching rights and enforceable customer remedies.

==Reform proposals==
Reform proposals commonly discussed in relation to Canadian banking include:

* stronger open-banking and consumer-data rights;
* faster implementation of real-time payments;
* a formal bank-account switching service similar to the United Kingdom's Current Account Switch Service;
* clearer rules requiring notice and reasons for account closures, subject to exceptions for fraud, anti-money-laundering, sanctions or safety risks;
* a right to correct inaccurate internal information used in demarketing decisions;
* stronger external complaint-body powers;
* more transparent reporting on account closures, complaints, fee income and switching outcomes;
* support for smaller banks, credit unions and fintech entrants;
* limits on punitive fees and clearer fee disclosure;
* stronger rules on sales incentives and employee performance metrics.

From a critical consumer-rights perspective, the purpose of these reforms would not be to weaken bank safety. It would be to recognize that ordinary banking is now an essential service and that customers need enforceable procedural rights when banks impose serious financial consequences.

==Comparison with selected jurisdictions==
Comparisons between banking systems are imperfect because each country balances stability, competition, access and consumer protection differently. Still, several contrasts are relevant to Canadian criticism.

===United Kingdom===
The United Kingdom has a Current Account Switch Service that allows customers to switch current accounts within seven working days and redirects payments for a defined period. The UK has also implemented open-banking remedies following competition intervention. Critics of Canadian banking often cite the UK as an example of more developed switching infrastructure.

===Australia===
Australia has a Consumer Data Right that includes banking data sharing. Australian banking is also concentrated, but consumer-data-sharing reforms were implemented earlier than in Canada. Australia has also examined de-banking as a policy issue, especially for fintech, remittance, cryptocurrency and money-services businesses.

===United States===
The United States has a more fragmented banking market with national banks, regional banks, community banks and credit unions. This gives consumers more institutional diversity, although U.S. consumers also face overdraft fees, account closures, sales-practice scandals and fragmented regulation. The Wells Fargo unauthorized-accounts scandal is often cited as a reminder that more bank choice does not automatically eliminate abusive sales cultures.

===New Zealand===
New Zealand's banking market is also concentrated. Its competition authorities have examined personal banking services, and its Banking Ombudsman has published guidance on closing accounts. The New Zealand example shows that concentration is not unique to Canada, while also showing that ombuds guidance can be more explicit about communication expectations.

==Major Canadian banking groups==
The largest Canadian banking groups operate across multiple business lines.

{| class="wikitable"
! Banking group
! Main Canadian retail brand
! Selected related activities
|-
| [[Royal Bank of Canada]]
| RBC Royal Bank
| Wealth management, capital markets, insurance, direct investing, U.S. banking through City National Bank
|-
| [[Toronto-Dominion Bank]]
| TD Canada Trust
| U.S. retail banking, wealth management, direct investing, capital markets
|-
| [[Bank of Montreal]]
| BMO
| U.S. banking, wealth management, capital markets, investor services
|-
| [[Bank of Nova Scotia]]
| Scotiabank
| Tangerine, international banking, wealth management, capital markets
|-
| [[Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce]]
| CIBC
| Simplii Financial, U.S. banking, wealth management, capital markets
|-
| [[National Bank of Canada]]
| National Bank
| Wealth management, brokerage, capital markets, regional and national commercial banking
|-
| [[Equitable Bank]]
| EQ Bank
| Digital banking, residential lending, commercial lending
|}

==Credit unions and alternatives==
Credit unions and caisses populaires provide alternatives to banks, especially in provinces such as British Columbia, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Quebec. [[Desjardins Group]] is the largest cooperative financial group in Canada and is systemically important in Quebec.

Credit unions are often perceived as more community-oriented than large banks, but they may have smaller branch networks, narrower product ranges or different digital capabilities. For some consumers, direct banks and fintech firms provide lower fees or better savings rates. For others, especially those needing branch access, business banking, wire transfers, estate services or complex lending, large banks may remain difficult to avoid.

==Business banking and small businesses==
Small businesses rely on banks for operating accounts, merchant services, payroll, credit cards, loans, lines of credit, foreign exchange and payment processing. Business customers may have fewer statutory protections than individual retail consumers. Account closures can be especially damaging for small businesses because they may interrupt payroll, supplier payments, tax remittances, card processing and customer receipts.

Risk-based account closures are particularly controversial for money-services businesses, cryptocurrency firms, cannabis-related businesses, adult-industry businesses, charities, import-export businesses and cash-intensive businesses. Banks argue that these sectors can create elevated compliance, fraud or reputational risks. Critics argue that broad risk avoidance can become private-sector exclusion of lawful activity.

==Social role of banks==
Banks occupy a special position in Canadian society. They are private profit-seeking corporations, but they also operate the infrastructure through which most people receive wages, pay rent, obtain mortgages, run businesses, save money and participate in the economy. This dual role is why criticism of bank conduct often goes beyond ordinary customer-service complaints.

When banks charge high fees, sell unsuitable products, close accounts without reasons or make switching difficult, critics argue that the harm is amplified by the essential nature of banking. Conversely, when banks are stable and well capitalized, the benefit extends beyond shareholders to the wider economy. The central policy debate is how to preserve stability while reducing complacency, opacity and consumer dependence on a small number of dominant institutions.

==See also==
{{Portal|Banks|Canada|Economics}}
* [[Bank Act]]
* [[Bank of Canada]]
* [[Big Five banks of Canada]]
* [[Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]]
* [[Canadian Bankers Association]]
* [[Credit unions in Canada]]
* [[Debanking]]
* [[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]]
* [[List of banks and credit unions in Canada]]
* [[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]]
* [[Open banking]]
* [[Routing number (Canada)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Bordo, Michael D.; Redish, Angela; Rockoff, Hugh. "Why didn't Canada have a banking crisis in 2008 (or in 1930, or 1907, or …)?" ''The Economic History Review''.
* Stewart, Walter. ''Towers of Gold, Feet of Clay: The Canadian Banks''. 1982.

==External links==
* [https://www.bankofcanada.ca/ Bank of Canada]
* [https://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/ Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]
* [https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency.html Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]
* [https://www.cdic.ca/ Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]
* [https://www.obsi.ca/ Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]

{{Canada topics}}
{{Economy of Canada footer}}
{{Banking by country}}
{{Canadian banks}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Banking In Canada}}
[[Category:Banking in Canada]]
[[Category:Banking by country]]
[[Category:Financial services in Canada]]
[[Category:Consumer protection in Canada]]
[[Category:Debanking]]

Banking in Canada

2026-07-06T03:58:28Z

MapleSource:

{{Short description|Overview of the Canadian banking system, regulation, competition, consumer protection and criticism}}
[[Image:Toronto Financial District August 2017.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The towers near [[Bay Street|Bay]] and [[King Street (Toronto)|King Street]] in Toronto are associated with several of Canada's largest banks.]]

'''Banking in Canada''' refers to the system of banks, banking regulation, payment services, deposit-taking institutions, retail financial services and related consumer-protection rules in [[Canada]]. The Canadian banking sector is often described as stable, profitable and highly concentrated. The country's largest banks are among Canada's largest public companies, and the [[Big Five banks of Canada|Big Five]] or [[Big Six banks of Canada|Big Six]] dominate ordinary consumer banking, commercial banking, credit cards, mortgages, investment banking and wealth management.

Canada's banking system is frequently praised for prudential strength, including its avoidance of major domestic bank failures during the [[2008 financial crisis]]. At the same time, the same concentration and profitability have attracted sustained criticism from consumer advocates, competition authorities, policy commentators and affected customers. Common criticisms include weak retail competition, high monthly and incidental fees, poor deposit-rate pass-through, aggressive sales cultures, slow account switching, opaque account closures, limited external dispute-resolution power, and a legal framework that gives banks substantial discretion over whether to continue serving a customer.

Unlike a narrow article on [[debanking]], this article covers Canadian banking as a whole, while also treating access to banking, demarketing, consumer complaints and criticism of bank conduct as central parts of the Canadian banking system.

==Overview==
Canada has a federally regulated banking system in which banks are incorporated or permitted to operate under the federal ''[[Bank Act]]''. Credit unions and caisses populaires are generally provincially regulated, although some may operate federally. The result is a mixed financial-services landscape in which federally regulated banks dominate national retail and commercial banking, while credit unions, trust companies, securities dealers, insurance companies, payment firms and fintech companies provide overlapping services.

The Canadian model has traditionally emphasized prudential stability. Large banks are diversified across business lines, have national branch networks, and are supervised by federal regulators. Critics argue that the same model also entrenches a small group of incumbents, making it difficult for customers to obtain meaningful price competition or to punish poor service by switching providers. This criticism has become more prominent as banking has moved from branch-based service toward digital channels, call centres, sales-driven branch operations and automated risk controls.

==History==
[[Image:ScotiaBankSandstone.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Scotiabank]] facade in [[Amherst, Nova Scotia]], erected in 1907.]]

Banking in Canada developed from colonial and overseas banking operations into a domestic system during the nineteenth century. The [[Bank of Montreal]] began operations in 1817 and was followed by other chartered banks. Early banks issued their own notes, but bank failures and concerns over confidence in private bank notes led to greater government involvement in currency and banking.

After [[Canadian Confederation]] in 1867, the federal government received jurisdiction over banking and currency. The federal [[Bank Act]] of 1871 helped bring chartered banks under common national regulation. The creation of the [[Bank of Canada]] in 1935 added a central bank responsible for monetary policy, financial-system functions and currency issuance.

The modern Canadian banking system is shaped by federal prudential regulation, deposit insurance, national branch banking, mortgage-market rules, securities and insurance regulation, payment-system oversight, and a high degree of concentration among a small number of large financial groups.

{{clear left}}

==Legal and regulatory framework==
Canada's federal government has constitutional jurisdiction over banking under section 91(15) of the ''[[Constitution Act, 1867]]''.<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web |title=Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982 |url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/const/FullText.html |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref> The principal federal statute governing banks is the ''[[Bank Act]]''.<ref name="BankAct">{{cite web |title=Bank Act, S.C. 1991, c. 46 |url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/B-1.01/FullText.html |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

The main federal bodies involved in banking and banking-related oversight include:

* the [[Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]] (OSFI), which supervises federally regulated financial institutions for prudential soundness;
* the [[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]] (FCAC), which supervises federally regulated financial institutions for market-conduct and consumer-protection obligations;
* the [[Bank of Canada]], which is Canada's central bank and has responsibilities relating to monetary policy, financial-system stability and payment systems;
* the [[Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]] (CDIC), which provides deposit insurance and resolution functions for member institutions; and
* the [[Department of Finance Canada]], which develops federal financial-sector policy.

===Bank Act schedules===
The ''Bank Act'' classifies banks into schedules:

* '''Schedule I banks''' are banks incorporated in Canada that are not subsidiaries of foreign banks. They include the large domestic banks such as [[Royal Bank of Canada]], [[Toronto-Dominion Bank]], [[Bank of Montreal]], [[Bank of Nova Scotia]], [[Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce]] and [[National Bank of Canada]].
* '''Schedule II banks''' are banks incorporated in Canada that are subsidiaries of foreign banks.
* '''Schedule III banks''' are foreign banks authorized to carry on business in Canada through branches, subject to restrictions.

This framework allows foreign participation while preserving the dominance of Canadian-incorporated banks in ordinary domestic retail banking.

==Structure and concentration==
{{main|Big Five banks of Canada|List of banks and credit unions in Canada}}

The Canadian banking sector is highly concentrated. The largest domestic banks dominate personal chequing accounts, savings accounts, mortgages, credit cards, small-business banking, commercial lending, investment banking, wealth management and brokerage services.

The term '''Big Five''' usually refers to:

* [[Royal Bank of Canada]] (RBC)
* [[Toronto-Dominion Bank]] (TD)
* [[Bank of Montreal]] (BMO)
* [[Bank of Nova Scotia]] (Scotiabank)
* [[Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce]] (CIBC)

The term '''Big Six''' adds:

* [[National Bank of Canada]]

The Big Six are also domestic systemically important banks. Their size gives them advantages in funding, brand recognition, branch coverage, technology spending, regulatory capacity and customer inertia. Supporters of the Canadian model argue that large national banks provide stability, diversified earnings and resilience. Critics argue that concentration produces oligopoly-like conditions, weak price competition and reduced consumer leverage.

In a 2025 speech, Bank of Canada senior deputy governor Carolyn Rogers described the Canadian banking system as an "oligopoly" and stated that the six largest banks collectively held about 93% of Canadian banking assets. Rogers argued that Canada's stability should be used to support greater contestability, new entrants and innovation rather than to protect incumbents from competition.<ref name="BoCRogers2025">{{cite web |last=Rogers |first=Carolyn |title=Productivity's competitive edge |url=https://www.bankofcanada.ca/2025/10/productivitys-competitive-edge/ |publisher=Bank of Canada |date=9 October 2025 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

==Stability and crisis experience==
Canada's banking system has often been cited for stability. Canadian banks avoided the pattern of major domestic bank failures seen in some other countries during the [[Great Depression]] and the [[2008 financial crisis]]. The system's resilience has been attributed to national branch banking, conservative mortgage underwriting, federal prudential supervision, diversified large banks, and a regulatory preference for stability.

Only a small number of deposit-taking institutions have failed in modern Canadian history. The best-known modern bank failures are the 1985 failures of [[Canadian Commercial Bank]] and [[Northland Bank]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The bank failures of 1985 |url=https://www.bankofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/bank.pdf |publisher=Bank of Canada |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

===2008 financial crisis===
During the 2008 financial crisis, Canadian banks avoided outright failure and were internationally praised for soundness. The crisis nevertheless involved significant public-sector support and liquidity measures, including measures through the [[Bank of Canada]], [[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation]] and foreign central-bank facilities. Critics of the "no bailout" narrative argue that Canadian banks' stability partly reflected government liquidity support, mortgage insurance and policy interventions, not only superior bank conduct or discipline.

==Deposit insurance and resolution==
{{main|Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation}}

The [[Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]] insures eligible deposits at member institutions up to prescribed limits. Deposit insurance is intended to protect depositors and reduce the risk of bank runs. CDIC also has resolution powers for member institutions and plays a role in planning for the failure of systemically important banks.

Canada's largest banks are designated as domestic systemically important banks. This designation recognizes that the failure of any one of them could seriously disrupt the financial system and the wider economy. It also subjects them to additional prudential expectations, including capital and resolution-planning requirements.

==Payment systems and access channels==
Canadian consumers use a mix of branches, ATMs, debit cards, credit cards, electronic funds transfers, online banking, mobile banking, Interac e-Transfer, pre-authorized payments and digital wallets. Canada has long had high adoption of debit cards and electronic banking. Federal government material has historically described Canada as having high ATM density and widespread use of debit, Internet and telephone banking.<ref name="Finance2002">{{cite web |title=Canada's Banks |url=http://www.fin.gc.ca/toc/2002/bank_-eng.asp |publisher=Department of Finance Canada |date=2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125180049/http://www.fin.gc.ca/toc/2002/bank_-eng.asp |archive-date=25 January 2010 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

The rise of digital banking has changed the role of branches. Routine transactions increasingly occur through online banking, mobile applications and ATMs, while branches and call centres have become more focused on sales, advice, problem resolution and customer acquisition. This shift has been controversial because customers may have fewer in-person service options while banks continue to use branches and call centres as sales channels.

==Competition, switching and open banking==
{{see also|Open banking}}

A recurring criticism of Canadian banking is that customers face high switching costs. Direct deposits, payroll arrangements, pre-authorized payments, bill payees, credit products, mortgages, credit cards, registered accounts and investment products can make changing banks time-consuming and risky. Even when competing products exist, the practical difficulty of switching may reduce pressure on incumbent banks.

The [[Competition Bureau]] has argued that lowering switching costs is central to financial-sector competition. In a 2024 submission, the Bureau recommended measures aimed at making it easier for consumers to switch financial institutions and stated that lower switching costs would force banks and other financial institutions to work harder to retain customers.<ref name="CompetitionBureau2024">{{cite web |title=Strengthening Competition in the Financial Sector: Submission by the Competition Bureau |url=https://competition-bureau.canada.ca/en/how-we-foster-competition/promotion-and-advocacy/strengthening-competition-financial-sector-submission-competition-bureau |publisher=Competition Bureau |date=1 May 2024 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

Canada has also moved toward '''consumer-driven banking''', commonly called open banking. The policy goal is to allow consumers to share financial data securely with accredited providers, reducing reliance on screen scraping and making it easier to compare or switch products. Critics argue that Canada has moved slowly compared with jurisdictions such as the United Kingdom and Australia, where switching services and consumer-data-sharing frameworks were implemented earlier.

==Account fees and deposit pricing==
Consumer banking fees are one of the main sources of criticism of Canadian banks. Fees may include monthly chequing account fees, transaction charges, overdraft fees, non-sufficient funds (NSF) fees, out-of-network ATM fees, wire-transfer fees, bank-draft fees, account-research fees and other service charges.

A 2014 FCAC research paper noted that Canada's banking sector was highly concentrated and that this concentration raised concern about whether fees on consumer deposit accounts were optimal for consumers. The paper found that monthly chequing-plan fees had risen moderately from 2005 to 2013, while some variable fees increased more quickly. It also noted that reducing transaction limits on low-cost accounts can function as an indirect fee increase.<ref name="FCACFees2014">{{cite web |last1=Gibney |first1=Charles |last2=Bibi |first2=Sami |last3=Lévesque |first3=Bruno |title=Banking Fees in Canada: Patterns and Trends |url=https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/canada/financial-consumer-agency/migration/eng/resources/researchsurveys/documents/bankingfees-fraisbancaires-eng.pdf |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=June 2014 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

Critics argue that common monthly fees are especially objectionable because banks profit from customer deposits while also charging customers to access basic payment services. Banks and industry groups respond that customers can choose from multiple account packages, low-cost accounts, no-cost accounts for eligible groups, online banks, credit unions and promotional offers.

===NSF fees===
NSF fees became a visible consumer-protection issue because they were often charged when a customer already lacked funds. In 2026, new federal regulations capped NSF fees charged by federally regulated banks at C$10.<ref name="FCACNSF2026">{{cite web |title=New NSF fee regulations bring down cost of banking for Canadians |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/news/2026/03/new-nsf-fee-regulations-bring-down-cost-of-banking-for-canadians.html |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=12 March 2026 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref> The cap was a significant example of government intervention in bank fees. Consumer advocates generally viewed it as an admission that market forces had not adequately restrained punitive fee practices.

===Deposit-rate pass-through===
Deposit pricing has also been criticized. Large Canadian banks may raise loan and mortgage rates quickly when market rates rise while passing less of the increase to ordinary depositors. A Bank of Canada working paper found that Canada's Big Six banks paid materially less for deposits than other domestic banks after controlling for risk factors and funding characteristics, suggesting a funding advantage for large banks.<ref name="BoCFundingAdvantage2013">{{cite web |last1=Beyhaghi |first1=Mehdi |last2=D'Souza |first2=Chris |last3=Roberts |first3=Gordon S. |title=Funding Advantage and Market Discipline in the Canadian Banking Sector |url=https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/banque-bank-canada/FB3-2-113-50-eng.pdf |publisher=Bank of Canada |date=2013 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

==Retail sales practices==
Canadian banks have faced criticism over sales practices in branches and call centres. In 2017, CBC's ''Go Public'' published reports from bank employees alleging intense pressure to meet sales targets. The reporting led to broader public scrutiny and regulatory review.

The [[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]] conducted a Domestic Bank Retail Sales Practices Review of the six largest banks. FCAC reviewed more than 4,500 complaints, more than 100,000 pages of bank documents and interviews with more than 400 bank employees. FCAC did not find widespread mis-selling, but it found that retail banking culture was predominantly focused on selling products and services, that performance-management programs and sales targets could increase the risk of mis-selling, and that controls to mitigate sales-practices risk were underdeveloped.<ref name="FCACSales2018">{{cite web |title=Domestic Bank Retail Sales Practices Review |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/programs/research/bank-sales-practices.html |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=20 March 2018 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

This finding is important to criticism of Canadian bank conduct because it came from the federal consumer regulator rather than from isolated customer anecdotes. Critics argue that a sales-oriented culture can distort advice, push consumers into higher-fee accounts, increase credit exposure, and cause employees to treat customer service as secondary to product penetration.

==Account access and debanking==
{{main|Debanking}}
{{see also|Financial Consumer Agency of Canada|Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments}}

Account access is a central consumer-protection issue in Canadian banking. Federal guidance states that banks must open a personal retail deposit account for an individual who presents acceptable identification, subject to exceptions such as suspected fraud, account misuse, illegal purpose, or where opening the account would expose the bank, employees or customers to physical harm.<ref name="FCACBasicBanking">{{cite web |title=Access to basic banking services: opening a retail deposit account |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/services/industry/bulletins/access-basic-banking.html |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=22 February 2023 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

The rules on opening an account do not create an equally strong right to keep an existing account. Account closure or broader relationship termination is often described as '''debanking''', '''de-risking''', '''demarketing''', '''client exit''' or '''relationship termination'''.

The [[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]] states that banks usually give reasonable notice of account closures, typically 30 days, but that banks are generally not required to explain the reason for ending a relationship. OBSI also states that it generally cannot force a bank to reopen an account or tell the customer why the bank made the decision.<ref name="OBSIRelationshipEnded">{{cite web |title=Relationship Ended |url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/how-we-work/our-approaches/relationship-ended/ |publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

In an OBSI case study involving a customer whose account was closed shortly after opening, OBSI stated that Canadian law and banking regulations allow banks to end business relationships without providing a reason or notice, so the investigation focused on whether the bank complied with the account agreement and exercised its rights reasonably.<ref name="OBSIMrK">{{cite web |title=Consumer surprised when bank gives him 30 days to close his account |url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/news/posts/consumer-surprised-when-bank-gives-him-30-days-to-close-his-account/ |publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

===Criticism of Canadian debanking rules===
Critics describe Canada's debanking framework as too permissive because it gives banks extensive discretion while leaving customers with limited practical remedies. The strongest criticisms are that:

* banks can terminate long-standing relationships with little explanation;
* customers may not know whether the closure was based on an error, risk model, complaint, employee discretion, suspicious-activity concern or reputational-risk decision;
* customers may be unable to correct incorrect internal information if they are not told what information was relied on;
* OBSI and other complaint bodies may review procedure but usually cannot reverse the business decision;
* a closure by one major bank can make a customer appear risky to other institutions, especially where the customer is a business, newcomer, politically exposed person, cryptocurrency user, sex worker, charity or cash-intensive operator;
* the loss of banking can make ordinary life or business operations impossible, even if no law has been broken.

This criticism does not mean that banks should be forced to maintain every relationship. Banks have anti-money-laundering, sanctions, fraud-prevention, safety and prudential obligations. The consumer-rights objection is that Canadian law often leaves the affected customer without a clear reason, a meaningful correction mechanism, or an external power capable of balancing risk management against access to essential financial services.

===Affected groups===
Canadian reporting and advocacy have identified several groups and sectors affected by account closures, freezes or restrictions. These include:

* money-services businesses and cheque-cashing businesses;
* cryptocurrency users and cryptocurrency-related businesses;
* adult-content creators and sex workers;
* some charities and religious or community organizations;
* customers involved in heated disputes with bank staff or complaint channels;
* politically controversial customers or organizations; and
* customers whose activity is considered outside a bank's risk appetite.

Because banking is essential to employment, rent, utilities, benefits, taxes and business operations, critics argue that debanking should be treated as a serious form of economic exclusion rather than as an ordinary private contract decision.

===Emergencies Act account freezes===
The 2022 [[Canada convoy protest]] produced one of Canada's most publicized banking-access controversies. Under emergency measures connected to the federal government's invocation of the [[Emergencies Act]], financial institutions froze accounts linked to the protests. These freezes differed from ordinary private-sector debanking because they were connected to government emergency powers, but they intensified public debate about due process, political neutrality, financial exclusion and the role of banks in restricting economic activity.

==Court cases and privacy requests==
Canadian legal disputes over account closures often turn on contract law, good faith, privacy law and notice rather than on a general right to be banked.

In ''[[Bertucci v. Royal Bank of Canada]]'', the [[Federal Court of Canada]] considered a request for personal information after RBC closed accounts without written explanation. The court held that RBC should have provided access to raw data with proprietary material redacted and stated that the standard for withholding personal information under the [[Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act]] because it would reveal confidential commercial information is very high.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bertucci v. Royal Bank of Canada, 2016 FC 332 |url=https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/fct/doc/2016/2016fc332/2016fc332.html |website=CanLII |date=2016 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Financial institution originally misuses confidential commercial information exemption to withhold personal information |url=https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-actions-and-decisions/investigations/investigations-into-businesses/2017/pipeda-2017-011/ |publisher=Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada |date=31 March 2017 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

In ''Pourshafiey v. Toronto-Dominion Bank'', a Quebec case involving a money-services business, TD gave 30 days' notice that it would close several accounts but immediately terminated a wire-transfer service that the business relied on. The court found that TD had a reasonable justification for ending the relationship and had the right to do so, but had to exercise that right responsibly and in good faith. Damages were awarded for inadequate notice and for stress and inconvenience caused by the bank's conduct.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pourshafiey c. Toronto-Dominion Bank, 2018 QCCS 3202 |url=https://www.canlii.org/fr/qc/qccs/doc/2018/2018qccs3202/2018qccs3202.html |website=CanLII |date=2018 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

These cases are frequently cited by critics because they show the limits of Canadian account-closure remedies. A customer may be able to obtain some personal information or damages for unreasonable implementation, but courts and ombuds services are generally reluctant to create a broad right to continued service.

==Dispute resolution and complaints==
Bank customers usually must first complain to the bank. If unresolved, complaints may proceed to an external complaint body. Historically, many banking complaints were handled by the [[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]] (OBSI). Some major banks have used other external complaint bodies, which has itself been controversial.

Consumer advocates have criticized fragmented dispute resolution, industry funding, limited transparency and limited remedial power. In 2018, CBC News reported criticism after Scotiabank left OBSI for another dispute-resolution provider. Critics argued that allowing banks to choose complaint bodies could weaken accountability and create incentives for providers to be more attractive to banks than to consumers.<ref>{{cite news |last=Evans |first=Pete |title=Scotiabank walks away from consumer dispute watchdog OBSI |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/scotiabank-obsi-1.4815023 |work=CBC News |date=7 September 2018 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

Dispute-resolution criticism overlaps with debanking criticism. Even where a complaint body reviews a closure, the remedy may be limited to whether the bank followed its own agreement, gave adequate notice, released funds and communicated properly. Critics argue that this can leave the core decision effectively insulated from meaningful review.

==Criticism and consumer-protection concerns==
The most common criticism of Canadian bank conduct is not that Canadian banks are unsafe. Rather, the criticism is that banks combine public trust, essential-service status, regulatory protection and high profitability with conduct that often places customers in a weak bargaining position.

Major areas of criticism include:

* '''Oligopoly and weak contestability''': the Big Six dominate assets and retail relationships, making competition less intense than it appears from the number of brands in the market.
* '''High and layered fees''': consumers may pay monthly fees plus incidental charges for overdrafts, NSF items, ATMs, wire transfers, drafts and account services.
* '''Low deposit-rate pass-through''': large banks may benefit from cheap customer deposits while ordinary savers receive relatively low interest.
* '''Sales pressure''': FCAC found that sales targets and performance-management programs could increase the risk of mis-selling.
* '''Opacity in account closures''': customers may lose access to banking without being told the reason.
* '''Limited remedies''': external complaint systems may award compensation in some cases but usually cannot force a bank to continue a relationship.
* '''Switching friction''': the difficulty of moving accounts, payments, mortgages and investments limits consumer discipline.
* '''Public-private imbalance''': banks receive the benefits of public confidence, deposit insurance, central-bank liquidity and systemic importance while retaining broad private discretion over service termination.

Banks and industry groups respond that the Canadian system is stable, well capitalized, widely accessible, technologically advanced and subject to extensive regulation. They also argue that banks must be able to manage fraud, money laundering, sanctions, abuse, safety, credit risk and operational risk. The consumer-protection debate therefore centres on whether the balance has shifted too far toward bank discretion and too far away from transparency, switching rights and enforceable customer remedies.

==Reform proposals==
Reform proposals commonly discussed in relation to Canadian banking include:

* stronger open-banking and consumer-data rights;
* faster implementation of real-time payments;
* a formal bank-account switching service similar to the United Kingdom's Current Account Switch Service;
* clearer rules requiring notice and reasons for account closures, subject to exceptions for fraud, anti-money-laundering, sanctions or safety risks;
* a right to correct inaccurate internal information used in demarketing decisions;
* stronger external complaint-body powers;
* more transparent reporting on account closures, complaints, fee income and switching outcomes;
* support for smaller banks, credit unions and fintech entrants;
* limits on punitive fees and clearer fee disclosure;
* stronger rules on sales incentives and employee performance metrics.

From a critical consumer-rights perspective, the purpose of these reforms would not be to weaken bank safety. It would be to recognize that ordinary banking is now an essential service and that customers need enforceable procedural rights when banks impose serious financial consequences.

==Comparison with selected jurisdictions==
Comparisons between banking systems are imperfect because each country balances stability, competition, access and consumer protection differently. Still, several contrasts are relevant to Canadian criticism.

===United Kingdom===
The United Kingdom has a Current Account Switch Service that allows customers to switch current accounts within seven working days and redirects payments for a defined period. The UK has also implemented open-banking remedies following competition intervention. Critics of Canadian banking often cite the UK as an example of more developed switching infrastructure.

===Australia===
Australia has a Consumer Data Right that includes banking data sharing. Australian banking is also concentrated, but consumer-data-sharing reforms were implemented earlier than in Canada. Australia has also examined de-banking as a policy issue, especially for fintech, remittance, cryptocurrency and money-services businesses.

===United States===
The United States has a more fragmented banking market with national banks, regional banks, community banks and credit unions. This gives consumers more institutional diversity, although U.S. consumers also face overdraft fees, account closures, sales-practice scandals and fragmented regulation. The Wells Fargo unauthorized-accounts scandal is often cited as a reminder that more bank choice does not automatically eliminate abusive sales cultures.

===New Zealand===
New Zealand's banking market is also concentrated. Its competition authorities have examined personal banking services, and its Banking Ombudsman has published guidance on closing accounts. The New Zealand example shows that concentration is not unique to Canada, while also showing that ombuds guidance can be more explicit about communication expectations.

==Major Canadian banking groups==
The largest Canadian banking groups operate across multiple business lines.

{| class="wikitable"
! Banking group
! Main Canadian retail brand
! Selected related activities
|-
| [[Royal Bank of Canada]]
| RBC Royal Bank
| Wealth management, capital markets, insurance, direct investing, U.S. banking through City National Bank
|-
| [[Toronto-Dominion Bank]]
| TD Canada Trust
| U.S. retail banking, wealth management, direct investing, capital markets
|-
| [[Bank of Montreal]]
| BMO
| U.S. banking, wealth management, capital markets, investor services
|-
| [[Bank of Nova Scotia]]
| Scotiabank
| Tangerine, international banking, wealth management, capital markets
|-
| [[Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce]]
| CIBC
| Simplii Financial, U.S. banking, wealth management, capital markets
|-
| [[National Bank of Canada]]
| National Bank
| Wealth management, brokerage, capital markets, regional and national commercial banking
|-
| [[Equitable Bank]]
| EQ Bank
| Digital banking, residential lending, commercial lending
|}

==Credit unions and alternatives==
Credit unions and caisses populaires provide alternatives to banks, especially in provinces such as British Columbia, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Quebec. [[Desjardins Group]] is the largest cooperative financial group in Canada and is systemically important in Quebec.

Credit unions are often perceived as more community-oriented than large banks, but they may have smaller branch networks, narrower product ranges or different digital capabilities. For some consumers, direct banks and fintech firms provide lower fees or better savings rates. For others, especially those needing branch access, business banking, wire transfers, estate services or complex lending, large banks may remain difficult to avoid.

==Business banking and small businesses==
Small businesses rely on banks for operating accounts, merchant services, payroll, credit cards, loans, lines of credit, foreign exchange and payment processing. Business customers may have fewer statutory protections than individual retail consumers. Account closures can be especially damaging for small businesses because they may interrupt payroll, supplier payments, tax remittances, card processing and customer receipts.

Risk-based account closures are particularly controversial for money-services businesses, cryptocurrency firms, cannabis-related businesses, adult-industry businesses, charities, import-export businesses and cash-intensive businesses. Banks argue that these sectors can create elevated compliance, fraud or reputational risks. Critics argue that broad risk avoidance can become private-sector exclusion of lawful activity.

==Social role of banks==
Banks occupy a special position in Canadian society. They are private profit-seeking corporations, but they also operate the infrastructure through which most people receive wages, pay rent, obtain mortgages, run businesses, save money and participate in the economy. This dual role is why criticism of bank conduct often goes beyond ordinary customer-service complaints.

When banks charge high fees, sell unsuitable products, close accounts without reasons or make switching difficult, critics argue that the harm is amplified by the essential nature of banking. Conversely, when banks are stable and well capitalized, the benefit extends beyond shareholders to the wider economy. The central policy debate is how to preserve stability while reducing complacency, opacity and consumer dependence on a small number of dominant institutions.

==See also==
{{Portal|Banks|Canada|Economics}}
* [[Bank Act]]
* [[Bank of Canada]]
* [[Big Five banks of Canada]]
* [[Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]]
* [[Canadian Bankers Association]]
* [[Credit unions in Canada]]
* [[Debanking]]
* [[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]]
* [[List of banks and credit unions in Canada]]
* [[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]]
* [[Open banking]]
* [[Routing number (Canada)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Bordo, Michael D.; Redish, Angela; Rockoff, Hugh. "Why didn't Canada have a banking crisis in 2008 (or in 1930, or 1907, or …)?" ''The Economic History Review''.
* Stewart, Walter. ''Towers of Gold, Feet of Clay: The Canadian Banks''. 1982.

==External links==
* [https://www.bankofcanada.ca/ Bank of Canada]
* [https://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/ Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]
* [https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency.html Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]
* [https://www.cdic.ca/ Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]
* [https://www.obsi.ca/ Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]

{{Canada topics}}
{{Economy of Canada footer}}
{{Banking by country}}
{{Canadian banks}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Banking In Canada}}
[[Category:Banking in Canada]]
[[Category:Banking by country]]
[[Category:Financial services in Canada]]
[[Category:Consumer protection in Canada]]
[[Category:Debanking]]

Banking in Canada

2026-07-06T03:56:39Z

MapleSource: Created page with "{{Short description|Overview of the Canadian banking system, regulation, competition, consumer protection and criticism}} Bay and King Street in Toronto are associated with several of Canada's largest banks.]] {{Economy of Canada}} '''Banking in Canada''' refers to the system of banks, banking regulation, payment services, deposit-taking institu..."

{{Short description|Overview of the Canadian banking system, regulation, competition, consumer protection and criticism}}
[[Image:Toronto Financial District August 2017.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The towers near [[Bay Street|Bay]] and [[King Street (Toronto)|King Street]] in Toronto are associated with several of Canada's largest banks.]]

{{Economy of Canada}}

'''Banking in Canada''' refers to the system of banks, banking regulation, payment services, deposit-taking institutions, retail financial services and related consumer-protection rules in [[Canada]]. The Canadian banking sector is often described as stable, profitable and highly concentrated. The country's largest banks are among Canada's largest public companies, and the [[Big Five banks of Canada|Big Five]] or [[Big Six banks of Canada|Big Six]] dominate ordinary consumer banking, commercial banking, credit cards, mortgages, investment banking and wealth management.

Canada's banking system is frequently praised for prudential strength, including its avoidance of major domestic bank failures during the [[2008 financial crisis]]. At the same time, the same concentration and profitability have attracted sustained criticism from consumer advocates, competition authorities, policy commentators and affected customers. Common criticisms include weak retail competition, high monthly and incidental fees, poor deposit-rate pass-through, aggressive sales cultures, slow account switching, opaque account closures, limited external dispute-resolution power, and a legal framework that gives banks substantial discretion over whether to continue serving a customer.

Unlike a narrow article on [[debanking]], this article covers Canadian banking as a whole, while also treating access to banking, demarketing, consumer complaints and criticism of bank conduct as central parts of the Canadian banking system.

==Overview==
Canada has a federally regulated banking system in which banks are incorporated or permitted to operate under the federal ''[[Bank Act]]''. Credit unions and caisses populaires are generally provincially regulated, although some may operate federally. The result is a mixed financial-services landscape in which federally regulated banks dominate national retail and commercial banking, while credit unions, trust companies, securities dealers, insurance companies, payment firms and fintech companies provide overlapping services.

The Canadian model has traditionally emphasized prudential stability. Large banks are diversified across business lines, have national branch networks, and are supervised by federal regulators. Critics argue that the same model also entrenches a small group of incumbents, making it difficult for customers to obtain meaningful price competition or to punish poor service by switching providers. This criticism has become more prominent as banking has moved from branch-based service toward digital channels, call centres, sales-driven branch operations and automated risk controls.

==History==
{{main|Early Canadian banking system}}

[[Image:ScotiaBankSandstone.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Scotiabank]] facade in [[Amherst, Nova Scotia]], erected in 1907.]]

Banking in Canada developed from colonial and overseas banking operations into a domestic system during the nineteenth century. The [[Bank of Montreal]] began operations in 1817 and was followed by other chartered banks. Early banks issued their own notes, but bank failures and concerns over confidence in private bank notes led to greater government involvement in currency and banking.

After [[Canadian Confederation]] in 1867, the federal government received jurisdiction over banking and currency. The federal [[Bank Act]] of 1871 helped bring chartered banks under common national regulation. The creation of the [[Bank of Canada]] in 1935 added a central bank responsible for monetary policy, financial-system functions and currency issuance.

The modern Canadian banking system is shaped by federal prudential regulation, deposit insurance, national branch banking, mortgage-market rules, securities and insurance regulation, payment-system oversight, and a high degree of concentration among a small number of large financial groups.

{{clear left}}

==Legal and regulatory framework==
Canada's federal government has constitutional jurisdiction over banking under section 91(15) of the ''[[Constitution Act, 1867]]''.<ref name="Constitution">{{cite web |title=Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982 |url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/const/FullText.html |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref> The principal federal statute governing banks is the ''[[Bank Act]]''.<ref name="BankAct">{{cite web |title=Bank Act, S.C. 1991, c. 46 |url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/B-1.01/FullText.html |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

The main federal bodies involved in banking and banking-related oversight include:

* the [[Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]] (OSFI), which supervises federally regulated financial institutions for prudential soundness;
* the [[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]] (FCAC), which supervises federally regulated financial institutions for market-conduct and consumer-protection obligations;
* the [[Bank of Canada]], which is Canada's central bank and has responsibilities relating to monetary policy, financial-system stability and payment systems;
* the [[Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]] (CDIC), which provides deposit insurance and resolution functions for member institutions; and
* the [[Department of Finance Canada]], which develops federal financial-sector policy.

===Bank Act schedules===
The ''Bank Act'' classifies banks into schedules:

* '''Schedule I banks''' are banks incorporated in Canada that are not subsidiaries of foreign banks. They include the large domestic banks such as [[Royal Bank of Canada]], [[Toronto-Dominion Bank]], [[Bank of Montreal]], [[Bank of Nova Scotia]], [[Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce]] and [[National Bank of Canada]].
* '''Schedule II banks''' are banks incorporated in Canada that are subsidiaries of foreign banks.
* '''Schedule III banks''' are foreign banks authorized to carry on business in Canada through branches, subject to restrictions.

This framework allows foreign participation while preserving the dominance of Canadian-incorporated banks in ordinary domestic retail banking.

==Structure and concentration==
{{main|Big Five banks of Canada|List of banks and credit unions in Canada}}

The Canadian banking sector is highly concentrated. The largest domestic banks dominate personal chequing accounts, savings accounts, mortgages, credit cards, small-business banking, commercial lending, investment banking, wealth management and brokerage services.

The term '''Big Five''' usually refers to:

* [[Royal Bank of Canada]] (RBC)
* [[Toronto-Dominion Bank]] (TD)
* [[Bank of Montreal]] (BMO)
* [[Bank of Nova Scotia]] (Scotiabank)
* [[Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce]] (CIBC)

The term '''Big Six''' adds:

* [[National Bank of Canada]]

The Big Six are also domestic systemically important banks. Their size gives them advantages in funding, brand recognition, branch coverage, technology spending, regulatory capacity and customer inertia. Supporters of the Canadian model argue that large national banks provide stability, diversified earnings and resilience. Critics argue that concentration produces oligopoly-like conditions, weak price competition and reduced consumer leverage.

In a 2025 speech, Bank of Canada senior deputy governor Carolyn Rogers described the Canadian banking system as an "oligopoly" and stated that the six largest banks collectively held about 93% of Canadian banking assets. Rogers argued that Canada's stability should be used to support greater contestability, new entrants and innovation rather than to protect incumbents from competition.<ref name="BoCRogers2025">{{cite web |last=Rogers |first=Carolyn |title=Productivity's competitive edge |url=https://www.bankofcanada.ca/2025/10/productivitys-competitive-edge/ |publisher=Bank of Canada |date=9 October 2025 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

==Stability and crisis experience==
Canada's banking system has often been cited for stability. Canadian banks avoided the pattern of major domestic bank failures seen in some other countries during the [[Great Depression]] and the [[2008 financial crisis]]. The system's resilience has been attributed to national branch banking, conservative mortgage underwriting, federal prudential supervision, diversified large banks, and a regulatory preference for stability.

Only a small number of deposit-taking institutions have failed in modern Canadian history. The best-known modern bank failures are the 1985 failures of [[Canadian Commercial Bank]] and [[Northland Bank]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The bank failures of 1985 |url=https://www.bankofcanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/bank.pdf |publisher=Bank of Canada |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

===2008 financial crisis===
During the 2008 financial crisis, Canadian banks avoided outright failure and were internationally praised for soundness. The crisis nevertheless involved significant public-sector support and liquidity measures, including measures through the [[Bank of Canada]], [[Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation]] and foreign central-bank facilities. Critics of the "no bailout" narrative argue that Canadian banks' stability partly reflected government liquidity support, mortgage insurance and policy interventions, not only superior bank conduct or discipline.

==Deposit insurance and resolution==
{{main|Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation}}

The [[Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]] insures eligible deposits at member institutions up to prescribed limits. Deposit insurance is intended to protect depositors and reduce the risk of bank runs. CDIC also has resolution powers for member institutions and plays a role in planning for the failure of systemically important banks.

Canada's largest banks are designated as domestic systemically important banks. This designation recognizes that the failure of any one of them could seriously disrupt the financial system and the wider economy. It also subjects them to additional prudential expectations, including capital and resolution-planning requirements.

==Payment systems and access channels==
Canadian consumers use a mix of branches, ATMs, debit cards, credit cards, electronic funds transfers, online banking, mobile banking, Interac e-Transfer, pre-authorized payments and digital wallets. Canada has long had high adoption of debit cards and electronic banking. Federal government material has historically described Canada as having high ATM density and widespread use of debit, Internet and telephone banking.<ref name="Finance2002">{{cite web |title=Canada's Banks |url=http://www.fin.gc.ca/toc/2002/bank_-eng.asp |publisher=Department of Finance Canada |date=2002 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125180049/http://www.fin.gc.ca/toc/2002/bank_-eng.asp |archive-date=25 January 2010 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

The rise of digital banking has changed the role of branches. Routine transactions increasingly occur through online banking, mobile applications and ATMs, while branches and call centres have become more focused on sales, advice, problem resolution and customer acquisition. This shift has been controversial because customers may have fewer in-person service options while banks continue to use branches and call centres as sales channels.

==Competition, switching and open banking==
{{see also|Open banking}}

A recurring criticism of Canadian banking is that customers face high switching costs. Direct deposits, payroll arrangements, pre-authorized payments, bill payees, credit products, mortgages, credit cards, registered accounts and investment products can make changing banks time-consuming and risky. Even when competing products exist, the practical difficulty of switching may reduce pressure on incumbent banks.

The [[Competition Bureau]] has argued that lowering switching costs is central to financial-sector competition. In a 2024 submission, the Bureau recommended measures aimed at making it easier for consumers to switch financial institutions and stated that lower switching costs would force banks and other financial institutions to work harder to retain customers.<ref name="CompetitionBureau2024">{{cite web |title=Strengthening Competition in the Financial Sector: Submission by the Competition Bureau |url=https://competition-bureau.canada.ca/en/how-we-foster-competition/promotion-and-advocacy/strengthening-competition-financial-sector-submission-competition-bureau |publisher=Competition Bureau |date=1 May 2024 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

Canada has also moved toward '''consumer-driven banking''', commonly called open banking. The policy goal is to allow consumers to share financial data securely with accredited providers, reducing reliance on screen scraping and making it easier to compare or switch products. Critics argue that Canada has moved slowly compared with jurisdictions such as the United Kingdom and Australia, where switching services and consumer-data-sharing frameworks were implemented earlier.

==Account fees and deposit pricing==
Consumer banking fees are one of the main sources of criticism of Canadian banks. Fees may include monthly chequing account fees, transaction charges, overdraft fees, non-sufficient funds (NSF) fees, out-of-network ATM fees, wire-transfer fees, bank-draft fees, account-research fees and other service charges.

A 2014 FCAC research paper noted that Canada's banking sector was highly concentrated and that this concentration raised concern about whether fees on consumer deposit accounts were optimal for consumers. The paper found that monthly chequing-plan fees had risen moderately from 2005 to 2013, while some variable fees increased more quickly. It also noted that reducing transaction limits on low-cost accounts can function as an indirect fee increase.<ref name="FCACFees2014">{{cite web |last1=Gibney |first1=Charles |last2=Bibi |first2=Sami |last3=Lévesque |first3=Bruno |title=Banking Fees in Canada: Patterns and Trends |url=https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/canada/financial-consumer-agency/migration/eng/resources/researchsurveys/documents/bankingfees-fraisbancaires-eng.pdf |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=June 2014 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

Critics argue that common monthly fees are especially objectionable because banks profit from customer deposits while also charging customers to access basic payment services. Banks and industry groups respond that customers can choose from multiple account packages, low-cost accounts, no-cost accounts for eligible groups, online banks, credit unions and promotional offers.

===NSF fees===
NSF fees became a visible consumer-protection issue because they were often charged when a customer already lacked funds. In 2026, new federal regulations capped NSF fees charged by federally regulated banks at C$10.<ref name="FCACNSF2026">{{cite web |title=New NSF fee regulations bring down cost of banking for Canadians |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/news/2026/03/new-nsf-fee-regulations-bring-down-cost-of-banking-for-canadians.html |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=12 March 2026 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref> The cap was a significant example of government intervention in bank fees. Consumer advocates generally viewed it as an admission that market forces had not adequately restrained punitive fee practices.

===Deposit-rate pass-through===
Deposit pricing has also been criticized. Large Canadian banks may raise loan and mortgage rates quickly when market rates rise while passing less of the increase to ordinary depositors. A Bank of Canada working paper found that Canada's Big Six banks paid materially less for deposits than other domestic banks after controlling for risk factors and funding characteristics, suggesting a funding advantage for large banks.<ref name="BoCFundingAdvantage2013">{{cite web |last1=Beyhaghi |first1=Mehdi |last2=D'Souza |first2=Chris |last3=Roberts |first3=Gordon S. |title=Funding Advantage and Market Discipline in the Canadian Banking Sector |url=https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/banque-bank-canada/FB3-2-113-50-eng.pdf |publisher=Bank of Canada |date=2013 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

==Retail sales practices==
Canadian banks have faced criticism over sales practices in branches and call centres. In 2017, CBC's ''Go Public'' published reports from bank employees alleging intense pressure to meet sales targets. The reporting led to broader public scrutiny and regulatory review.

The [[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]] conducted a Domestic Bank Retail Sales Practices Review of the six largest banks. FCAC reviewed more than 4,500 complaints, more than 100,000 pages of bank documents and interviews with more than 400 bank employees. FCAC did not find widespread mis-selling, but it found that retail banking culture was predominantly focused on selling products and services, that performance-management programs and sales targets could increase the risk of mis-selling, and that controls to mitigate sales-practices risk were underdeveloped.<ref name="FCACSales2018">{{cite web |title=Domestic Bank Retail Sales Practices Review |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/programs/research/bank-sales-practices.html |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=20 March 2018 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

This finding is important to criticism of Canadian bank conduct because it came from the federal consumer regulator rather than from isolated customer anecdotes. Critics argue that a sales-oriented culture can distort advice, push consumers into higher-fee accounts, increase credit exposure, and cause employees to treat customer service as secondary to product penetration.

==Account access and debanking==
{{main|Debanking}}
{{see also|Financial Consumer Agency of Canada|Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments}}

Account access is a central consumer-protection issue in Canadian banking. Federal guidance states that banks must open a personal retail deposit account for an individual who presents acceptable identification, subject to exceptions such as suspected fraud, account misuse, illegal purpose, or where opening the account would expose the bank, employees or customers to physical harm.<ref name="FCACBasicBanking">{{cite web |title=Access to basic banking services: opening a retail deposit account |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/services/industry/bulletins/access-basic-banking.html |publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada |date=22 February 2023 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

The rules on opening an account do not create an equally strong right to keep an existing account. Account closure or broader relationship termination is often described as '''debanking''', '''de-risking''', '''demarketing''', '''client exit''' or '''relationship termination'''.

The [[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]] states that banks usually give reasonable notice of account closures, typically 30 days, but that banks are generally not required to explain the reason for ending a relationship. OBSI also states that it generally cannot force a bank to reopen an account or tell the customer why the bank made the decision.<ref name="OBSIRelationshipEnded">{{cite web |title=Relationship Ended |url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/how-we-work/our-approaches/relationship-ended/ |publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

In an OBSI case study involving a customer whose account was closed shortly after opening, OBSI stated that Canadian law and banking regulations allow banks to end business relationships without providing a reason or notice, so the investigation focused on whether the bank complied with the account agreement and exercised its rights reasonably.<ref name="OBSIMrK">{{cite web |title=Consumer surprised when bank gives him 30 days to close his account |url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/news/posts/consumer-surprised-when-bank-gives-him-30-days-to-close-his-account/ |publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

===Criticism of Canadian debanking rules===
Critics describe Canada's debanking framework as too permissive because it gives banks extensive discretion while leaving customers with limited practical remedies. The strongest criticisms are that:

* banks can terminate long-standing relationships with little explanation;
* customers may not know whether the closure was based on an error, risk model, complaint, employee discretion, suspicious-activity concern or reputational-risk decision;
* customers may be unable to correct incorrect internal information if they are not told what information was relied on;
* OBSI and other complaint bodies may review procedure but usually cannot reverse the business decision;
* a closure by one major bank can make a customer appear risky to other institutions, especially where the customer is a business, newcomer, politically exposed person, cryptocurrency user, sex worker, charity or cash-intensive operator;
* the loss of banking can make ordinary life or business operations impossible, even if no law has been broken.

This criticism does not mean that banks should be forced to maintain every relationship. Banks have anti-money-laundering, sanctions, fraud-prevention, safety and prudential obligations. The consumer-rights objection is that Canadian law often leaves the affected customer without a clear reason, a meaningful correction mechanism, or an external power capable of balancing risk management against access to essential financial services.

===Affected groups===
Canadian reporting and advocacy have identified several groups and sectors affected by account closures, freezes or restrictions. These include:

* money-services businesses and cheque-cashing businesses;
* cryptocurrency users and cryptocurrency-related businesses;
* adult-content creators and sex workers;
* some charities and religious or community organizations;
* customers involved in heated disputes with bank staff or complaint channels;
* politically controversial customers or organizations; and
* customers whose activity is considered outside a bank's risk appetite.

Because banking is essential to employment, rent, utilities, benefits, taxes and business operations, critics argue that debanking should be treated as a serious form of economic exclusion rather than as an ordinary private contract decision.

===Emergencies Act account freezes===
The 2022 [[Canada convoy protest]] produced one of Canada's most publicized banking-access controversies. Under emergency measures connected to the federal government's invocation of the [[Emergencies Act]], financial institutions froze accounts linked to the protests. These freezes differed from ordinary private-sector debanking because they were connected to government emergency powers, but they intensified public debate about due process, political neutrality, financial exclusion and the role of banks in restricting economic activity.

==Court cases and privacy requests==
Canadian legal disputes over account closures often turn on contract law, good faith, privacy law and notice rather than on a general right to be banked.

In ''[[Bertucci v. Royal Bank of Canada]]'', the [[Federal Court of Canada]] considered a request for personal information after RBC closed accounts without written explanation. The court held that RBC should have provided access to raw data with proprietary material redacted and stated that the standard for withholding personal information under the [[Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act]] because it would reveal confidential commercial information is very high.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bertucci v. Royal Bank of Canada, 2016 FC 332 |url=https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/fct/doc/2016/2016fc332/2016fc332.html |website=CanLII |date=2016 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Financial institution originally misuses confidential commercial information exemption to withhold personal information |url=https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-actions-and-decisions/investigations/investigations-into-businesses/2017/pipeda-2017-011/ |publisher=Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada |date=31 March 2017 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

In ''Pourshafiey v. Toronto-Dominion Bank'', a Quebec case involving a money-services business, TD gave 30 days' notice that it would close several accounts but immediately terminated a wire-transfer service that the business relied on. The court found that TD had a reasonable justification for ending the relationship and had the right to do so, but had to exercise that right responsibly and in good faith. Damages were awarded for inadequate notice and for stress and inconvenience caused by the bank's conduct.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pourshafiey c. Toronto-Dominion Bank, 2018 QCCS 3202 |url=https://www.canlii.org/fr/qc/qccs/doc/2018/2018qccs3202/2018qccs3202.html |website=CanLII |date=2018 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

These cases are frequently cited by critics because they show the limits of Canadian account-closure remedies. A customer may be able to obtain some personal information or damages for unreasonable implementation, but courts and ombuds services are generally reluctant to create a broad right to continued service.

==Dispute resolution and complaints==
Bank customers usually must first complain to the bank. If unresolved, complaints may proceed to an external complaint body. Historically, many banking complaints were handled by the [[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]] (OBSI). Some major banks have used other external complaint bodies, which has itself been controversial.

Consumer advocates have criticized fragmented dispute resolution, industry funding, limited transparency and limited remedial power. In 2018, CBC News reported criticism after Scotiabank left OBSI for another dispute-resolution provider. Critics argued that allowing banks to choose complaint bodies could weaken accountability and create incentives for providers to be more attractive to banks than to consumers.<ref>{{cite news |last=Evans |first=Pete |title=Scotiabank walks away from consumer dispute watchdog OBSI |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/scotiabank-obsi-1.4815023 |work=CBC News |date=7 September 2018 |access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

Dispute-resolution criticism overlaps with debanking criticism. Even where a complaint body reviews a closure, the remedy may be limited to whether the bank followed its own agreement, gave adequate notice, released funds and communicated properly. Critics argue that this can leave the core decision effectively insulated from meaningful review.

==Criticism and consumer-protection concerns==
The most common criticism of Canadian bank conduct is not that Canadian banks are unsafe. Rather, the criticism is that banks combine public trust, essential-service status, regulatory protection and high profitability with conduct that often places customers in a weak bargaining position.

Major areas of criticism include:

* '''Oligopoly and weak contestability''': the Big Six dominate assets and retail relationships, making competition less intense than it appears from the number of brands in the market.
* '''High and layered fees''': consumers may pay monthly fees plus incidental charges for overdrafts, NSF items, ATMs, wire transfers, drafts and account services.
* '''Low deposit-rate pass-through''': large banks may benefit from cheap customer deposits while ordinary savers receive relatively low interest.
* '''Sales pressure''': FCAC found that sales targets and performance-management programs could increase the risk of mis-selling.
* '''Opacity in account closures''': customers may lose access to banking without being told the reason.
* '''Limited remedies''': external complaint systems may award compensation in some cases but usually cannot force a bank to continue a relationship.
* '''Switching friction''': the difficulty of moving accounts, payments, mortgages and investments limits consumer discipline.
* '''Public-private imbalance''': banks receive the benefits of public confidence, deposit insurance, central-bank liquidity and systemic importance while retaining broad private discretion over service termination.

Banks and industry groups respond that the Canadian system is stable, well capitalized, widely accessible, technologically advanced and subject to extensive regulation. They also argue that banks must be able to manage fraud, money laundering, sanctions, abuse, safety, credit risk and operational risk. The consumer-protection debate therefore centres on whether the balance has shifted too far toward bank discretion and too far away from transparency, switching rights and enforceable customer remedies.

==Reform proposals==
Reform proposals commonly discussed in relation to Canadian banking include:

* stronger open-banking and consumer-data rights;
* faster implementation of real-time payments;
* a formal bank-account switching service similar to the United Kingdom's Current Account Switch Service;
* clearer rules requiring notice and reasons for account closures, subject to exceptions for fraud, anti-money-laundering, sanctions or safety risks;
* a right to correct inaccurate internal information used in demarketing decisions;
* stronger external complaint-body powers;
* more transparent reporting on account closures, complaints, fee income and switching outcomes;
* support for smaller banks, credit unions and fintech entrants;
* limits on punitive fees and clearer fee disclosure;
* stronger rules on sales incentives and employee performance metrics.

From a critical consumer-rights perspective, the purpose of these reforms would not be to weaken bank safety. It would be to recognize that ordinary banking is now an essential service and that customers need enforceable procedural rights when banks impose serious financial consequences.

==Comparison with selected jurisdictions==
Comparisons between banking systems are imperfect because each country balances stability, competition, access and consumer protection differently. Still, several contrasts are relevant to Canadian criticism.

===United Kingdom===
The United Kingdom has a Current Account Switch Service that allows customers to switch current accounts within seven working days and redirects payments for a defined period. The UK has also implemented open-banking remedies following competition intervention. Critics of Canadian banking often cite the UK as an example of more developed switching infrastructure.

===Australia===
Australia has a Consumer Data Right that includes banking data sharing. Australian banking is also concentrated, but consumer-data-sharing reforms were implemented earlier than in Canada. Australia has also examined de-banking as a policy issue, especially for fintech, remittance, cryptocurrency and money-services businesses.

===United States===
The United States has a more fragmented banking market with national banks, regional banks, community banks and credit unions. This gives consumers more institutional diversity, although U.S. consumers also face overdraft fees, account closures, sales-practice scandals and fragmented regulation. The Wells Fargo unauthorized-accounts scandal is often cited as a reminder that more bank choice does not automatically eliminate abusive sales cultures.

===New Zealand===
New Zealand's banking market is also concentrated. Its competition authorities have examined personal banking services, and its Banking Ombudsman has published guidance on closing accounts. The New Zealand example shows that concentration is not unique to Canada, while also showing that ombuds guidance can be more explicit about communication expectations.

==Major Canadian banking groups==
The largest Canadian banking groups operate across multiple business lines.

{| class="wikitable"
! Banking group
! Main Canadian retail brand
! Selected related activities
|-
| [[Royal Bank of Canada]]
| RBC Royal Bank
| Wealth management, capital markets, insurance, direct investing, U.S. banking through City National Bank
|-
| [[Toronto-Dominion Bank]]
| TD Canada Trust
| U.S. retail banking, wealth management, direct investing, capital markets
|-
| [[Bank of Montreal]]
| BMO
| U.S. banking, wealth management, capital markets, investor services
|-
| [[Bank of Nova Scotia]]
| Scotiabank
| Tangerine, international banking, wealth management, capital markets
|-
| [[Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce]]
| CIBC
| Simplii Financial, U.S. banking, wealth management, capital markets
|-
| [[National Bank of Canada]]
| National Bank
| Wealth management, brokerage, capital markets, regional and national commercial banking
|-
| [[Equitable Bank]]
| EQ Bank
| Digital banking, residential lending, commercial lending
|}

==Credit unions and alternatives==
Credit unions and caisses populaires provide alternatives to banks, especially in provinces such as British Columbia, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Quebec. [[Desjardins Group]] is the largest cooperative financial group in Canada and is systemically important in Quebec.

Credit unions are often perceived as more community-oriented than large banks, but they may have smaller branch networks, narrower product ranges or different digital capabilities. For some consumers, direct banks and fintech firms provide lower fees or better savings rates. For others, especially those needing branch access, business banking, wire transfers, estate services or complex lending, large banks may remain difficult to avoid.

==Business banking and small businesses==
Small businesses rely on banks for operating accounts, merchant services, payroll, credit cards, loans, lines of credit, foreign exchange and payment processing. Business customers may have fewer statutory protections than individual retail consumers. Account closures can be especially damaging for small businesses because they may interrupt payroll, supplier payments, tax remittances, card processing and customer receipts.

Risk-based account closures are particularly controversial for money-services businesses, cryptocurrency firms, cannabis-related businesses, adult-industry businesses, charities, import-export businesses and cash-intensive businesses. Banks argue that these sectors can create elevated compliance, fraud or reputational risks. Critics argue that broad risk avoidance can become private-sector exclusion of lawful activity.

==Social role of banks==
Banks occupy a special position in Canadian society. They are private profit-seeking corporations, but they also operate the infrastructure through which most people receive wages, pay rent, obtain mortgages, run businesses, save money and participate in the economy. This dual role is why criticism of bank conduct often goes beyond ordinary customer-service complaints.

When banks charge high fees, sell unsuitable products, close accounts without reasons or make switching difficult, critics argue that the harm is amplified by the essential nature of banking. Conversely, when banks are stable and well capitalized, the benefit extends beyond shareholders to the wider economy. The central policy debate is how to preserve stability while reducing complacency, opacity and consumer dependence on a small number of dominant institutions.

==See also==
{{Portal|Banks|Canada|Economics}}
* [[Bank Act]]
* [[Bank of Canada]]
* [[Big Five banks of Canada]]
* [[Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]]
* [[Canadian Bankers Association]]
* [[Credit unions in Canada]]
* [[Debanking]]
* [[Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]]
* [[List of banks and credit unions in Canada]]
* [[Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]]
* [[Open banking]]
* [[Routing number (Canada)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Bordo, Michael D.; Redish, Angela; Rockoff, Hugh. "Why didn't Canada have a banking crisis in 2008 (or in 1930, or 1907, or …)?" ''The Economic History Review''.
* Stewart, Walter. ''Towers of Gold, Feet of Clay: The Canadian Banks''. 1982.

==External links==
* [https://www.bankofcanada.ca/ Bank of Canada]
* [https://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/ Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions]
* [https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency.html Financial Consumer Agency of Canada]
* [https://www.cdic.ca/ Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation]
* [https://www.obsi.ca/ Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments]

{{Canada topics}}
{{Economy of Canada footer}}
{{Banking by country}}
{{Canadian banks}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Banking In Canada}}
[[Category:Banking in Canada]]
[[Category:Banking by country]]
[[Category:Financial services in Canada]]
[[Category:Consumer protection in Canada]]
[[Category:Debanking]]

Debanking

2026-07-06T03:41:18Z

MapleSource:

{{Short description|Refusal, restriction, or termination of banking services by a financial institution}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2026}}

'''Debanking''', also spelled '''de-banking''', is the refusal, restriction, or termination of banking services by a financial institution. The term is commonly used when a bank closes a customer's accounts, refuses to open an account, withdraws access to payment processing, or ends a broader banking relationship. In banking and regulatory usage, overlapping terms include '''de-risking''', '''relationship termination''', '''account closure''', '''client exit''', and '''demarketing'''.

Debanking may occur for reasons including perceived financial-crime risk, sanctions exposure, fraud risk, regulatory risk, reputational risk, alleged abusive or threatening conduct, commercial unprofitability, or institutional policies concerning particular sectors. It has affected individuals, businesses, charities, money-service businesses, cryptocurrency firms, cannabis businesses, sex workers, politically exposed persons, and religious or ethnic minority organizations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Understanding Bank De-Risking and Its Effects on Financial Inclusion|url=https://www-cdn.oxfam.org/s3fs-public/file_attachments/rr-bank-de-risking-181115-en_0.pdf|publisher=Oxfam and Global Center on Cooperative Security|date=November 2015|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=De-banking|url=https://www.austrac.gov.au/business/core-guidance/your-business-industry/financial-services/de-banking|publisher=Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Debanking is controversial because access to banking is a practical requirement for participation in modern economic life. Critics argue that opaque account closures can cause financial exclusion, reputational harm, loss of business continuity, and difficulty receiving wages, benefits, pensions, or other payments. Banks and regulators argue that account restrictions may be necessary to comply with anti-money laundering, counter-terrorist financing, sanctions, fraud-prevention, prudential, and staff-safety obligations. A recurring policy issue is whether banks should be required to give advance notice, disclose reasons, and provide meaningful appeal rights when ending an existing banking relationship.

== Terminology ==
The word ''debanking'' is used mainly in public debate, journalism, politics, and advocacy. ''De-risking'' is more common in regulatory and compliance contexts. De-risking usually refers to the termination or restriction of customer relationships because a bank considers the risk or compliance cost of serving a customer, sector, or jurisdiction to be too high. ''Demarketing'', ''client exit'', and ''relationship termination'' are also used within the banking industry to describe the ending of a customer relationship.

Debanking can include:

* refusal to open a personal or business account;
* closure of deposit accounts;
* cancellation of credit cards, lines of credit, merchant services, or payment-processing facilities;
* restriction of online banking, transfers, or cash access;
* withdrawal of correspondent banking services;
* freezing or blocking accounts under legal, sanctions, or emergency powers.

Not every account closure is normally described as debanking. Ordinary closures caused by overdraft abuse, dormant accounts, unpaid fees, confirmed fraud, or customer request are usually treated separately. The term is most often used where closure is unexplained, disputed, linked to a customer's identity, occupation, lawful business activity, political or religious association, or attributed to broad institutional risk categories.

== Causes ==
Banks cite several recurring reasons for ending or restricting customer relationships.

=== Financial-crime compliance ===
Banks are subject to anti-money laundering, counter-terrorist financing, know-your-customer, sanctions, suspicious-transaction reporting, and fraud-prevention obligations. Customers may be exited where a bank considers that it cannot verify identity, understand the source of funds, monitor transactions, or manage the perceived risk. Regulators have also warned that indiscriminate de-risking can undermine financial-crime objectives by pushing activity into less transparent channels.<ref>{{cite web|title=De-banking|url=https://www.austrac.gov.au/business/core-guidance/your-business-industry/financial-services/de-banking|publisher=Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

=== Reputational and commercial risk ===
Banks may decline to serve industries or customers considered reputationally sensitive, operationally expensive, or commercially unattractive. Affected sectors have included cryptocurrency, cannabis, firearms, adult entertainment, sex work, gambling, migrant remittances, and charities operating in conflict zones. A bank may also exit customers whose monitoring costs are considered disproportionate to the revenue from the relationship.

=== Conduct and safety ===
Banks may close accounts because of abusive, threatening, or violent conduct toward staff. Staff safety is widely accepted by ombudsman schemes and financial institutions as a legitimate reason to end a banking relationship. The controversy concerns the procedure used to classify, disclose, and review such decisions.

Some jurisdictions provide more explicit procedural expectations when customer conduct is cited. The New Zealand Banking Ombudsman states that a bank has a duty as an employer to protect staff from abuse and violence, but also says that good practice is usually to give the customer a reason so the customer can respond if the bank misunderstood the facts or made a mistake. Where closure is based on alleged abuse, the Ombudsman says it would expect the decision to be made by a senior staff member who was not subjected to the abuse.<ref>{{cite web|title=Closing accounts|url=https://bankomb.org.nz/guides-and-cases/quick-guides/bank-accounts/closing-accounts|publisher=New Zealand Banking Ombudsman Scheme|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Critics argue that opaque conduct-based closure powers can be problematic where the bank does not have to disclose its reason and the external review body cannot reverse the decision. In such a system, a disputed complaint, repeated service query, tense branch interaction, raised voice, or alleged breakdown in the banking relationship may be difficult for the customer to verify or rebut if it is later characterized internally as abusive or threatening conduct.

=== Political, religious, or ideological concerns ===
Debanking became a prominent political issue in the United Kingdom after the 2023 closure of Nigel Farage's Coutts account. It has also been debated in the United States after claims that banks denied services to customers because of political, religious, or lawful-business associations. Regulators in both countries have examined whether banks have closed accounts for impermissible political or religious reasons.<ref>{{cite web|title=Millions of people and businesses protected against debanking|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/millions-of-people-and-businesses-protected-against-debanking|publisher=HM Treasury|date=28 April 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=OCC Takes Actions to Reinforce Prohibitions Against Politicized or Unlawful Debanking|url=https://www.occ.gov/news-issuances/news-releases/2025/nr-occ-2025-61.html|publisher=Office of the Comptroller of the Currency|date=13 June 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== Effects ==
Debanking can affect customers beyond the immediate loss of an account. Individuals may be unable to receive wages, benefits, pensions, tax refunds, rent, mortgage payments, or ordinary electronic payments. Businesses may lose payroll capacity, merchant processing, supplier payments, credit facilities, insurance arrangements, or access to working capital. Customers may also experience reputational damage if other institutions infer that a previous closure indicates financial-crime or fraud risk.

For vulnerable customers, debanking can contribute to financial exclusion. Sex workers, migrants, charities, and remittance businesses have reported being pushed toward cash handling, informal payment systems, or more expensive financial intermediaries after losing mainstream banking access.<ref>{{cite web|title=Debanking sex workers puts them in greater danger|url=https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/may-2024/debanking-sex-workers/|website=Policy Options|date=31 May 2024|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Regulators and financial-inclusion advocates have criticized indiscriminate debanking for excluding lawful customers from essential financial services. AUSTRAC has stated that debanking can have a "devastating impact on legitimate businesses" and may undermine anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing objectives by discouraging transparency and pushing customers toward unregulated channels.<ref>{{cite web|title=New guidance released on debanking|url=https://www.austrac.gov.au/new-guidance-released-debanking|publisher=Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre|date=27 June 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The European Banking Authority has stated that access to basic financial products and services is a "prerequisite for the participation in modern economic and social life" and that unwarranted de-risking can cause the financial exclusion of legitimate customers.<ref>{{cite web|title=EBA alerts on the detrimental impact of unwarranted de-risking and ineffective management of money laundering and terrorist financing risks|url=https://www.eba.europa.eu/publications-and-media/press-releases/eba-alerts-detrimental-impact-unwarranted-de-risking-and|publisher=European Banking Authority|date=5 January 2022|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> In later guidance, the EBA stated that access to basic financial services can also "save the lives of vulnerable customers", including refugees and homeless people.<ref>{{cite web|title=EBA consults on new Guidelines to tackle de-risking|url=https://www.eba.europa.eu/publications-and-media/press-releases/eba-consults-new-guidelines-tackle-de-risking|publisher=European Banking Authority|date=6 December 2022|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The World Bank has warned that de-risking can cut off people and organizations from regulated financial services and may reduce transparency by pushing transactions into unregulated channels. In a 2015 speech, World Bank managing director Sri Mulyani Indrawati said that "risks should be managed, not avoided altogether".<ref>{{cite web|title=De-risking in the Financial Sector|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/financialsector/brief/de-risking-in-the-financial-sector|publisher=World Bank|date=7 October 2016|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Remarks by World Bank Managing Director and Chief Operating Officer Sri Mulyani Indrawati at 11th ASEAN Central Bank Governors Meeting|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/speech/2015/03/21/remarks-world-bank-managing-directro-coo-asean-central-bank-governors-meeting|publisher=World Bank|date=21 March 2015|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== Regulatory approaches ==
Regulation of debanking differs significantly by jurisdiction. Some countries focus on access to replacement or basic accounts, while others have developed notice-and-reason requirements for account closures. The following comparison is limited to selected jurisdictions where debanking has been the subject of recent public, regulatory, or ombudsman attention.
===Comparative account-closure protections===

* '''Canada''' — Critics describe Canada as having weak post-opening protections because banks are generally not required to provide reasons and OBSI generally cannot reverse a closure decision.
* '''United Kingdom''' — From April 2026, the UK model requires longer notice and clearer explanations, subject to exceptions.
* '''United States''' — General protection is limited, but customers have multiple regulator complaint channels and recent federal policy has focused on politicized or unlawful debanking.
* '''Australia''' — Policy work has recommended reasons, documentation, internal dispute resolution, and minimum notice for core banking services.
* '''New Zealand''' — Ombudsman guidance treats reason-giving as good banking practice, especially where the customer may need to respond or find another bank.

=== Basic-account systems in Europe ===
The European Union's Payment Accounts Directive gives legally resident consumers a right to a basic payment account, and member-state systems such as France's ''droit au compte'' and Germany's basic-payment-account regime provide administrative or statutory routes to basic account access.<ref name="EUAccess2">{{cite web|title=Access to bank accounts|url=https://finance.ec.europa.eu/consumer-finance-and-payments/retail-financial-services/access-bank-accounts_en|publisher=European Commission|access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref><ref name="FranceRight2">{{cite web|title=Article L312-1 - Code monétaire et financier|url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000035731548/|website=Legifrance|access-date=5 July 2026|language=fr}}</ref><ref name="BaFinBasic2">{{cite web|title=Basic payment account|url=https://www.bafin.de/EN/verbraucherinnen-verbraucher/themen-finanzprodukte/konten-zahlungen/konten/basiskonto/basiskonto_node_en.html|publisher=Federal Financial Supervisory Authority|access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref> These regimes do not create a general right to all banking services, and they remain subject to financial-crime, sanctions, identification, and other legal exceptions. They nevertheless provide more explicit access, termination, or review mechanisms in specific basic-account contexts than Canada's post-opening account-closure framework.

In France, an eligible person or entity refused an account may ask the Banque de France to designate an institution to provide basic banking services.<ref name="FranceRight2" /> French law also provides notice protections for termination of open-ended deposit-account agreements and imposes additional limits on termination of accounts opened through the right-to-account procedure.<ref>{{cite web|title=Article L312-1-1 - Code monétaire et financier|url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000038614561/|website=Legifrance|access-date=5 July 2026|language=fr}}</ref>

In Germany, the Payment Accounts Act (''Zahlungskontengesetz'') implements the EU framework for basic payment accounts. BaFin states that consumers lawfully resident in the European Union are entitled to a basic payment account and that a bank may terminate such an account only under the statutory conditions.<ref name="BaFinBasic2" /> Where an application is rejected, delayed, or not implemented after agreement, the consumer may apply for administrative proceedings in which BaFin may order the institution to open the account if the refusal was unjustified.<ref>{{cite web|title=Apply for administrative proceedings in the event of rejection of an application to conclude a basic account agreement|url=https://verwaltungsportal.hessen.de/en/leistung?leistung_id=B100019_101130375|publisher=Hessen Verwaltungsportal|access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

Switzerland does not have a general private-bank right to an account comparable to some EU basic-account regimes, but PostFinance has a statutory universal-service obligation for basic payment services. In 2026, the Swiss Federal Supreme Court dismissed PostFinance's appeal in a sanctions-related account-closure case involving a Russian national resident in Switzerland who was subject to United States and United Kingdom sanctions but not Swiss sanctions. The court held that, given the limited domestic scope of the relationship, the statutory conditions for an exception to PostFinance's universal-service obligation were not met.<ref name="SwissPostFinance2">{{cite web|title=Arrêt du 3 mars 2026 (4A_454/2025)|url=https://www.bger.ch/files/live/sites/tfl/files/pdf/fr/4a_0454_2025_2026_04_01_T_f_11_21_59.pdf|publisher=Swiss Federal Supreme Court|date=1 April 2026|access-date=5 July 2026|language=fr}}</ref>

== Canada ==
{{See also|Banking in Canada}}Canada is a frequent example in debanking criticism because its rules distinguish between opening a personal retail deposit account and keeping an existing banking relationship. Federal rules require banks to open personal retail deposit accounts for individuals who meet identification requirements, subject to exceptions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Access to basic banking services: opening a retail deposit account|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/services/industry/bulletins/access-basic-banking.html|publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada|date=22 February 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> Critics argue that this right may offer little protection after debanking if the customer remains within a bank's financial-crime, fraud, reputational-risk, conduct, or safety exclusions. Because banks may later terminate the relationship without giving reasons, Canada's account-opening rules do not ensure continuing access or a reliable path back into the same institution.<ref name="OBSIEnded2" />

=== OBSI framework ===
The Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments (OBSI) states that Canadian banks may end a relationship with a customer, provided they give reasonable notice, and that notice is typically 30 days. OBSI also states that banks are not required to provide an explanation and that most account agreements permit closure without giving a reason.<ref name="OBSIEnded2" /> OBSI says it can consider whether the bank's decision was biased, in keeping with the bank's policies and procedures, and carried out fairly given the consumer's situation, but it is not able to challenge or change the bank's decision to end the relationship or generally tell the consumer the reason for account closure.<ref name="OBSIEnded2" />

Critics describe this as a weak post-opening framework compared with jurisdictions that require reasons, provide statutory basic-account remedies, or allow a regulator to order account opening in some cases. The criticism is strongest where a bank frames the decision as an end of the broader "banking relationship" rather than only the closure of one account. If no reason, endpoint, reconsideration process, or reinstatement criteria are disclosed, the closure may operate in practice as an indefinite institutional exclusion from future accounts with the same bank.

A related criticism involves conduct-based closures. Banks argue that they must protect staff from abuse, harassment, and threats. Critics respond that in Canada a customer may be unable to know whether the bank relied on financial-crime concerns, staff-safety concerns, an ordinary service complaint, reputational concerns, or a broad assertion that the relationship had broken down. Because OBSI cannot generally change the decision and cannot generally disclose the bank's reason, the customer's practical remedy is often limited to challenging notice, procedural fairness, bias, or contractual compliance rather than the substance of the debanking decision.<ref name="OBSIEnded2" />

In one OBSI case, a customer identified as "Mr. K" opened an account and received a 30-day closure notice about one month later. The bank did not provide a reason and advised that its decision was final. OBSI stated that Canadian law and banking regulations allow banks to end business relationships without providing a reason or notice, and therefore focused on whether the bank complied with the account agreement and exercised its rights reasonably.<ref>{{cite web|title=Consumer surprised when bank gives him 30 days to close his account|url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/news/posts/consumer-surprised-when-bank-gives-him-30-days-to-close-his-account/|publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> In another OBSI case involving a remittance business, the bank did not initially provide reasons for closing the accounts; OBSI later found that the bank had identified anti-money laundering and terrorist-financing concerns associated with high-risk jurisdictions and considered one month generally adequate notice for account closure.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bank closed customer's accounts|url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/news/posts/bank-closed-customers-accounts/|publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

=== Complaint data ===
Canadian reporting has described a rise in debanking complaints. Complaints filed with OBSI about financial institutions ejecting clients increased from 19 in 2019 to 113 in 2023, according to ''The Globe and Mail''.<ref name="Globe20252">{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/investing/personal-finance/article-debanked-why-some-canadians-are-losing-their-bank-accounts-without/|title=Debanked: Why some Canadians are losing their bank accounts without explanation|last1=Alini|first1=Erica|date=31 January 2025|work=The Globe and Mail|access-date=4 July 2026|last2=Posadzki|first2=Alexandra|last3=Marotta|first3=Stefanie}}</ref> The Financial Consumer Agency of Canada received more than 800 debanking-related grievances from 2018 to 2023, according to data released under the Access to Information Act.<ref name="Globe20252" /> OBSI's 2023 annual report recorded 105 banking cases categorized as "relationship ended", representing 4% of banking cases opened that year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Annual Report 2023|url=https://www.obsi.ca/media/oeed0cwk/obsi_065_2023-annual-report_en_a11y_id05.pdf|publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments|date=2024|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> Its 2024 annual report recorded 94 such banking cases, also representing 4% of banking cases opened that year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Annual Report 2024|url=https://www.obsi.ca/media/gnme0rfh/obsi-2024-annual-report_en.pdf|publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments|date=2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

CTV News reported that roughly 60 per cent of debanking complaints it reviewed involved closed personal savings or chequing accounts and slightly more than 27 per cent involved credit cards. Customers also reported closures of lines of credit, savings, business, and chequing accounts without receiving explanations.<ref name="CTV20252">{{cite news|url=https://prd.ctvnews.ca/toronto/article/can-a-canadian-bank-end-a-relationship-with-a-customer-without-saying-why/|title=Can a Canadian bank end a relationship with a customer without saying why?|date=15 October 2025|access-date=4 July 2026|publisher=CTV News}}</ref>

=== Litigation and legal remedies ===
Canadian court cases have considered account closures in relation to notice, good faith, contractual discretion, and access to personal information. These cases generally recognize that banks may terminate customer relationships, while considering procedural limits on how that power is exercised.

In ''Bertucci v. Royal Bank of Canada'', the Federal Court held that RBC should have provided access to raw data with proprietary material redacted, and stated that the standard for withholding personal information under PIPEDA because it would reveal confidential commercial information is very high.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bertucci v. Royal Bank of Canada, 2016 FC 332|url=https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/fct/doc/2016/2016fc332/2016fc332.html|website=CanLII|date=2016|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Financial institution originally misuses confidential commercial information exemption to withhold personal information|url=https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-actions-and-decisions/investigations/investigations-into-businesses/2017/pipeda-2017-011/|publisher=Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada|date=31 March 2017|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

In ''Pourshafiey v. Toronto-Dominion Bank'', a Quebec Superior Court case involving a money-services business, TD gave 30 days' notice that it would close several personal and business accounts but immediately terminated the wire-transfer service on which the business depended. The court found that TD had a reasonable justification for ending the relationship and had the right to do so, but had to exercise that right responsibly and in good faith. The court awarded damages for inadequate notice and the stress and inconvenience caused by the bank's conduct.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pourshafiey c. Toronto-Dominion Bank, 2018 QCCS 3202|url=https://www.canlii.org/fr/qc/qccs/doc/2018/2018qccs3202/2018qccs3202.html|website=CanLII|date=2018|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A bank's obligation to act in good faith|url=https://gdlaw.ca/blog/2018/08/a-banks-obligation-to-act-in-good-faith/|publisher=Gehlen Dabbs Cash LLP|date=21 August 2018|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> A later summary of ''Toronto-Dominion Bank v. Pourshafiey'', 2020 QCCA 1582, stated that a bank does not need to provide an explanation before closing an account, but must provide reasonable notice and maintain services during the notice period.<ref>{{cite web|title=Banking litigation annual case law report|url=https://gowlingwlg.com/en/insights-resources/articles/2022/banking-litigation-annual-case-law-report|publisher=Gowling WLG|date=3 February 2022|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

=== Reported Canadian cases ===
The Royal Bank of Canada (RBC) has been the subject of several prominent Canadian media reports on individual account-closure cases. Publicly available complaint statistics do not establish whether RBC closes accounts more frequently than other Canadian financial institutions, but reported RBC cases have drawn criticism from customers and commentators who described some closures as opaque or distressing.<ref name="CTV20252" /><ref name="Globe20252" />

In 2025, CTV News reported on Tomas Nassab, an Ontario man whose RBC accounts were closed after nearly 30 years as a customer. Nassab said he received a closure letter after complaining about poor customer service and was not told the reason. The letter stated: "We are no longer in a position to continue our banking relationship with you."<ref name="CTVNassab2">{{cite news|url=https://prd.ctvnews.ca/toronto/consumer-alert/article/we-are-no-longer-in-a-position-to-continue-our-banking-relationship-with-you-ontario-man-dumped-as-bank-client-after-30-years/|title='We are no longer in a position to continue our banking relationship with you': Ontario man dumped as bank client after 30 years|date=2 October 2025|access-date=4 July 2026|publisher=CTV News}}</ref> RBC told CTV News that "a client or the bank may choose to end a banking relationship" and that RBC makes such decisions only after a review of the circumstances.<ref name="CTVNassab2" />

In another reported case, Eva Chipiuk, a lawyer who had represented Freedom Convoy protesters, was dropped as an RBC customer after making two $1,000 transfers to purchase cryptocurrency through Shakepay Inc.<ref name="FPChipiuk2">{{cite news|url=https://financialpost.com/fp-finance/banking/lawyer-freedom-convoy-protesters-cut-off-bank-customer|title=Freedom Convoy lawyer dropped as a bank customer after cryptocurrency transactions|date=28 July 2025|work=Financial Post|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> The bank's letter stated that her "recent activity is outside of RBC's client risk appetite".<ref name="FPChipiuk2" /> Chipiuk said the experience was frustrating and made her feel as if she had to defend herself.<ref name="FPChipiuk2" />

Other reported Canadian cases include Carol Khan, who told CTV News that the Bank of Montreal gave her two weeks' notice that her accounts would be closed, and Rob Palfrey, who said he received a BMO letter stating that his activities fell outside the bank's risk appetite.<ref name="CTV20252" /> ''The Globe and Mail'' reported cases involving a Toronto-based Black entrepreneur from Nigeria, a retired hospitality industry manager in Halifax, and bitcoin entrepreneur Adam O'Brien.<ref name="Globe20252" />

=== Convoy protest account freezes ===
The 2022 Canada convoy protest produced one of the country's most publicized banking-access controversies. Under emergency measures connected to the federal government's invocation of the Emergencies Act, financial institutions froze accounts linked to the protests. Early public reporting stated that at least 76 accounts totalling approximately C$3.2 million were frozen.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-60420469|title=Canada protests: Police push back demonstrators in Ottawa|date=19 February 2022|work=BBC News|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> Later parliamentary evidence indicated that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police had provided information to financial institutions that led to at least 257 accounts being frozen.<ref>{{cite web|title=Invocation of the Emergencies Act and Related Measures|url=https://www.ourcommons.ca/documentviewer/en/44-1/FINA/report-5/page-5|publisher=House of Commons of Canada, Standing Committee on Finance|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The convoy freezes differed from ordinary private-sector debanking because they were linked to government emergency powers rather than a bank's unilateral commercial decision. They nevertheless intensified Canadian debate about financial exclusion, due process, and the ability of the state or financial institutions to restrict access to banking services.

=== Affected groups and sectors in Canada ===
Canadian reporting and advocacy have identified several sectors and groups affected by account closures or banking restrictions.

''Policy Options'' reported in 2024 that people in the Canadian sex-work industry had lost bank accounts, been denied payment processing, or been refused business banking despite the lawful status of many of their activities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Debanking sex workers puts them in greater danger|url=https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/may-2024/debanking-sex-workers/|website=Policy Options|date=31 May 2024|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> CityNews Toronto reported in 2023 that adult content creators said Canadian banks had frozen or closed accounts after discovering ties to sex work or online adult content.<ref>{{cite web|title=Adult content creators claim banks are freezing, closing accounts because of their work|url=https://toronto.citynews.ca/2023/04/07/onlyfans-sex-workers-banks-closing-accounts/|publisher=CityNews Toronto|date=7 April 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Muslim organizations and charities in Canada have also reported banking restrictions and account closures linked to risk assessments. The National Council of Canadian Muslims stated in 2023 that several Muslim organizations had been told by banks or payment processors that their accounts would be closed or that the bank's risk appetite had changed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Opinion: Canadian Muslim charities and organizations are facing a quiet banking crisis|url=https://www.nccm.ca/opinion-canadian-muslim-charities-and-organizations-are-facing-a-quiet-banking-crisis/|publisher=National Council of Canadian Muslims|date=7 February 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Cryptocurrency users and businesses have also reported difficulty maintaining banking relationships in Canada. The RBC case involving Eva Chipiuk drew attention to how ordinary cryptocurrency-related transfers can intersect with bank risk-appetite decisions.<ref name="FPChipiuk2" />

== United Kingdom ==
The United Kingdom became a leading jurisdiction in debanking policy after the 2023 Nigel Farage Coutts account controversy. Coutts, a private bank owned by NatWest Group, closed Farage's account. Farage alleged that the closure was linked to his political views. The controversy led to public criticism, the resignation of senior NatWest Group executives, and government proposals to strengthen customer protections.

The Financial Conduct Authority reviewed data from banks and payment firms and reported in 2023 that it had not found evidence that firms had closed accounts primarily because of customers' political views during the period reviewed. The FCA stated that the most common reasons for account closures were dormancy, financial-crime concerns, and other risk factors.<ref>{{cite web|title=FCA provides update on bank account access and closures|url=https://www.fca.org.uk/news/press-releases/fca-provides-update-bank-account-access-and-closures|publisher=Financial Conduct Authority|date=19 September 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Media reporting during the controversy stated that UK banks were closing more than 1,000 accounts per day, with annual closures rising from about 45,000 in 2016–17 to more than 343,000 in 2021–22.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2023/jul/30/uk-banks-closing-more-than-1000-accounts-every-day|title=UK banks closing more than 1,000 accounts every day|last=Makortoff|first=Kalyeena|date=30 July 2023|work=The Guardian|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

In 2025, the UK government announced new rules requiring banks and payment service providers to give customers 90 days' notice before closing accounts and to provide a clear and specific explanation, subject to exceptions such as financial crime, illegality, or other overriding legal obligations. The government said the rules would apply to new contracts from April 2026.<ref>{{cite web|title=Millions of people and businesses protected against debanking|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/millions-of-people-and-businesses-protected-against-debanking|publisher=HM Treasury|date=28 April 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The UK debate has also included allegations of disproportionate debanking of British Muslims, British Nigerians, people with Russian connections, and companies trading with Ukraine.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.sky.com/story/banks-accused-of-closing-accounts-belonging-to-british-muslims-12931725|title=Banks accused of closing accounts belonging to British Muslims|last=Scott|first=Jennifer|date=1 August 2023|access-date=4 July 2026|publisher=Sky News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Whale|first=Sebastian|title=UK banks shun companies trading with Ukraine|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/uk-bank-close-accounts-british-smes-trading-with-ukraine/|website=Politico|date=15 August 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== United States ==
In the United States, banks and credit unions generally may close customer accounts without the customer's permission. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau states that some states require notice, and common reasons for closure include insufficient funds, unpaid fees, bad checks, suspicious activity, or dormancy.<ref>{{cite web|title=The bank/credit union closed my checking account even though I did not want them to. Can the bank/credit union do that?|url=https://www.consumerfinance.gov/ask-cfpb/the-bankcredit-union-closed-my-checking-account-even-though-i-did-not-want-them-to-can-the-bankcredit-union-do-that-en-959/|publisher=Consumer Financial Protection Bureau|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

U.S. debanking debates have focused on several sectors and political controversies. After states legalized cannabis, many cannabis businesses continued to face difficulty obtaining bank accounts because cannabis remained illegal under federal law.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/04/magazine/where-pot-entrepreneurs-go-when-the-banks-just-say-no.html|title=Where Pot Entrepreneurs Go When the Banks Just Say No|last=Mandelbaum|first=Robb|date=4 January 2018|work=The New York Times|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> Cryptocurrency companies and founders have also alleged that banks terminated or refused relationships because of regulatory pressure or risk concerns.<ref>{{cite web|title=How tech's right-wing elite made 'debanking' claims into a political rallying point|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/debanking-what-is-meaning-crypto-musk-rogan-andreessen-rcna182597|publisher=NBC News|date=10 December 2024|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The term has also been associated with Operation Choke Point, a U.S. Department of Justice initiative begun during the Obama administration that investigated banks and payment processors serving businesses considered high risk, including payday lenders and firearms-related businesses. Critics alleged that the initiative pressured banks to terminate lawful businesses without due process.

In 2025, federal policy shifted toward explicit concern about politicized or unlawful debanking. The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency stated that banks should make account-access decisions using individualized, objective, risk-based analyses and should not engage in politicized or unlawful debanking.<ref>{{cite web|title=OCC Takes Actions to Reinforce Prohibitions Against Politicized or Unlawful Debanking|url=https://www.occ.gov/news-issuances/news-releases/2025/nr-occ-2025-61.html|publisher=Office of the Comptroller of the Currency|date=13 June 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

A 2025 U.S. Senate Banking Committee minority staff memorandum stated that 8,056 consumers had filed CFPB complaints in the previous three years under the issue category of improper account closure and that many complained of inadequate notice, lack of explanation, or difficulty obtaining remaining funds.<ref>{{cite web|title=Debanking Americans: Consumer Account Closures Without Explanation|url=https://www.banking.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/debanking_americans_-_consumer_account_closures_without_explanation.pdf|publisher=United States Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, Minority Staff|date=2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== Australia ==
Australian regulators have treated de-banking as a financial-inclusion and competition issue. The Council of Financial Regulators has described de-banking as the withdrawal or refusal of banking services and has noted that Australian banks have de-banked customers including fintechs, digital currency exchanges, and remittance providers. The council identified drivers including anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing obligations, sanctions compliance, profitability, reputational risk, and risk appetite.<ref>{{cite web|title=Potential Policy Responses to De-banking in Australia|url=https://www.cfr.gov.au/publications/policy-statements-and-other-reports/2022/potential-policy-responses-to-de-banking-in-australia/pdf/potential-policy-responses-to-de-banking-in-australia.pdf|publisher=Council of Financial Regulators|date=October 2022|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

In 2023, the Australian government supported in principle several recommendations intended to improve transparency and fairness. These included documenting reasons for de-banking, providing reasons to customers, giving access to internal dispute resolution, and giving at least 30 days' notice before closing existing core banking services, except in limited circumstances.<ref>{{cite web|title=Government response to the Council of Financial Regulators' advice on de-banking|url=https://treasury.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-06/p2023-404377-gr.docx|publisher=Australian Treasury|date=June 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

AUSTRAC has stated that de-banking can have a devastating impact on legitimate businesses and customers and that indiscriminate de-banking across entire industries is discouraged.<ref>{{cite web|title=De-banking|url=https://www.austrac.gov.au/business/core-guidance/your-business-industry/financial-services/de-banking|publisher=Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

One notable Australian case involved Allan Flynn, a bitcoin trader who brought discrimination proceedings against ANZ after alleging that the bank closed accounts because of his cryptocurrency business. The dispute was settled in 2021, with ANZ acknowledging that it had debanked Flynn because he operated a bitcoin trading service, while stating that it believed the decision was necessary to manage regulatory risk.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/business/banking-and-finance/anz-settles-debanking-case-brought-by-bitcoin-trader-20211014-p59009.html|title=ANZ settles debanking case brought by bitcoin trader|last=Danckert|first=Sarah|date=14 October 2021|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== New Zealand ==
New Zealand has less prescriptive account-closure rules than the United Kingdom, but its Banking Ombudsman has published guidance on closure notice and reasons. The Banking Ombudsman states that reasonable notice is generally at least 14 days. It also states that banks do not always have to explain why they are closing an account, but that it is good banking practice to give a reason so the customer has an opportunity to respond or find another bank.<ref>{{cite web|title=Closing accounts|url=https://bankomb.org.nz/guides-and-cases/quick-guides/bank-accounts/closing-accounts|publisher=New Zealand Banking Ombudsman Scheme|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand has identified debanking as a financial-inclusion issue and has begun measuring debanking of transaction accounts as part of its financial-inclusion indicators. It has also examined reasons for account exits, including anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing concerns, insolvency, bad credit, dormancy, and violent or aggressive customer behaviour.<ref>{{cite web|title=Response to Official Information Act request concerning debanking|url=https://www.rbnz.govt.nz/-/media/project/sites/rbnz/files/publications/oias/2025/oia2425_062-information-on-debanking.pdf|publisher=Reserve Bank of New Zealand|date=29 January 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== Criticism of opaque debanking ==
Criticism of debanking usually focuses on opacity rather than on the existence of any bank power to close accounts. Banks are generally expected to refuse or end relationships involving fraud, sanctions, money laundering, terrorist financing, threats, or serious abuse. The disputed issue is whether lawful customers should lose essential banking services without a usable explanation, adequate notice, or a process capable of correcting mistakes.

Critics argue that unexplained closures can resemble financial blacklisting where the customer cannot determine whether the concern is legal, commercial, political, reputational, conduct-based, or based on mistaken data. They also argue that a closure may follow a customer when other institutions ask whether an account has been closed by another bank or infer that the customer presents hidden financial-crime risk.

Canada is frequently criticized in this context because the external complaint system does not generally give the customer the reason for closure or the power to reverse the bank's decision. Critics contrast this with the United Kingdom's notice-and-reason reforms, Australia's policy recommendations, New Zealand's ombudsman guidance on reasons as good practice, and European basic-account systems that provide statutory access routes in limited circumstances. Banks and regulators respond that disclosure may be limited by financial-crime, fraud, sanctions, privacy, security, staff-safety, and tipping-off concerns.

== See also ==

* [[Anti-money laundering]]
* [[Basic bank account]]
* [[Deplatforming]]
* [[Financial censorship]]
* [[Financial exclusion]]
* [[Know your customer]]
* [[Operation Choke Point]]
* [[Politically exposed person]]
* [[Unbanked]]
* [[Underbanked]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite web|author1=Durner, Tracey|author2=Shetret, Liat|title=Understanding Bank De-Risking and Its Effects on Financial Inclusion|url=https://www-cdn.oxfam.org/s3fs-public/file_attachments/rr-bank-de-risking-181115-en_0.pdf|publisher=Oxfam and Global Center on Cooperative Security|date=November 2015}}
* {{cite web|title=De-banking|url=https://www.austrac.gov.au/business/core-guidance/your-business-industry/financial-services/de-banking|publisher=Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre}}
* {{cite web|title=Potential Policy Responses to De-banking in Australia|url=https://www.cfr.gov.au/publications/policy-statements-and-other-reports/2022/potential-policy-responses-to-de-banking-in-australia/pdf/potential-policy-responses-to-de-banking-in-australia.pdf|publisher=Council of Financial Regulators|date=October 2022}}
* {{cite web|title=Relationship Ended|url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/how-we-work/our-approaches/relationship-ended/|publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments}}
{{Censorship}}

Debanking

2026-07-06T03:37:46Z

MapleSource: Created page with "{{Short description|Refusal, restriction, or termination of banking services by a financial institution}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2026}} '''Debanking''', also spelled '''de-banking''', is the refusal, restriction, or termination of banking services by a financial institution. The term is commonly used when a bank closes a customer's accounts, refuses to open an account, withdraws access to payment processing, or ends a broader banking relationship. In banking and regu..."

{{Short description|Refusal, restriction, or termination of banking services by a financial institution}} {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2026}}

'''Debanking''', also spelled '''de-banking''', is the refusal, restriction, or termination of banking services by a financial institution. The term is commonly used when a bank closes a customer's accounts, refuses to open an account, withdraws access to payment processing, or ends a broader banking relationship. In banking and regulatory usage, overlapping terms include '''de-risking''', '''relationship termination''', '''account closure''', '''client exit''', and '''demarketing'''.

Debanking may occur for reasons including perceived financial-crime risk, sanctions exposure, fraud risk, regulatory risk, reputational risk, alleged abusive or threatening conduct, commercial unprofitability, or institutional policies concerning particular sectors. It has affected individuals, businesses, charities, money-service businesses, cryptocurrency firms, cannabis businesses, sex workers, politically exposed persons, and religious or ethnic minority organizations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Understanding Bank De-Risking and Its Effects on Financial Inclusion|url=https://www-cdn.oxfam.org/s3fs-public/file_attachments/rr-bank-de-risking-181115-en_0.pdf|publisher=Oxfam and Global Center on Cooperative Security|date=November 2015|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=De-banking|url=https://www.austrac.gov.au/business/core-guidance/your-business-industry/financial-services/de-banking|publisher=Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Debanking is controversial because access to banking is a practical requirement for participation in modern economic life. Critics argue that opaque account closures can cause financial exclusion, reputational harm, loss of business continuity, and difficulty receiving wages, benefits, pensions, or other payments. Banks and regulators argue that account restrictions may be necessary to comply with anti-money laundering, counter-terrorist financing, sanctions, fraud-prevention, prudential, and staff-safety obligations. A recurring policy issue is whether banks should be required to give advance notice, disclose reasons, and provide meaningful appeal rights when ending an existing banking relationship.

== Terminology ==
The word ''debanking'' is used mainly in public debate, journalism, politics, and advocacy. ''De-risking'' is more common in regulatory and compliance contexts. De-risking usually refers to the termination or restriction of customer relationships because a bank considers the risk or compliance cost of serving a customer, sector, or jurisdiction to be too high. ''Demarketing'', ''client exit'', and ''relationship termination'' are also used within the banking industry to describe the ending of a customer relationship.

Debanking can include:

* refusal to open a personal or business account;
* closure of deposit accounts;
* cancellation of credit cards, lines of credit, merchant services, or payment-processing facilities;
* restriction of online banking, transfers, or cash access;
* withdrawal of correspondent banking services;
* freezing or blocking accounts under legal, sanctions, or emergency powers.

Not every account closure is normally described as debanking. Ordinary closures caused by overdraft abuse, dormant accounts, unpaid fees, confirmed fraud, or customer request are usually treated separately. The term is most often used where closure is unexplained, disputed, linked to a customer's identity, occupation, lawful business activity, political or religious association, or attributed to broad institutional risk categories.

== Causes ==
Banks cite several recurring reasons for ending or restricting customer relationships.

=== Financial-crime compliance ===
Banks are subject to anti-money laundering, counter-terrorist financing, know-your-customer, sanctions, suspicious-transaction reporting, and fraud-prevention obligations. Customers may be exited where a bank considers that it cannot verify identity, understand the source of funds, monitor transactions, or manage the perceived risk. Regulators have also warned that indiscriminate de-risking can undermine financial-crime objectives by pushing activity into less transparent channels.<ref>{{cite web|title=De-banking|url=https://www.austrac.gov.au/business/core-guidance/your-business-industry/financial-services/de-banking|publisher=Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

=== Reputational and commercial risk ===
Banks may decline to serve industries or customers considered reputationally sensitive, operationally expensive, or commercially unattractive. Affected sectors have included cryptocurrency, cannabis, firearms, adult entertainment, sex work, gambling, migrant remittances, and charities operating in conflict zones. A bank may also exit customers whose monitoring costs are considered disproportionate to the revenue from the relationship.

=== Conduct and safety ===
Banks may close accounts because of abusive, threatening, or violent conduct toward staff. Staff safety is widely accepted by ombudsman schemes and financial institutions as a legitimate reason to end a banking relationship. The controversy concerns the procedure used to classify, disclose, and review such decisions.

Some jurisdictions provide more explicit procedural expectations when customer conduct is cited. The New Zealand Banking Ombudsman states that a bank has a duty as an employer to protect staff from abuse and violence, but also says that good practice is usually to give the customer a reason so the customer can respond if the bank misunderstood the facts or made a mistake. Where closure is based on alleged abuse, the Ombudsman says it would expect the decision to be made by a senior staff member who was not subjected to the abuse.<ref>{{cite web|title=Closing accounts|url=https://bankomb.org.nz/guides-and-cases/quick-guides/bank-accounts/closing-accounts|publisher=New Zealand Banking Ombudsman Scheme|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Critics argue that opaque conduct-based closure powers can be problematic where the bank does not have to disclose its reason and the external review body cannot reverse the decision. In such a system, a disputed complaint, repeated service query, tense branch interaction, raised voice, or alleged breakdown in the banking relationship may be difficult for the customer to verify or rebut if it is later characterized internally as abusive or threatening conduct.

=== Political, religious, or ideological concerns ===
Debanking became a prominent political issue in the United Kingdom after the 2023 closure of Nigel Farage's Coutts account. It has also been debated in the United States after claims that banks denied services to customers because of political, religious, or lawful-business associations. Regulators in both countries have examined whether banks have closed accounts for impermissible political or religious reasons.<ref>{{cite web|title=Millions of people and businesses protected against debanking|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/millions-of-people-and-businesses-protected-against-debanking|publisher=HM Treasury|date=28 April 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=OCC Takes Actions to Reinforce Prohibitions Against Politicized or Unlawful Debanking|url=https://www.occ.gov/news-issuances/news-releases/2025/nr-occ-2025-61.html|publisher=Office of the Comptroller of the Currency|date=13 June 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== Effects ==
Debanking can affect customers beyond the immediate loss of an account. Individuals may be unable to receive wages, benefits, pensions, tax refunds, rent, mortgage payments, or ordinary electronic payments. Businesses may lose payroll capacity, merchant processing, supplier payments, credit facilities, insurance arrangements, or access to working capital. Customers may also experience reputational damage if other institutions infer that a previous closure indicates financial-crime or fraud risk.

For vulnerable customers, debanking can contribute to financial exclusion. Sex workers, migrants, charities, and remittance businesses have reported being pushed toward cash handling, informal payment systems, or more expensive financial intermediaries after losing mainstream banking access.<ref>{{cite web|title=Debanking sex workers puts them in greater danger|url=https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/may-2024/debanking-sex-workers/|website=Policy Options|date=31 May 2024|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Regulators and financial-inclusion advocates have criticized indiscriminate debanking for excluding lawful customers from essential financial services. AUSTRAC has stated that debanking can have a "devastating impact on legitimate businesses" and may undermine anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing objectives by discouraging transparency and pushing customers toward unregulated channels.<ref>{{cite web|title=New guidance released on debanking|url=https://www.austrac.gov.au/new-guidance-released-debanking|publisher=Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre|date=27 June 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The European Banking Authority has stated that access to basic financial products and services is a "prerequisite for the participation in modern economic and social life" and that unwarranted de-risking can cause the financial exclusion of legitimate customers.<ref>{{cite web|title=EBA alerts on the detrimental impact of unwarranted de-risking and ineffective management of money laundering and terrorist financing risks|url=https://www.eba.europa.eu/publications-and-media/press-releases/eba-alerts-detrimental-impact-unwarranted-de-risking-and|publisher=European Banking Authority|date=5 January 2022|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> In later guidance, the EBA stated that access to basic financial services can also "save the lives of vulnerable customers", including refugees and homeless people.<ref>{{cite web|title=EBA consults on new Guidelines to tackle de-risking|url=https://www.eba.europa.eu/publications-and-media/press-releases/eba-consults-new-guidelines-tackle-de-risking|publisher=European Banking Authority|date=6 December 2022|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The World Bank has warned that de-risking can cut off people and organizations from regulated financial services and may reduce transparency by pushing transactions into unregulated channels. In a 2015 speech, World Bank managing director Sri Mulyani Indrawati said that "risks should be managed, not avoided altogether".<ref>{{cite web|title=De-risking in the Financial Sector|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/financialsector/brief/de-risking-in-the-financial-sector|publisher=World Bank|date=7 October 2016|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Remarks by World Bank Managing Director and Chief Operating Officer Sri Mulyani Indrawati at 11th ASEAN Central Bank Governors Meeting|url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/speech/2015/03/21/remarks-world-bank-managing-directro-coo-asean-central-bank-governors-meeting|publisher=World Bank|date=21 March 2015|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== Regulatory approaches ==
Regulation of debanking differs significantly by jurisdiction. Some countries focus on access to replacement or basic accounts, while others have developed notice-and-reason requirements for account closures. The following comparison is limited to selected jurisdictions where debanking has been the subject of recent public, regulatory, or ombudsman attention.
{| class="wikitable"
!Jurisdiction
!Closure notice and reasons
!Review or remedy
!Summary
|-
|Canada
|Banks commonly give notice, often around 30 days, but OBSI states that banks are generally not required to provide reasons for ending a relationship.<ref name="OBSIEnded2">{{cite web|title=Relationship Ended|url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/how-we-work/our-approaches/relationship-ended/|publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>
|Customers may complain internally and then to OBSI, but OBSI says it cannot generally challenge or change the bank's decision or tell the consumer the reason for closure.<ref name="OBSIEnded2" />
|Critics describe Canada as having weak post-opening protections: limited reasons, limited external review, and no practical power for the ombudsman to reverse a closure decision.
|-
|United Kingdom
|From April 2026, the UK government announced rules requiring banks and payment service providers to give 90 days' notice and a clear and specific explanation, subject to exceptions such as financial crime or illegality.<ref>{{cite web|title=Millions of people and businesses protected against debanking|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/millions-of-people-and-businesses-protected-against-debanking|publisher=HM Treasury|date=28 April 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>
|Eligible complaints may be taken to the Financial Ombudsman Service.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bank account closures|url=https://www.financial-ombudsman.org.uk/businesses/resolving-complaint/complaints-deal/banking-and-payments/bank-account-closures|publisher=Financial Ombudsman Service|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>
|A more explicit notice-and-reason model than Canada.
|-
|United States
|Banks and credit unions are generally permitted to close accounts without the customer's permission; the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau says some states may require notice.<ref>{{cite web|title=The bank/credit union closed my checking account even though I did not want them to. Can the bank/credit union do that?|url=https://www.consumerfinance.gov/ask-cfpb/the-bankcredit-union-closed-my-checking-account-even-though-i-did-not-want-them-to-can-the-bankcredit-union-do-that-en-959/|publisher=Consumer Financial Protection Bureau|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>
|Customers may complain to regulators such as the CFPB, OCC, FDIC, Federal Reserve, NCUA, or state banking regulators, depending on the institution.
|General account-closure protection remains limited, but federal policy attention has focused on political, religious, and lawful-business debanking.<ref>{{cite web|title=OCC Takes Actions to Reinforce Prohibitions Against Politicized or Unlawful Debanking|url=https://www.occ.gov/news-issuances/news-releases/2025/nr-occ-2025-61.html|publisher=Office of the Comptroller of the Currency|date=13 June 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>
|-
|Australia
|The Australian Banking Association's Banking Code provides that where a bank closes an account in credit, it will, where appropriate, give reasonable notice and pay the balance.<ref>{{cite web|title=Banking Code of Practice|url=https://www.ausbanking.org.au/banking-code/|publisher=Australian Banking Association|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>
|A Council of Financial Regulators report recommended documentation of reasons, reasons to customers, access to internal dispute resolution, and at least 30 days' notice before closing existing core banking services.<ref>{{cite web|title=Potential Policy Responses to De-banking in Australia|url=https://www.cfr.gov.au/publications/policy-statements-and-other-reports/2022/potential-policy-responses-to-de-banking-in-australia/pdf/potential-policy-responses-to-de-banking-in-australia.pdf|publisher=Council of Financial Regulators|date=October 2022|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>
|Australia has developed a more explicit policy framework on de-banking than Canada, particularly for core banking services.
|-
|New Zealand
|The Banking Ombudsman states that reasonable notice is generally at least 14 days and that good banking practice is to give a reason, although banks do not always have to explain closures.<ref>{{cite web|title=Closing accounts|url=https://bankomb.org.nz/guides-and-cases/quick-guides/bank-accounts/closing-accounts|publisher=New Zealand Banking Ombudsman Scheme|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>
|Customers may complain to the Banking Ombudsman Scheme where eligible.
|Less prescriptive than the United Kingdom, but more explicit than Canada on reasons as good practice.
|}

=== Basic-account systems in Europe ===
The European Union's Payment Accounts Directive gives legally resident consumers a right to a basic payment account, and member-state systems such as France's ''droit au compte'' and Germany's basic-payment-account regime provide administrative or statutory routes to basic account access.<ref name="EUAccess2">{{cite web|title=Access to bank accounts|url=https://finance.ec.europa.eu/consumer-finance-and-payments/retail-financial-services/access-bank-accounts_en|publisher=European Commission|access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref><ref name="FranceRight2">{{cite web|title=Article L312-1 - Code monétaire et financier|url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000035731548/|website=Legifrance|access-date=5 July 2026|language=fr}}</ref><ref name="BaFinBasic2">{{cite web|title=Basic payment account|url=https://www.bafin.de/EN/verbraucherinnen-verbraucher/themen-finanzprodukte/konten-zahlungen/konten/basiskonto/basiskonto_node_en.html|publisher=Federal Financial Supervisory Authority|access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref> These regimes do not create a general right to all banking services, and they remain subject to financial-crime, sanctions, identification, and other legal exceptions. They nevertheless provide more explicit access, termination, or review mechanisms in specific basic-account contexts than Canada's post-opening account-closure framework.

In France, an eligible person or entity refused an account may ask the Banque de France to designate an institution to provide basic banking services.<ref name="FranceRight2" /> French law also provides notice protections for termination of open-ended deposit-account agreements and imposes additional limits on termination of accounts opened through the right-to-account procedure.<ref>{{cite web|title=Article L312-1-1 - Code monétaire et financier|url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000038614561/|website=Legifrance|access-date=5 July 2026|language=fr}}</ref>

In Germany, the Payment Accounts Act (''Zahlungskontengesetz'') implements the EU framework for basic payment accounts. BaFin states that consumers lawfully resident in the European Union are entitled to a basic payment account and that a bank may terminate such an account only under the statutory conditions.<ref name="BaFinBasic2" /> Where an application is rejected, delayed, or not implemented after agreement, the consumer may apply for administrative proceedings in which BaFin may order the institution to open the account if the refusal was unjustified.<ref>{{cite web|title=Apply for administrative proceedings in the event of rejection of an application to conclude a basic account agreement|url=https://verwaltungsportal.hessen.de/en/leistung?leistung_id=B100019_101130375|publisher=Hessen Verwaltungsportal|access-date=5 July 2026}}</ref>

Switzerland does not have a general private-bank right to an account comparable to some EU basic-account regimes, but PostFinance has a statutory universal-service obligation for basic payment services. In 2026, the Swiss Federal Supreme Court dismissed PostFinance's appeal in a sanctions-related account-closure case involving a Russian national resident in Switzerland who was subject to United States and United Kingdom sanctions but not Swiss sanctions. The court held that, given the limited domestic scope of the relationship, the statutory conditions for an exception to PostFinance's universal-service obligation were not met.<ref name="SwissPostFinance2">{{cite web|title=Arrêt du 3 mars 2026 (4A_454/2025)|url=https://www.bger.ch/files/live/sites/tfl/files/pdf/fr/4a_0454_2025_2026_04_01_T_f_11_21_59.pdf|publisher=Swiss Federal Supreme Court|date=1 April 2026|access-date=5 July 2026|language=fr}}</ref>

== Canada ==
{{See also|Banking in Canada}}Canada is a frequent example in debanking criticism because its rules distinguish between opening a personal retail deposit account and keeping an existing banking relationship. Federal rules require banks to open personal retail deposit accounts for individuals who meet identification requirements, subject to exceptions.<ref>{{cite web|title=Access to basic banking services: opening a retail deposit account|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/financial-consumer-agency/services/industry/bulletins/access-basic-banking.html|publisher=Financial Consumer Agency of Canada|date=22 February 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> Critics argue that this right may offer little protection after debanking if the customer remains within a bank's financial-crime, fraud, reputational-risk, conduct, or safety exclusions. Because banks may later terminate the relationship without giving reasons, Canada's account-opening rules do not ensure continuing access or a reliable path back into the same institution.<ref name="OBSIEnded2" />

=== OBSI framework ===
The Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments (OBSI) states that Canadian banks may end a relationship with a customer, provided they give reasonable notice, and that notice is typically 30 days. OBSI also states that banks are not required to provide an explanation and that most account agreements permit closure without giving a reason.<ref name="OBSIEnded2" /> OBSI says it can consider whether the bank's decision was biased, in keeping with the bank's policies and procedures, and carried out fairly given the consumer's situation, but it is not able to challenge or change the bank's decision to end the relationship or generally tell the consumer the reason for account closure.<ref name="OBSIEnded2" />

Critics describe this as a weak post-opening framework compared with jurisdictions that require reasons, provide statutory basic-account remedies, or allow a regulator to order account opening in some cases. The criticism is strongest where a bank frames the decision as an end of the broader "banking relationship" rather than only the closure of one account. If no reason, endpoint, reconsideration process, or reinstatement criteria are disclosed, the closure may operate in practice as an indefinite institutional exclusion from future accounts with the same bank.

A related criticism involves conduct-based closures. Banks argue that they must protect staff from abuse, harassment, and threats. Critics respond that in Canada a customer may be unable to know whether the bank relied on financial-crime concerns, staff-safety concerns, an ordinary service complaint, reputational concerns, or a broad assertion that the relationship had broken down. Because OBSI cannot generally change the decision and cannot generally disclose the bank's reason, the customer's practical remedy is often limited to challenging notice, procedural fairness, bias, or contractual compliance rather than the substance of the debanking decision.<ref name="OBSIEnded2" />

In one OBSI case, a customer identified as "Mr. K" opened an account and received a 30-day closure notice about one month later. The bank did not provide a reason and advised that its decision was final. OBSI stated that Canadian law and banking regulations allow banks to end business relationships without providing a reason or notice, and therefore focused on whether the bank complied with the account agreement and exercised its rights reasonably.<ref>{{cite web|title=Consumer surprised when bank gives him 30 days to close his account|url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/news/posts/consumer-surprised-when-bank-gives-him-30-days-to-close-his-account/|publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> In another OBSI case involving a remittance business, the bank did not initially provide reasons for closing the accounts; OBSI later found that the bank had identified anti-money laundering and terrorist-financing concerns associated with high-risk jurisdictions and considered one month generally adequate notice for account closure.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bank closed customer's accounts|url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/news/posts/bank-closed-customers-accounts/|publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

=== Complaint data ===
Canadian reporting has described a rise in debanking complaints. Complaints filed with OBSI about financial institutions ejecting clients increased from 19 in 2019 to 113 in 2023, according to ''The Globe and Mail''.<ref name="Globe20252">{{cite news|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/investing/personal-finance/article-debanked-why-some-canadians-are-losing-their-bank-accounts-without/|title=Debanked: Why some Canadians are losing their bank accounts without explanation|last1=Alini|first1=Erica|date=31 January 2025|work=The Globe and Mail|access-date=4 July 2026|last2=Posadzki|first2=Alexandra|last3=Marotta|first3=Stefanie}}</ref> The Financial Consumer Agency of Canada received more than 800 debanking-related grievances from 2018 to 2023, according to data released under the Access to Information Act.<ref name="Globe20252" /> OBSI's 2023 annual report recorded 105 banking cases categorized as "relationship ended", representing 4% of banking cases opened that year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Annual Report 2023|url=https://www.obsi.ca/media/oeed0cwk/obsi_065_2023-annual-report_en_a11y_id05.pdf|publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments|date=2024|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> Its 2024 annual report recorded 94 such banking cases, also representing 4% of banking cases opened that year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Annual Report 2024|url=https://www.obsi.ca/media/gnme0rfh/obsi-2024-annual-report_en.pdf|publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments|date=2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

CTV News reported that roughly 60 per cent of debanking complaints it reviewed involved closed personal savings or chequing accounts and slightly more than 27 per cent involved credit cards. Customers also reported closures of lines of credit, savings, business, and chequing accounts without receiving explanations.<ref name="CTV20252">{{cite news|url=https://prd.ctvnews.ca/toronto/article/can-a-canadian-bank-end-a-relationship-with-a-customer-without-saying-why/|title=Can a Canadian bank end a relationship with a customer without saying why?|date=15 October 2025|access-date=4 July 2026|publisher=CTV News}}</ref>

=== Litigation and legal remedies ===
Canadian court cases have considered account closures in relation to notice, good faith, contractual discretion, and access to personal information. These cases generally recognize that banks may terminate customer relationships, while considering procedural limits on how that power is exercised.

In ''Bertucci v. Royal Bank of Canada'', the Federal Court held that RBC should have provided access to raw data with proprietary material redacted, and stated that the standard for withholding personal information under PIPEDA because it would reveal confidential commercial information is very high.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bertucci v. Royal Bank of Canada, 2016 FC 332|url=https://www.canlii.org/en/ca/fct/doc/2016/2016fc332/2016fc332.html|website=CanLII|date=2016|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Financial institution originally misuses confidential commercial information exemption to withhold personal information|url=https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-actions-and-decisions/investigations/investigations-into-businesses/2017/pipeda-2017-011/|publisher=Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada|date=31 March 2017|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

In ''Pourshafiey v. Toronto-Dominion Bank'', a Quebec Superior Court case involving a money-services business, TD gave 30 days' notice that it would close several personal and business accounts but immediately terminated the wire-transfer service on which the business depended. The court found that TD had a reasonable justification for ending the relationship and had the right to do so, but had to exercise that right responsibly and in good faith. The court awarded damages for inadequate notice and the stress and inconvenience caused by the bank's conduct.<ref>{{cite web|title=Pourshafiey c. Toronto-Dominion Bank, 2018 QCCS 3202|url=https://www.canlii.org/fr/qc/qccs/doc/2018/2018qccs3202/2018qccs3202.html|website=CanLII|date=2018|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A bank's obligation to act in good faith|url=https://gdlaw.ca/blog/2018/08/a-banks-obligation-to-act-in-good-faith/|publisher=Gehlen Dabbs Cash LLP|date=21 August 2018|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> A later summary of ''Toronto-Dominion Bank v. Pourshafiey'', 2020 QCCA 1582, stated that a bank does not need to provide an explanation before closing an account, but must provide reasonable notice and maintain services during the notice period.<ref>{{cite web|title=Banking litigation annual case law report|url=https://gowlingwlg.com/en/insights-resources/articles/2022/banking-litigation-annual-case-law-report|publisher=Gowling WLG|date=3 February 2022|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

=== Reported Canadian cases ===
The Royal Bank of Canada (RBC) has been the subject of several prominent Canadian media reports on individual account-closure cases. Publicly available complaint statistics do not establish whether RBC closes accounts more frequently than other Canadian financial institutions, but reported RBC cases have drawn criticism from customers and commentators who described some closures as opaque or distressing.<ref name="CTV20252" /><ref name="Globe20252" />

In 2025, CTV News reported on Tomas Nassab, an Ontario man whose RBC accounts were closed after nearly 30 years as a customer. Nassab said he received a closure letter after complaining about poor customer service and was not told the reason. The letter stated: "We are no longer in a position to continue our banking relationship with you."<ref name="CTVNassab2">{{cite news|url=https://prd.ctvnews.ca/toronto/consumer-alert/article/we-are-no-longer-in-a-position-to-continue-our-banking-relationship-with-you-ontario-man-dumped-as-bank-client-after-30-years/|title='We are no longer in a position to continue our banking relationship with you': Ontario man dumped as bank client after 30 years|date=2 October 2025|access-date=4 July 2026|publisher=CTV News}}</ref> RBC told CTV News that "a client or the bank may choose to end a banking relationship" and that RBC makes such decisions only after a review of the circumstances.<ref name="CTVNassab2" />

In another reported case, Eva Chipiuk, a lawyer who had represented Freedom Convoy protesters, was dropped as an RBC customer after making two $1,000 transfers to purchase cryptocurrency through Shakepay Inc.<ref name="FPChipiuk2">{{cite news|url=https://financialpost.com/fp-finance/banking/lawyer-freedom-convoy-protesters-cut-off-bank-customer|title=Freedom Convoy lawyer dropped as a bank customer after cryptocurrency transactions|date=28 July 2025|work=Financial Post|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> The bank's letter stated that her "recent activity is outside of RBC's client risk appetite".<ref name="FPChipiuk2" /> Chipiuk said the experience was frustrating and made her feel as if she had to defend herself.<ref name="FPChipiuk2" />

Other reported Canadian cases include Carol Khan, who told CTV News that the Bank of Montreal gave her two weeks' notice that her accounts would be closed, and Rob Palfrey, who said he received a BMO letter stating that his activities fell outside the bank's risk appetite.<ref name="CTV20252" /> ''The Globe and Mail'' reported cases involving a Toronto-based Black entrepreneur from Nigeria, a retired hospitality industry manager in Halifax, and bitcoin entrepreneur Adam O'Brien.<ref name="Globe20252" />

=== Convoy protest account freezes ===
The 2022 Canada convoy protest produced one of the country's most publicized banking-access controversies. Under emergency measures connected to the federal government's invocation of the Emergencies Act, financial institutions froze accounts linked to the protests. Early public reporting stated that at least 76 accounts totalling approximately C$3.2 million were frozen.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-60420469|title=Canada protests: Police push back demonstrators in Ottawa|date=19 February 2022|work=BBC News|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> Later parliamentary evidence indicated that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police had provided information to financial institutions that led to at least 257 accounts being frozen.<ref>{{cite web|title=Invocation of the Emergencies Act and Related Measures|url=https://www.ourcommons.ca/documentviewer/en/44-1/FINA/report-5/page-5|publisher=House of Commons of Canada, Standing Committee on Finance|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The convoy freezes differed from ordinary private-sector debanking because they were linked to government emergency powers rather than a bank's unilateral commercial decision. They nevertheless intensified Canadian debate about financial exclusion, due process, and the ability of the state or financial institutions to restrict access to banking services.

=== Affected groups and sectors in Canada ===
Canadian reporting and advocacy have identified several sectors and groups affected by account closures or banking restrictions.

''Policy Options'' reported in 2024 that people in the Canadian sex-work industry had lost bank accounts, been denied payment processing, or been refused business banking despite the lawful status of many of their activities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Debanking sex workers puts them in greater danger|url=https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/may-2024/debanking-sex-workers/|website=Policy Options|date=31 May 2024|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> CityNews Toronto reported in 2023 that adult content creators said Canadian banks had frozen or closed accounts after discovering ties to sex work or online adult content.<ref>{{cite web|title=Adult content creators claim banks are freezing, closing accounts because of their work|url=https://toronto.citynews.ca/2023/04/07/onlyfans-sex-workers-banks-closing-accounts/|publisher=CityNews Toronto|date=7 April 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Muslim organizations and charities in Canada have also reported banking restrictions and account closures linked to risk assessments. The National Council of Canadian Muslims stated in 2023 that several Muslim organizations had been told by banks or payment processors that their accounts would be closed or that the bank's risk appetite had changed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Opinion: Canadian Muslim charities and organizations are facing a quiet banking crisis|url=https://www.nccm.ca/opinion-canadian-muslim-charities-and-organizations-are-facing-a-quiet-banking-crisis/|publisher=National Council of Canadian Muslims|date=7 February 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Cryptocurrency users and businesses have also reported difficulty maintaining banking relationships in Canada. The RBC case involving Eva Chipiuk drew attention to how ordinary cryptocurrency-related transfers can intersect with bank risk-appetite decisions.<ref name="FPChipiuk2" />

== United Kingdom ==
The United Kingdom became a leading jurisdiction in debanking policy after the 2023 Nigel Farage Coutts account controversy. Coutts, a private bank owned by NatWest Group, closed Farage's account. Farage alleged that the closure was linked to his political views. The controversy led to public criticism, the resignation of senior NatWest Group executives, and government proposals to strengthen customer protections.

The Financial Conduct Authority reviewed data from banks and payment firms and reported in 2023 that it had not found evidence that firms had closed accounts primarily because of customers' political views during the period reviewed. The FCA stated that the most common reasons for account closures were dormancy, financial-crime concerns, and other risk factors.<ref>{{cite web|title=FCA provides update on bank account access and closures|url=https://www.fca.org.uk/news/press-releases/fca-provides-update-bank-account-access-and-closures|publisher=Financial Conduct Authority|date=19 September 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

Media reporting during the controversy stated that UK banks were closing more than 1,000 accounts per day, with annual closures rising from about 45,000 in 2016–17 to more than 343,000 in 2021–22.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2023/jul/30/uk-banks-closing-more-than-1000-accounts-every-day|title=UK banks closing more than 1,000 accounts every day|last=Makortoff|first=Kalyeena|date=30 July 2023|work=The Guardian|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

In 2025, the UK government announced new rules requiring banks and payment service providers to give customers 90 days' notice before closing accounts and to provide a clear and specific explanation, subject to exceptions such as financial crime, illegality, or other overriding legal obligations. The government said the rules would apply to new contracts from April 2026.<ref>{{cite web|title=Millions of people and businesses protected against debanking|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/millions-of-people-and-businesses-protected-against-debanking|publisher=HM Treasury|date=28 April 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The UK debate has also included allegations of disproportionate debanking of British Muslims, British Nigerians, people with Russian connections, and companies trading with Ukraine.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.sky.com/story/banks-accused-of-closing-accounts-belonging-to-british-muslims-12931725|title=Banks accused of closing accounts belonging to British Muslims|last=Scott|first=Jennifer|date=1 August 2023|access-date=4 July 2026|publisher=Sky News}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Whale|first=Sebastian|title=UK banks shun companies trading with Ukraine|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/uk-bank-close-accounts-british-smes-trading-with-ukraine/|website=Politico|date=15 August 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== United States ==
In the United States, banks and credit unions generally may close customer accounts without the customer's permission. The Consumer Financial Protection Bureau states that some states require notice, and common reasons for closure include insufficient funds, unpaid fees, bad checks, suspicious activity, or dormancy.<ref>{{cite web|title=The bank/credit union closed my checking account even though I did not want them to. Can the bank/credit union do that?|url=https://www.consumerfinance.gov/ask-cfpb/the-bankcredit-union-closed-my-checking-account-even-though-i-did-not-want-them-to-can-the-bankcredit-union-do-that-en-959/|publisher=Consumer Financial Protection Bureau|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

U.S. debanking debates have focused on several sectors and political controversies. After states legalized cannabis, many cannabis businesses continued to face difficulty obtaining bank accounts because cannabis remained illegal under federal law.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/04/magazine/where-pot-entrepreneurs-go-when-the-banks-just-say-no.html|title=Where Pot Entrepreneurs Go When the Banks Just Say No|last=Mandelbaum|first=Robb|date=4 January 2018|work=The New York Times|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref> Cryptocurrency companies and founders have also alleged that banks terminated or refused relationships because of regulatory pressure or risk concerns.<ref>{{cite web|title=How tech's right-wing elite made 'debanking' claims into a political rallying point|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/internet/debanking-what-is-meaning-crypto-musk-rogan-andreessen-rcna182597|publisher=NBC News|date=10 December 2024|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The term has also been associated with Operation Choke Point, a U.S. Department of Justice initiative begun during the Obama administration that investigated banks and payment processors serving businesses considered high risk, including payday lenders and firearms-related businesses. Critics alleged that the initiative pressured banks to terminate lawful businesses without due process.

In 2025, federal policy shifted toward explicit concern about politicized or unlawful debanking. The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency stated that banks should make account-access decisions using individualized, objective, risk-based analyses and should not engage in politicized or unlawful debanking.<ref>{{cite web|title=OCC Takes Actions to Reinforce Prohibitions Against Politicized or Unlawful Debanking|url=https://www.occ.gov/news-issuances/news-releases/2025/nr-occ-2025-61.html|publisher=Office of the Comptroller of the Currency|date=13 June 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

A 2025 U.S. Senate Banking Committee minority staff memorandum stated that 8,056 consumers had filed CFPB complaints in the previous three years under the issue category of improper account closure and that many complained of inadequate notice, lack of explanation, or difficulty obtaining remaining funds.<ref>{{cite web|title=Debanking Americans: Consumer Account Closures Without Explanation|url=https://www.banking.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/debanking_americans_-_consumer_account_closures_without_explanation.pdf|publisher=United States Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, Minority Staff|date=2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== Australia ==
Australian regulators have treated de-banking as a financial-inclusion and competition issue. The Council of Financial Regulators has described de-banking as the withdrawal or refusal of banking services and has noted that Australian banks have de-banked customers including fintechs, digital currency exchanges, and remittance providers. The council identified drivers including anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing obligations, sanctions compliance, profitability, reputational risk, and risk appetite.<ref>{{cite web|title=Potential Policy Responses to De-banking in Australia|url=https://www.cfr.gov.au/publications/policy-statements-and-other-reports/2022/potential-policy-responses-to-de-banking-in-australia/pdf/potential-policy-responses-to-de-banking-in-australia.pdf|publisher=Council of Financial Regulators|date=October 2022|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

In 2023, the Australian government supported in principle several recommendations intended to improve transparency and fairness. These included documenting reasons for de-banking, providing reasons to customers, giving access to internal dispute resolution, and giving at least 30 days' notice before closing existing core banking services, except in limited circumstances.<ref>{{cite web|title=Government response to the Council of Financial Regulators' advice on de-banking|url=https://treasury.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-06/p2023-404377-gr.docx|publisher=Australian Treasury|date=June 2023|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

AUSTRAC has stated that de-banking can have a devastating impact on legitimate businesses and customers and that indiscriminate de-banking across entire industries is discouraged.<ref>{{cite web|title=De-banking|url=https://www.austrac.gov.au/business/core-guidance/your-business-industry/financial-services/de-banking|publisher=Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

One notable Australian case involved Allan Flynn, a bitcoin trader who brought discrimination proceedings against ANZ after alleging that the bank closed accounts because of his cryptocurrency business. The dispute was settled in 2021, with ANZ acknowledging that it had debanked Flynn because he operated a bitcoin trading service, while stating that it believed the decision was necessary to manage regulatory risk.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/business/banking-and-finance/anz-settles-debanking-case-brought-by-bitcoin-trader-20211014-p59009.html|title=ANZ settles debanking case brought by bitcoin trader|last=Danckert|first=Sarah|date=14 October 2021|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== New Zealand ==
New Zealand has less prescriptive account-closure rules than the United Kingdom, but its Banking Ombudsman has published guidance on closure notice and reasons. The Banking Ombudsman states that reasonable notice is generally at least 14 days. It also states that banks do not always have to explain why they are closing an account, but that it is good banking practice to give a reason so the customer has an opportunity to respond or find another bank.<ref>{{cite web|title=Closing accounts|url=https://bankomb.org.nz/guides-and-cases/quick-guides/bank-accounts/closing-accounts|publisher=New Zealand Banking Ombudsman Scheme|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand has identified debanking as a financial-inclusion issue and has begun measuring debanking of transaction accounts as part of its financial-inclusion indicators. It has also examined reasons for account exits, including anti-money laundering and counter-terrorist financing concerns, insolvency, bad credit, dormancy, and violent or aggressive customer behaviour.<ref>{{cite web|title=Response to Official Information Act request concerning debanking|url=https://www.rbnz.govt.nz/-/media/project/sites/rbnz/files/publications/oias/2025/oia2425_062-information-on-debanking.pdf|publisher=Reserve Bank of New Zealand|date=29 January 2025|access-date=4 July 2026}}</ref>

== Criticism of opaque debanking ==
Criticism of debanking usually focuses on opacity rather than on the existence of any bank power to close accounts. Banks are generally expected to refuse or end relationships involving fraud, sanctions, money laundering, terrorist financing, threats, or serious abuse. The disputed issue is whether lawful customers should lose essential banking services without a usable explanation, adequate notice, or a process capable of correcting mistakes.

Critics argue that unexplained closures can resemble financial blacklisting where the customer cannot determine whether the concern is legal, commercial, political, reputational, conduct-based, or based on mistaken data. They also argue that a closure may follow a customer when other institutions ask whether an account has been closed by another bank or infer that the customer presents hidden financial-crime risk.

Canada is frequently criticized in this context because the external complaint system does not generally give the customer the reason for closure or the power to reverse the bank's decision. Critics contrast this with the United Kingdom's notice-and-reason reforms, Australia's policy recommendations, New Zealand's ombudsman guidance on reasons as good practice, and European basic-account systems that provide statutory access routes in limited circumstances. Banks and regulators respond that disclosure may be limited by financial-crime, fraud, sanctions, privacy, security, staff-safety, and tipping-off concerns.

== See also ==

* [[Anti-money laundering]]
* [[Basic bank account]]
* [[Deplatforming]]
* [[Financial censorship]]
* [[Financial exclusion]]
* [[Know your customer]]
* [[Operation Choke Point]]
* [[Politically exposed person]]
* [[Unbanked]]
* [[Underbanked]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite web|author1=Durner, Tracey|author2=Shetret, Liat|title=Understanding Bank De-Risking and Its Effects on Financial Inclusion|url=https://www-cdn.oxfam.org/s3fs-public/file_attachments/rr-bank-de-risking-181115-en_0.pdf|publisher=Oxfam and Global Center on Cooperative Security|date=November 2015}}
* {{cite web|title=De-banking|url=https://www.austrac.gov.au/business/core-guidance/your-business-industry/financial-services/de-banking|publisher=Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre}}
* {{cite web|title=Potential Policy Responses to De-banking in Australia|url=https://www.cfr.gov.au/publications/policy-statements-and-other-reports/2022/potential-policy-responses-to-de-banking-in-australia/pdf/potential-policy-responses-to-de-banking-in-australia.pdf|publisher=Council of Financial Regulators|date=October 2022}}
* {{cite web|title=Relationship Ended|url=https://www.obsi.ca/en/how-we-work/our-approaches/relationship-ended/|publisher=Ombudsman for Banking Services and Investments}}
{{Censorship}}

User:MapleSource

2026-07-06T03:10:11Z

MapleSource: create user page