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==Goal-Based Learning Model==

==Overview==

Goal-based learning is a model that is rooted in [[Constructivism (philosophy of education)|constructivism]] theory. The constructivism theory believes that knowledge is “constructed” by the learners of the knowledge as they attempt to make sense of their experiences. In simple terms, learners will use what they already know (previous knowledge) to make sense of what they are now learning (new knowledge). Under this theory, the onus for learning is laid heavily on the learner as the learner learns by doing, experiencing, solving, etc.<ref>[[Constructivism (philosophy of education)]].  Reviewed October 8, 2025.</ref> 

In this model, goals are considered to be the foundations of learning. [https://web-archive.southampton.ac.uk/cogprints.org/624/1/V11ANSEK.html (Schank, 1992)]. In human interactions, people are motivated to learn so that they can reach a set goal.
Goal-based learning is approached using [https://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/pedagogical_scenario learning scenarios].<ref>[https://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/pedagogical_scenario Pedagogical scenario]. Modified March 1, 2019.</ref> A scenario is a fictional story about a problem that can happen in reality. When this scenario is presented, the teacher sets the goals that the students are to achieve. These goals are the solutions to the problem presented in the scenario. The learners would therefore learn the concept behind the problem through their active resolution of the problem in the scenario.

To increase participation, the teacher would have to explain why the goal is important. The teacher should go as far as making the goal personal for the learners by showing them how the goal would benefit them in the long run and how they can transfer that knowledge across other disciplines.

To increase collaboration,<ref>[https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/education-evidence/teaching-learning-toolkit/collaborative-learning-approaches Collaborative learning approaches]. Reviewed July 2021.</ref> the teacher would place the learners in groups. This will boost social negotiation as well as highlight the skills of each individual in the group.
                                     
To apply this constructivist method of instruction, the teacher would have to determine if it is the best approach for teaching the content. Once this is determined, the teacher selects a scenario that is fitting for the content to be taught. Any scenario selected should not be a perfect problem where reaching the goal is definitive. Some actions that can lead to the goal should contradict other actions as would be the case in reality. This would stir up discussions among the students as they collaborate to arrive at the most suitable approach that will lead to them achieving the set goal. Depending on the ages of the students being taught, the teacher should make sure to circulate the room to listen in to conversations, to ask probing questions that would cause the students to think or re-analyse their chosen actions and to encourage the students as they progress through finding their solutions.

“The intent of using a scenario in goal-based learning is to provide:
i) Motivation, 
ii) A sense of accomplishment, 
iii) A support system, and 
iv) A focus on skills rather than facts. Facts can be deceptive; they give the sense of knowing without the significance of knowing. 

Understanding why you are doing something, having a clear goal that is more than the recitation of facts, truly knowing why and wanting to know more so that one can become curious about more "whys" is what education is all about. Goal based scenarios, interrupted by good telling of important cases, offer a reasonable framework for courses that are meant to be the means of education.” (Schank, 1992).

==Goal-Based Learning Theorist==

[[Roger Schank |Roger Carl Schank]] (March 12, 1946 – January 29, 2023) was an American artificial intelligence theorist who introduced and/or improved upon a lot of learning theories that are being implemented today in the [[instructional design]] world. Schank pioneered conceptual dependency theory, [[Case-based reasoning |case-based reasoning]] and goal-based scenarios for learning. Roger Schank was also a cognitive psychologist, a learning scientist, an educational reformer, and an entrepreneur.

Schank believed that learners learn when they want to learn, not when the teacher wants to teach. He was a big advocate for learners gaining knowledge by doing. He also believed that learning is most effective when taught through a familiar domain. Schank posited that when instruction is taught through a domain that is familiar to the learner, the learner easily develops the intrinsic motivation that is needed to follow through on attaining the goal that has been set for the learning of that content. This way the learner builds on the skills that are relevant to what they want to do and this skill building has been done through practice.

==Research==

Goal-based learning is different from [[Goal setting |goal setting]] which is where the teacher or team lead sets the goals that are to be achieved and the action points that are to be followed in order to achieve these goals. Goal-based learning is also different from [[Goal orientation |goal orientation]] which is how a learner perceives a goal and what motivates the learner to want to achieve the set goal.

Goal-based learning however, is learning through practice. Therefore, learning activities are designed around problems. Resolving these problems results in a two-fold lesson for the learners. The first lesson is that the learner has a clear understanding of the concept that the problem is designed on. The second lesson is that the learner understands the steps or the pathway to use for resolving the problem and other similar problems in the future. In goal-based learning, the goal is the skill and the effective application of these goals to real-world problems is the eventual target.

Research has shown that there are 3 levels of goals there are in learning. They are;

1) Task-completion goals,

2) Instructional goals, and

3) Personal knowledge-building goals

To increase participation, the teacher would have to explain why the goal is important. When students are able to personalize the goal for learning, their intrinsic motivation to perform increases and with this motivation comes improved performance during the teacher’s assessment of the students' learning.

Research has also shown that these 3 levels of learning goals can be further put into 2 distinct categories:

1) Learning goals, and

2) Performance goals (Marshall, 1988)

This means that students can personalize a goal for themselves to either be a learning goal or a performance goal. The premise of this line of research is that although some students perform learning tasks with a goal of advancing their knowledge or skill, others are more concerned with looking good, avoiding criticism, gaining praise, or the like (Dweck, 1985; Nicholls, 1984; Nolen, 1988; Ruble & Nakamur 1972). Students with a learning goal orientation are more willing to face difficult learning tasks and to look on errors as informative rather than humiliating. The way a student personalizes a goal results from their beliefs, their attitudes and their behaviours.

A research was conducted on sixteen adult volunteers at The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education to observe how goal orientations, (that is the way students personalize their learning goals), come into play during actual learning. The first level of goal orientation is one widely recognized - an orientation toward doing well on assigned learning tasks, regardless of whether the assigned learning occurs. This is the performance goal orientation where the focus is to complete the task assigned. The second and third levels, however, divide the learning goals into two types: those related to pursuing what is expressly taught and those related to the student's purposes in learning. This is the learning goal orientation where the focus is the instruction or building personal knowledge. (Ng and Bereiter, pg. 245)

The students with task-completion goals focused mainly on assigned tasks, trusting persistence and exercise to yield the desired learning. Prior knowledge was invoked to cope with the demands, but it was not used to aid comprehension. These are level 1 goals.

The students with instructional goals worked at comprehending instructional material, and used prior knowledge to do so, but no prior knowledge was ever reconsidered in the light of new learning. Also, there was little extension of what they were learning to the real-world concerns that had motivated them to seek out the instruction in the first place. These are level 2 goals.

The students with knowledge-building goals actively constructed learning agendas for themselves, used prior knowledge to make sense of what they were learning, and used new learning to reconsider their prior knowledge. These are level 3 goals. (Ng and Bereiter, pg. 266).

This research showed that the way a student personalized a goal reflects in the students’ learning outcomes. It also showed that a student might have a knowledge-building goal orientation but it might not necessarily translate into high achievement when the student is evaluated for a score.

Over time, institutions of learning and organisations have applied the goal-based learning approach and have recorded immense success and below are two reasons why it always works:

Full understanding of the goal to be achieved - this approach makes the direction of learning explicit to the learners (and the teacher). The pathway to attaining the goal may encounter hiccups but the goal is always clear.

Motivation for learning - this approach increases the learners’ motivation for learning and also gives the learner a full sense of accomplishment when this goal is met. This sense of accomplishment fuels more motivation and drive to meet other goals as well.

In summary, it is safe to say that students pursue different goals in the same learning situations and that this is true even among students who are motivated to learn what is being offered and those who are trying to do well. (Ng and Bereiter, pg. 265). 

==Publications on Goal-Based Learning==

Listed below are some publications on the goal-based learning model.
Ng E. & Bereiter C. (1991). Three Levels of Goal Orientation in Learning. The Journal of Learning Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 3/4 (1991), pp. 243-271 (29 pages). https://www.jstor.org/stable/1466862 

Schank, (1992). Goal-based scenarios. Technical Report #36. https://web-archive.southampton.ac.uk/cogprints.org/624/1/V11ANSEK.html 

Schank R. C., Fano A., et al (1993/1994). The Design of Goal-Based Scenarios. The Journal of Learning Sciences. Pp. 305-345 (42 pages). https://web.eecs.umich.edu/~mjguz/csl/home.cc.gatech.edu/allison/uploads/4/schank1994.pdf 

Schank (1993 - 1994). Goal-Based Scenarios: A Radical Look at Education. The [[Journal of the Learning Sciences]], Vol. 3, No. 4, Goal-Based Scenarios , pp. 429-453 (25 pages). https://www.jstor.org/stable/1466622 

==References==

Schank, (1992). Goal-based scenarios. Technical Report #36. https://web-archive.southampton.ac.uk/cogprints.org/624/1/V11ANSEK.html 

Schank, Roger C. (1996) Goal-Based Scenarios:  Case-Based Reasoning Meets Learning by Doing.  In: David Leake (ed) Case-Based Reasoning: Experiences, Lessons & Future Directions.  AAAI Press/The MIT Press. 295-347.

Roger Schank (2025). Roger Schank: From Professor to Business Owner. https://www.rogerschank.com/from-professor-to-business-owner-why 

Roger Schank (2025, June 30). Roger Schank. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Schank 

Wikipedia (2025, August 28). Goal Setting. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_setting 

Ng E. & Bereiter C. (1991). Three Levels of Goal Orientation in Learning. The Journal of Learning Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 3/4 (1991), pp. 243-271 (29 pages). https://www.jstor.org/stable/1466862 

Wikipedia (2025, September 28). Goal Orientation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal_orientation 

Australia Music Education Board (2022, August 23). The Benefits of Goal-Based Learning. https://www.ameb.edu.au/blog/the-benefits-of-goal-based-learning/?srsltid=AfmBOorEXz628LVrCl3__2eeIfryyBouzd0RVCXw7rM4sGIgud1SWFfd

==Notes==
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