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{{redirect|Manager|other uses|Management (disambiguation)|and|Manager (disambiguation)}}
[[File:USCG Org Chart.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|An [[organization chart]] for the [[United States Coast Guard]] shows the hierarchy of managerial roles in that organization.]]

{{Business management}}

'''Management''' (or '''managing''') is the administration of an [[organization]], whether it is a [[business]], a not-for-profit organization, or government body. Management includes the activities of setting the [[Strategic management|strategy]] of an organization and coordinating the efforts of its [[employee]]s (or of volunteers) to accomplish its [[goal|objectives]] through the application of available [[Resource (economics)|resources]], such as [[financial]], [[natural resources|natural]], [[technological]], and [[human resources]].<ref name="doi.org">Simandan, D., 2018. Iterative lagged asymmetric responses in strategic management and long-range planning. Time & Society, OnlineFirst, https://doi.org/10.1177/0961463X17752652 .</ref> The term "management" may also refer to those people who manage an organization.

[[Social science|Social scientists]] study management as an [[academic discipline]], investigating areas such as [[social organization]] and [[organizational leadership]].<ref>Waring, S.P., 2016. Taylorism transformed: Scientific management theory since 1945. UNC Press Books.</ref> Some people study management at colleges or universities; major degrees in management include the [[Bachelor of Commerce]] (B.Com.) and [[Master of Business Administration]] (MBA.) and, for the public sector, the [[Master of Public Administration]] (MPA) degree. Individuals who aim to become management specialists or experts, management researchers, or professors may complete the [[Doctor of Management]] (DM), the [[Doctor of Business Administration]] (DBA), or the [[Ph.D|PhD]] in Business Administration or Management.

Larger organizations generally have three levels of managers, which are typically organized{{by whom|date=August 2017}} in a [[hierarchy|hierarchical]], pyramid structure:

* [[Senior management|Senior manager]]s, such as members of a [[Board of Directors]] and a [[Chief Executive Officer]] (CEO) or a [[President (corporate title)|President]] of an organization. They set the strategic goals of the organization and make decisions on how the overall organization will operate. Senior managers are generally executive-level professionals, and provide direction to middle management who directly or indirectly report to them.
* [[Middle management|Middle manager]]s, examples of which would include branch managers, regional managers, department managers and section managers, provide direction to front-line managers. Middle managers communicate the strategic goals of senior management to the front-line managers.
* [[Line management|Lower manager]]s, such as [[supervisor]]s and front-line [[team leader]]s, oversee the work of regular employees (or volunteers, in some voluntary organizations) and provide direction on their work.

In smaller organizations, an individual manager may have a much wider scope. A single manager may perform several roles or even all of the roles commonly observed in a large organization.

==Definitions==

Views on the definition and scope of management include:
* According to [[Henri Fayol]], "to manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to command, to co-ordinate and to control."<ref name="Gulshan">{{cite book|author=SS Gulshan|title=Management Principles and Practices by Lallan Prasad and SS Gulshan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ky4em-N02tAC&pg=PA6|publisher=Excel Books India|isbn=978-93-5062-099-1|pages=6–}}</ref>
* [[Fredmund Malik]] defines it as "the transformation of resources into utility."
* Management included as one of the factors of production – along with machines, materials and money.
* [[Ghislain Deslandes]] defines it as “a vulnerable force, under pressure to achieve results and endowed with the triple power of constraint, imitation and imagination, operating on subjective, interpersonal, institutional and environmental levels”.<ref>Deslandes G., (2014), “Management in Xenophon's Philosophy : a Retrospective Analysis”, 38th Annual Research Conference, Philosophy of Management, 2014, July 14–16, Chicago</ref>
* [[Peter Drucker]] (1909–2005) saw the basic task of management as twofold: [[marketing]] and [[innovation]]. Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing (product innovation is a central strategic marketing issue). Peter Drucker identifies marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are generally understood{{by whom|date=June 2013}} as two different branches of business administration knowledge.

===Theoretical scope===
Management involves identifying the [[mission statement|mission]], objective, procedures, rules and manipulation<ref>
Prabbal Frank attempts to make a subtle distinction between management and manipulation: {{cite book
| last1                 = Frank
| first1                = Prabbal
| year              = 2007
| title                 = People Manipulation: A Positive Approach
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=H9n2vQ7JFVwC
| edition               = 2
| location              = New Delhi
| publisher             = Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd
| publication-date      = 2009
| pages                  = 3–7
| isbn                  = 9788120743526
| accessdate            = 2015-09-05
| quote                 = There is a difference between management and manipulation. The difference is thin [...] If management is handling, then manipulation is skilful handling. In short, manipulation is skilful management. [...] Manipulation is in essence leveraged management. [...] It is an alive thing while management is a dead concept. It requires a proactive approach rather than a reactive approach. [...] People cannot be managed.
}}
</ref>
of the [[human capital]] of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the enterprise.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} This implies effective communication: an enterprise environment (as opposed to a physical or mechanical mechanism) implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or automated program), not the herding of animals, and can occur either in a legal or in an illegal enterprise or environment. From an individual's perspective, management does not need to be seen solely from an enterprise point of view, because management is an essential function to improve one's [[personal life|life]] and [[Social relationship|relationships]].{{citation needed|date=August 2015}}  Management is therefore everywhere{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} and it has a wider range of application.{{clarify|date=August 2015}} Based on this, management must have humans. Communication and a positive endeavor are two main aspects of it either through enterprise or independent pursuit.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} Plans, measurements, motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting [[plan]]s, meeting goals.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925)<ref>
''Administration industrielle et générale – prévoyance organization – commandment, coordination – contrôle'', Paris : Dunod, 1966
</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2015}}
considers management to consist of six [[function (engineering)|functions]]:

# forecasting
# planning
# organizing
# commanding
# coordinating
# controlling

In another way of thinking, [[Mary Parker Follett]] (1868–1933), allegedly defined management as "the art of getting things done through people".<ref>
{{cite book
| last1                 = Jones
| first1                = Norman L.
| chapter               = Chapter Two: Of Poetry and Politics: The Managerial Culture of Sixteenth-Century England
| editor1-last          = Kaufman
| editor1-first         = Peter Iver
| title                 = Leadership and Elizabethan Culture
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=nvDQAQAAQBAJ
| series                = Jepson Studies in Leadership
| publisher             = Palgrave Macmillan
| publication-date      = 2013
| page                  = 18
| isbn                  = 9781137340290
| accessdate            = 2015-08-29
| quote                 = Mary Parker Follett, the 'prophet of management' reputedly defined management as the 'art of getting things done through people.' [...] Whether or not she said it, Follett describes the attributes of dynamic management as being coactive rather than coercive.
| date                = 2013-10-02
}}
</ref>
She described management as philosophy.<ref>
''Vocational Business: Training, Developing and Motivating People'' by Richard Barrett – Business & Economics – 2003. p. 51.
</ref>{{qn|date=August 2015}}

Critics{{which|date=August 2015}}, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely,<ref>
Compare: {{cite book
| last1                 = Holmes
| first1                = Leonard
| title                 = The Dominance of Management: A Participatory Critique
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=eWvz_oUFLaMC
| series                = Voices in Development Management
| publisher             = Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
| publication-date      = 2012
| page                  = 20
| isbn                  = 9781409488668
| accessdate            = 2015-08-29
| quote                 = Lupton's (1983: 17) notion that management is 'what managers do during their working hours', if valid, could only apply to descriptive conceptualizations of management, where 'management' is effectively synonymous with 'managing', and where 'managing' refers to an activity, or set of activities carried out by managers.
| date                = 2012-11-28
}}
</ref>
suggesting the difficulty of defining management without [[circular definition|circularity]], the shifting nature of definitions{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} and the connection of [[Managerialism|managerial practices]] with the existence of a [[managerial class|managerial cadre]] or of a [[social class|class]].

One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "[[business administration]]" and thus excludes management in places outside [[commerce]], as for example in [[Charitable organization|charities]] and in the [[public sector]]. More broadly, every organization must "manage" its work, people, processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as "[[business school]]s". Some such institutions (such as the [[Harvard Business School]]) use that name, while others (such as the [[Yale School of Management]]) employ the broader term "management".

English-speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a [[corporation]].<ref>
{{OEtymD|management|accessdate=2015-08-29}} – "Meaning 'governing body' (originally of a theater) is from 1739."
</ref>
Historically this use of the term often contrasted with the term [[Industrial relations|"labor"]] – referring to those being managed.<ref>
See for examples {{cite book
| editor1-last          = Melling
| editor1-first         = Joseph
| editor2-last          = McKinlay
| editor2-first         = Alan
| title                 = Management, Labour, and Industrial Politics in Modern Europe: The Quest for Productivity Growth During the Twentieth Century
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=VP2zAAAAIAAJ
| publisher             = Edward Elgar
| publication-date      = 1996
| isbn                  = 9781858980164
| accessdate            = 2015-08-29
| year         = 1996
}}
</ref>

But in the present era{{when|date=August 2015}} the concept of management is identified{{by whom|date=September 2015}} in the wide areas{{which|date=August 2015}} and its frontiers have been pushed to a broader range.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} Apart from profitable organizations even non-profitable organizations ([[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]]) apply management concepts. The concept and its uses are not constrained{{by whom|date=August 2015}}. Management on the whole is the process of planning, organizing, coordinating, [[leadership|leading]] and controlling.

==Nature of work==
In profitable organizations, management's primary function is the satisfaction of a range of [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]]. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing great employment opportunities for employees. In nonprofit management, add the importance of keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management and [[governance]], shareholders vote for the [[board of directors]], and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers, but this is rare.

== History ==
Some see management as a late-modern (in the sense of late [[modernity]]) conceptualization.<ref>Waring, S.P., 2016, Taylorism transformed: Scientific management theory since 1945. UNC Press Books.</ref> On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history - only harbingers (such as [[Steward (office)|stewards]]). Others, however, detect management-like thought among ancient [[Sumer]]ian traders and the builders of the pyramids of [[ancient Egypt]]. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system|Hindu numerals]] (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of [[Double-entry bookkeeping system|double-entry book-keeping]] (1494) provided [[management tool|tools]] for management assessment, planning and control.

[[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]]  wrote about how to make organisations efficient and effective. The principles that Machiavelli set forth in ''Discourses'' (1531) can apply in adapted form to the management of organisations today:<ref>{{Cite book|title=Management (sixth edition)|last=Stoner|first=James A.F.|publisher=Prentice Hall, Inc.|year=1995|isbn=978-0-13-149444-2|location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey|page=30|quote=|via=}}</ref>
* An organisation is more stable if members have the right to express their differences and solve their conflicts within  it.
* While one person can begin an organisation, "it is lasting when it is left in the care of many and when many desire to maintain it".
* A weak manager can follow a strong one, but not another weak one, and maintain authority.
* A manager seeking to change an established organization "should retain at least a shadow of the ancient customs".

With the changing workplaces of [[industrial revolution]]s in the 18th and 19th centuries, [[military]] theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly-popular [[factory|factories]].<ref>
{{cite book
| last1                 = Giddens
| first1                = Anthony
| author1-link          = Anthony Giddens, Baron Giddens
| title                 = A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=MVp0tMD_5f0C
| series                = Social and Politic Theory from Polity Press
| volume                = 1
| publisher             = University of California Press
| publication-date      = 1981
| page                  = 125
| isbn                  = 9780520044906
| accessdate            = 2013-12-29
| quote                 = In the army barracks, and in the mass co-ordination of men on the battlefield (epitomised by the military innovations of Prince Maurice of Orange and Nassau in the sixteenth century) are to be found the prototype of the regimentation of the factory – as both Marx and Weber noted.
| year                = 1981
}}
</ref>

Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most [[ownership|owners]] of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, a distinction between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of [[shareholder]]s) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.

=== Etymology ===
The English verb "manage" comes from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''maneggiare'' (to handle, especially tools or a horse), which derives from the two [[Latin]] words ''manus'' (hand) and ''agere'' (to act). The French word for housekeeping, ''ménagerie'', derived from ''ménager'' ("to keep house"; compare ''ménage'' for "household"), also encompasses taking care of domestic animals. [[wikt:menagerie|''Ménagerie'']] is the French translation of [[Xenophon]]'s famous book ''[[Oeconomicus]]''<ref>
https://books.google.com/books?id=ITdXAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP21&lpg=PP21&dq=menagerie+xenophon&source=bl&ots=-xFcf4MOIt&sig=KGryxF60feNGaDW9AlgIZJIb0gU&hl=de&sa=X&ei=5V4_VfiLKZDfau-OgZgO&ved=0CCQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=menagerie%20xenophon&f=false
</ref> ({{lang-grc-gre|Οἰκονομικός}}) on household matters and [[husbandry]]. The French word ''mesnagement'' (or ''ménagement'') influenced the semantic development of the English word ''management'' in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/113218?redirectedFrom=management#eid|title= Home : Oxford English Dictionary|publisher= }}</ref>

===Early writing===
Management (according to some definitions) has existed for millennia, and several writers have produced background works that have contributed to modern management theories.<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p19">{{cite book
 | last = Gomez-Mejia
 | first = Luis R.
 | authorlink = |author2=David B. Balkin |author3=Robert L. Cardy
 | title = Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition
 | publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]]
 | year = 2008
 | location = New York
 | page = 19
 | url =
 | isbn = 978-0-07-302743-2}}</ref>{{qn|date=August 2017}} Some theorists have cited [[:Category:Ancient military books|ancient military texts]] as providing lessons for civilian managers.  For example, Chinese general [[Sun Tzu]] in his 6th-century BC work ''[[The Art of War]]'' recommends{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} (when re-phrased in modern terminology) being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p19" />{{qn|date=July 2018}} The writings of influential [[Chinese Legalist]] philosopher [[Shen Buhai]] may be considered{{by whom|date=August 2017}} to embody a rare premodern example of abstract theory of administration.<ref>Creel, 1974 pp. 4–5 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C.</ref>

Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced "[[mirrors for princes]]" books, which aimed to advise new monarchs on how to govern. [[Plato]] described job specialization in 350 BC, and [[Alfarabi]] listed several leadership traits in AD 900.<ref>Griffin, Ricky W. CUSTOM Management: Principles and Practices, International Edition, 11th Edition. Cengage Learning UK, 08/2014</ref> Other examples include the Indian ''[[Arthashastra]]'' by [[Chanakya]] (written around 300 BC), and ''[[The Prince]]'' by Italian author
Niccolò Machiavelli (c. 1515).<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20" />

{{further|Mirrors for princes}}

Written in 1776 by [[Adam Smith]], a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Ethics|moral philosopher]], ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' discussed efficient organization of work through [[division of labour]].<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20">{{cite book
 | last = Gomez-Mejia
 | first = Luis R.
 | authorlink = |author2=David B. Balkin |author3=Robert L. Cardy
 | title = Management: People, Performance, Change
 | edition = 3
 | publisher = McGraw-Hill
 | year = 2008
 | location = New York
 | page = 20
 | url =
 | doi =
 | id =
 | isbn = 978-0-07-302743-2
}}
</ref>
Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of [[pin (device)|pins]]. While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled production of 48,000 pins per day.<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20" />{{qn|date=August 2017}}

===19th century===
Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to [[resource allocation|resource-allocation]], [[production, costs, and pricing|production]], and [[pricing]] issues. About the same time, innovators like [[Eli Whitney]] (1765–1825), [[James Watt]] (1736–1819), and [[Matthew Boulton]] (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as [[standardization]], [[quality control|quality-control]] procedures, [[cost accounting|cost-accounting]], interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-[[mass production]].

Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century.<ref>
{{cite book
| last                  = Khurana
| first                 = Rakesh
| authorlink            = Rakesh Khurana
| title                 = From Higher Aims to Hired Hands: The Social Transformation of American Business Schools and the Unfulfilled Promise of Management as a Profession
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=v3DfpKEsNREC
| accessdate            = 2013-08-24
| origyear              = 2007
| year                  = 2010
| publisher             = Princeton University Press
| isbn                  = 9781400830862
| page                  = 3
| quote                 = When salaried managers first appeared in the large corporations of the late nineteenth century, it was not obvious who they were, what they did, or why they should be entrusted with the task of running corporations.
}}
</ref>

===20th century===
By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see [[scientism]] for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include [[Henry R. Towne]]'s ''Science of management'' in the 1890s, [[Frederick Winslow Taylor]]'s ''[[The Principles of Scientific Management]]'' (1911), [[Lillian Moller Gilbreth|Lillian Gilbreth]]'s ''Psychology of Management'' (1914),<ref>{{cite web|url= https://archive.org/details/thepsychologyofm16256gut|title= The Psychology of Management: The Function of the Mind in Determining, Teaching and Installing Methods of Least Waste|first= Lillian Moller|last= Gilbreth|publisher= |via= Internet Archive}}</ref> [[Frank Bunker Gilbreth|Frank]] and Lillian Gilbreth's ''Applied motion study'' (1917), and [[Henry L. Gantt]]'s charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first [[college]] management-[[textbook]] in 1911. In 1912 [[Yoichi Ueno]] introduced [[Taylorism]] to [[Japan]] and became the first [[management consultant]] of the "Japanese-management style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese [[quality assurance]].

The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} The Harvard Business School offered the first Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and [[Alexander Hamilton Church|Alexander Church]] (1866-1936) described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early-20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), [[Walter Dill Scott|Walter Scott]] (1869-1955) and J. Mooney applied the principles of [[psychology]] to management. Other writers, such as [[Elton Mayo]] (1880–1949), [[Mary Follett|Mary Parker Follett]] (1868–1933), [[Chester Barnard]] (1886–1961), [[Max Weber]] (1864–1920), who saw what he called the "administrator" as [[bureaucrat]],<ref>
{{cite book
| last1                 = Legge
| first1                = David
| last2                 = Stanton
| first2                = Pauline
| last3                 = Smyth
| first3                = Anne
| chapter               = Learning management (and managing your own learning)
| editor1-last          = Harris
| editor1-first         = Mary G.
| title                 = Managing Health Services: Concepts and Practice
| url                   = https://books.google.com/books?id=yA2SR4DgU5wC
| location              = Marrickville, NSW
| publisher             = Elsevier Australia
| publication-date      = 2006
| page                  = 13
| isbn                  = 9780729537599
| accessdate            = 2014-07-11
| quote                 = The ''manager as bureaucrat'' is the guardian of roles, rules and relationships; his or her style of management relies heavily on working according to the book. In the Weberian tradition managers are necessary to coordinate the different roles that contribute to the production process and to mediate communication from head office to the shop floor and back. This style of management assumes a world view in which bureaucratic role is seen as separate from, and taking precedence over, other constructions of self (including the obligations of citizenship), at least for the duration if the working day.
| date                = October 2005
}}
</ref> [[Rensis Likert]] (1903–1981), and [[Chris Argyris]] (born 1923) approached the phenomenon of management from a [[sociology|sociological]] perspective.

Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: ''[[Concept of the Corporation]]'' (published in 1946). It resulted from [[Alfred Sloan]] (chairman of [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] until 1956) commissioning a study of the [[organisation]]. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.

H. Dodge, [[Ronald Fisher]] (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, [[Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett|Patrick Blackett]] worked in the development of the [[applied mathematics|applied-mathematics]] [[science]] of [[operations research]], initially for military operations. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's [[scientific management]]), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving decision-problems, and can apply directly to multiple management problems, particularly in the areas of [[logistics]] and operations.

Some of the more {{as of|2006|alt= recent}} developments include the [[Theory of Constraints]], [[management by objectives]], [[business process reengineering|reengineering]], [[Six Sigma]], the [[Viable system model]], and various [[information technology|information-technology]]-driven theories such as [[agile software development]], as well as group-management theories such as [[Cog's Ladder]].

As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for [[business philosophies and popular management theories|popularised systems of management ideas]] to peddle their wares. In this context many [[management fad]]s may have had more to do with [[pop psychology]] than with scientific theories of management.

Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches,{{citation needed|date=July 2014}} namely:

# [[Finance|financial management]]
# [[human resource management]]
# [[information technology management]] (responsible for [[management information systems]])
# [[marketing management]]
# [[operations management]] and [[Manufacturing|production]] management
# strategic management

===21st century===
In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subject to management.{{citation needed|date= August 2013}}

Branches of management theory also exist relating to [[Non-profit organization|nonprofits]] and to government: such as [[public administration]], [[public management]], and educational management. Further, management programs related to [[civil society|civil-society]] organizations have also spawned programs in [[nonprofit]] management and [[social entrepreneurship]].

Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from [[business ethics|business-ethics]] viewpoints, [[critical management studies]], and [[anti-corporate activism]].

As one consequence, [[workplace democracy]] (sometimes referred to as [[Workers' self-management]]) has become both more common and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a [[command hierarchy]]. All management embraces to some degree a democratic principle—in that in the long term, the majority of workers must support management. Otherwise, they leave to find other work or go on strike. Despite the move toward workplace democracy, command-and-control organization structures remain commonplace as ''de facto'' organization structures. Indeed, the entrenched nature of command-and-control is evident in the way that recent{{when|date=July 2018}} layoffs have been conducted with management ranks affected far less than employees at the lower levels.{{citation needed|date=July 2018}} In some cases, management has even rewarded itself with bonuses after laying off lower-level workers.<ref>Craig, S. (2009, January 29). Merrill Bonus Case Widens as Deal Struggles. ''Wall Street Journal''. [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123318892645426723]
</ref>

According to leadership-academic [[Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries]], a contemporary senior-management team will almost inevitably have some [[personality disorders]].<ref>
Manfred F. R. Kets de Vries: "The Dark Side of Leadership" – ''Business Strategy Review'' 14(3), Autumn p. 26 (2003).
</ref>

==Topics==

===Basics===
According to Fayol, management operates through five basic functions: planning, organizing, coordinating, commanding, and controlling.
* '''Planning''': Deciding what needs to happen in the future and generating plans for action (deciding in advance).<ref name="doi.org"/>
* '''Organizing''' (or staffing): Making sure the human and nonhuman resources are put into place.<ref name="Peaucelle2015">{{cite book|author=Jean-Louis Peaucelle|title=Henri Fayol, the Manager|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dLg6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA55|date=22 July 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-31939-9|pages=55–}}</ref>
* '''Coordinating''': Creating a structure through which an organization's goals can be accomplished.
* '''Commanding''' (or leading): Determining what must be done in a situation and getting people to do it.
* '''Controlling''': Checking progress against plans.

===Basic roles===
* '''Interpersonal''': roles that involve coordination and interaction with employees
Figurehead, leader
* '''Informational''': roles that involve handling, sharing, and analyzing information
Nerve centre, disseminator
* '''Decision''': roles that require decision-making 
Entrepreneur, negotiator, allocator

=== Skills ===
Management skills include:
* political: used to build a [[power base]] and to establish [[personal network|connections]]
* conceptual: used to analyze complex situations
* [[interpersonal]]: used to communicate, [[motivate]], mentor and [[delegate]]
* diagnostic: ability to [[mental image|visualize]] appropriate responses to a situation
* leadership: ability to lead and to provide guidance to a specific group
* technical: [[expertise]] in one's particular functional area.
* Behavioral:Perception towards others.

===Implementation of policies and strategies===
* All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff.
* Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies.
* A plan of action must be devised for each department.
* Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.
* Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.
* Top-level managers should carry out regular progress assessments.
* The business requires team spirit and a good environment.
* The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be analyzed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission.
* The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business' future environment.
* A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives.

==Policies and strategies in the planning process==
* They give mid and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an organization.
* A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made.
* Mid and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategies.

==Levels==
Most organizations have three management levels: first-level, middle-level, and top-level managers. First-line managers are the lowest level of management and manage the work of nonmanagerial individuals who are directly involved with the production or creation of the organization's products. First-line managers are often called supervisors, but may also be called line managers, office managers, or even foremen. Middle managers include all levels of management between the first-line level and the top level of the organization. These managers manage the work of first-line managers and may have titles such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or division manager. Top managers are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer, or chairman of the board.

These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority, and perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a pyramid.  Each level is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles.{{citation needed|date=January 2015}}

===Top===
The top or senior layer of management consists of the board of directors (including [[non-executive director]]s and [[executive director]]s), president, vice-president, [[CEO]]s and other members of the [[Corporate title|C-level]] executives. Different organizations have various members in their C-suite, which may include a [[Chief Financial Officer]], [[Chief Technology Officer]], and so on. They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the operations of the entire organization. They set a "[[tone at the top]]" and develop [[strategic planning|strategic plans]], company policies, and make decisions on the overall direction of the organization. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources. Senior managers are accountable to the shareholders, the general public and to public bodies that oversee corporations and similar organizations. Some members of the senior management may serve as the public face of the organization, and they may make speeches to introduce new strategies or appear in marketing.

The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-executives who owe a [[fiduciary]] duty to shareholders and are not closely involved in the day-to-day activities of the organization, although this varies depending on the type (e.g., public versus private), size and culture of the organization. These directors are theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and typically insured under [[directors and officers liability insurance]]. [[Fortune 500]] directors are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week on board duties, and median compensation was $212,512 in 2010. The board sets corporate strategy, makes major decisions such as major acquisitions,<ref>[http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/documents/03.Board%20Duties.pdf Board of Directors: Duties & Liabilities] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324044348/http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/documents/03.Board%20Duties.pdf |date=2014-03-24 }}. Stanford Graduate School of Business.</ref> and hires, evaluates, and fires the top-level manager (Chief Executive Officer or CEO). The CEO typically hires other positions. However, board involvement in the hiring of other positions such as the Chief Financial Officer (CFO) has increased.<ref>DeMars L. (2006). [http://www.cfo.com/article.cfm/7109019 Heavy Vetting: Boards of directors now want to talk to would-be CFOs — and vice versa]. ''CFO Magazine''.</ref> In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and private companies found that the top weaknesses of CEOs were "[[mentoring]] skills" and "board engagement", and 10% of companies never evaluated the CEO.<ref>[http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/cldr/research/surveys/performance.html 2013 CEO Performance Evaluation Survey]. Stanford Graduate School of Business.</ref> The board may also have certain employees (e.g., [[internal auditor]]s) report to them or directly hire independent contractors; for example, the board (through the [[audit committee]]) typically selects the [[auditor]].

Helpful skills of top management vary by the type of organization but typically include<ref>Kleiman, Lawrence S. "Management and Executive Development."Reference for Business:Encyclopedia of Business(2010): n. page. 25 Mar 2011. [http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Log-Mar/Management-and-Executive-Development.html].</ref> a broad understanding of competition, world economies, and politics. In addition, the CEO is responsible for implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies of the organization. Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including: instructions for preparation of department budgets, procedures, schedules; appointment of middle level executives such as department managers; coordination of departments; media and governmental relations; and shareholder communication.

===Middle===
Consist of [[general manager]]s, branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to the top management for their  department's function. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the objectives of the top management, they define and discuss information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly they inspire and provide guidance to lower level managers towards better performance.

Middle management is the midway management of a categorized organization, being secondary to the senior management but above the deepest levels of operational members.  An operational manager may be well-thought-out by middle management, or may be categorized as non-management operate, liable to the policy of the specific organization. Efficiency of the middle level is vital in any organization, since they bridge the gap between top level and bottom level staffs.

Their functions include:
* Design and implement effective group and inter-group work and information systems.
* Define and monitor group-level performance indicators.
* Diagnose and resolve problems within and among work groups.
* Design and implement reward systems that support cooperative behavior. They also make decision and share ideas with top managers.

===Lower===
Lower managers include supervisors, section leaders, forepersons and team leaders. They focus on controlling and directing regular employees. They are usually responsible for assigning employees' tasks, guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring the quality and quantity of production and/or service, making recommendations and suggestions to employees on their work, and channeling employee concerns that they cannot resolve to mid-level managers or other administrators. First-level or "front line" managers also act as role models for their employees. In some types of work, front line managers may also do some of the same tasks that employees do, at least some of the time. For example, in some restaurants, the front line managers will also serve customers during a very busy period of the day.

Front-line managers typically provide:
* Training for new employees
* Basic supervision
* Motivation
* Performance feedback and guidance

Some front-line managers may also provide career planning for employees who aim to rise within the organization.

==Training==
Colleges and universities around the world offer bachelor's degrees, graduate degrees, diplomas and certificates in management, generally within their colleges of business, business schools or faculty of management but also in other related departments. In the 2010s, there has been an increase in online management education and training in the form of electronic [[educational technology]] ( also called e-learning). Online education has increased the accessibility of management training to people who do not live near a college or university, or who cannot afford to travel to a city where such training is available.

While some professions require academic credentials in order to work in the profession (e.g., law, medicine, engineering, which require, respectively the [[Bachelor of Law]], [[Doctor of Medicine]] and [[Bachelor of Engineering]] degrees), management and administration positions do not necessarily require the completion of academic degrees. Some well-known senior executives in the US who did not complete a degree include [[Steve Jobs]], [[Bill Gates]] and [[Mark Zuckerberg]]. However, many managers and executives have completed some type of business or management training, such as a Bachelor of Commerce or a Master of Business Administration degree. Some major organizations, including companies, not-for-profit organizations and governments, require applicants to managerial or executive positions to hold at minimum [[Bachelor's degree]] in a field related to administration or management, or in the case of business jobs, a Bachelor of Commerce or a similar degree.

===United States of America===

====Undergraduate====
At the undergraduate level, the most common business program is the Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.).  However to manage technological areas, you need an undergraduate degree in a STEM area as preferred to Defense Acquisition University guidelines.  This is typically a four-year program that includes courses that give students an overview of the role of managers in planning and directing within an organization. Course topics include accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy, and other related areas. There are many other undergraduate degrees that include the study of management, such as [[Bachelor of Arts]] degrees with a major in business administration or management and Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for individuals aiming to work as bureaucrats in the government jobs. Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in business administration or management, which typically require one to two years of full-time study.

====Graduate====
At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or executives may choose to specialize in major subareas of management or business administration such as [[entrepreneurship]], human resources, [[international business]], [[organizational behavior]], [[organizational theory]], strategic management,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aom.org/Placement/AOM-Placement-Presentations.aspx|title=AOM Placement Presentations|publisher=}}</ref> [[accounting]], [[corporate finance]], entertainment, global management, [[healthcare management]], [[investment management]], sustainability and [[real estate]]. A Master of Business Administration (MBA) is the most popular professional degree at the master's level and can be obtained from many universities in the United States. MBA programs provide further education in management and leadership for graduate students. Other master's degrees in business and management include [[Master of Management]] (MM) and the [[Master of Science]] (M.Sc.) in business administration or management, which is typically taken by students aiming to become researchers or professors. There are also specialized master's degrees in administration for individuals aiming at careers outside of business, such as the Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree (also offered as a [[Master of Arts]] in [[Public Administration]] in some universities), for students aiming to become managers or executives in the public service and the [[Master of Health Administration]], for students aiming to become managers or executives in the health care and hospital sector.

Management doctorates are the most advanced [[terminal degree]]s in the field of business and management. Most individuals obtaining management doctorates take the programs to obtain the training in research methods, statistical analysis and writing academic papers that they will need to seek careers as researchers, senior consultants and/or professors in business administration or management. There are three main types of management doctorates: the Doctor of Management (D.M.), the Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.), and the [[Ph.D.]] in Business Administration or Management. In the 2010s, doctorates in business administration and management are available with many specializations.

===Good practices===
While management trends can change so fast, the long term trend in management has been defined by a market embracing diversity and a rising service industry. Managers are currently being trained to encourage greater equality for minorities and women in the workplace, by offering increased flexibility in working hours, better retraining, and innovative (and usually industry-specific) performance markers. Managers destined for the service sector are being trained to use unique measurement techniques, better worker support and more charismatic leadership styles.<ref>{{cite web|title=Four Ways to Be A Better Boss|url=https://www.randstadusa.com/workforce360/workforce-insights/4-ways-to-be-a-better-boss/229/|website=www.randstadusa.com|publisher=Randstad USA|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref> Human resources finds itself increasingly working with management in a training capacity to help collect management data on the success (or failure) of management actions with employees.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Role of HR in Uncertain Times|url=http://graphics.eiu.com/marketing/pdf/Oracle_HR.pdf|website=Economist Intelligence Unit|publisher=Economist Intelligence Unit|accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Management}}
*[[Educational management]]
*[[Outline of business management]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{Library resources about|onlinebooks=yes}}
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