View source for Open-source model

{{short description|software development model encouraging open collaboration}}
{{original synthesis|article|date=March 2016}}

The '''open-source model''' is a decentralized [[software development]] model that encourages [[open collaboration]].<ref name="doi.org">Levine, Sheen S., & Prietula, M. J. (2013). [https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1096442 Open Collaboration for Innovation: Principles and Performance]. ''Organization Science'', {{doi|10.1287/orsc.2013.0872}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jo4hAQAAIAAJ|title=The cathedral and the bazaar: musings on Linux and Open Source by an accidental revolutionary|last=Raymond|first=Eric S.|publisher=OReilly|year=2001|isbn=978-0-596-00108-7|authorlink=Eric S. Raymond}}{{page needed|date=November 2012}}</ref>
A main principle of [[open-source software development]] is [[peer production]], with products such as source code, [[blueprint]]s, and documentation freely available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in [[open-source appropriate technology]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Case for Open Source Appropriate Technology |journal=Environment, Development and Sustainability |volume=14 |issue= 3|pages=425–431 |year=2012 |doi=10.1007/s10668-012-9337-9 |url=https://www.academia.edu/1517361|last1=Pearce |first1=Joshua M }}</ref> and open-source drug discovery.<ref>[http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/sreelatha-menon-researchers-sans-borders/00/19/350429/ "Science 2.0 is here as CSIR resorts to open-source drug research for TB" Business Standard, 1 March 2009]</ref><ref>[http://openwetware.org/wiki/OSDDMalaria:GSK_Arylpyrrole_Series:Story_so_far "Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium]</ref>

Open source promotes universal access via an [[open-source license|open-source]] or [[free license]] to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lakhani|first=K.R.|last2=von Hippel|first2=E.|year=June 2003|title=How Open Source Software Works: Free User to User Assistance|url=

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048733302000951|journal=Research Policy|volume=32|issue=6|pages=923–943|doi=10.1016/S0048-7333(02)00095-1|hdl=1721.1/70028}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Proceedings of the SAICSIT 2010 Conference — Fountains of Computing Research|last=Gerber|first=A.|last2=Molefo|first2=O.|last3=Van der Merwe|first3=A.|publisher=ACM Press|year=2010|isbn=978-1-60558-950-3|editor-last=Kotze|editor-first=P.|pages=75–85|chapter=Documenting open-source migration processes for re-use|doi=10.1145/1899503.1899512|display-editors=3|chapterurl=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1899503.1899512|editor2-first=A.|editor2-last=Gerber|editor3-first=A.|editor3-last=van der Merwe|editor4-first=N.|editor4-last=Bidwell|citeseerx=10.1.1.1033.7791}}</ref> Before the phrase ''open source'' became widely adopted, developers and producers used a variety of other terms. ''Open source'' gained hold with the rise of the [[Internet]].<ref>{{harvnb|Weber|2004}}{{page needed|date=February 2014}}</ref> The [[open-source software movement]] arose to clarify [[copyright]], [[License|licensing]], [[Domain name|domain]], and consumer issues.

Generally, open source refers to a [[computer program]] in which the [[source code]] is available to the general public for use or modification from its original design. Open-source code is meant to be a collaborative effort, where programmers improve upon the source code and share the changes within the community. Code is released under the terms of a [[software license]]. Depending on the license terms, others may then download, modify, and publish their version (fork) back to the community.

Many large formal institutions have sprung up to support the development of the open-source movement, including the [[Apache Software Foundation]], which supports community projects such as the open-source framework [[Apache Hadoop]] and the open-source [[Hypertext Transfer Protocol|HTTP]] server [[Apache HTTP Server|Apache HTTP]].

==History==
{{main|History of free and open-source software}}The sharing of technical information predates the [[Internet]] and the personal computer considerably. For instance, in the early years of automobile development a group of capital [[monopoly|monopolists]] owned the rights to a [[2 cycle|2-cycle]] gasoline-engine patent originally filed by [[George B. Selden]].<ref name="carculture">{{cite book |author=James J. Flink |title=The Car Culture |publisher=MIT Press |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-262-56015-3 }}</ref> By controlling this patent, they were able to monopolize the industry and force car manufacturers to adhere to their demands, or risk a lawsuit.

In 1911, independent automaker [[Henry Ford]] won a challenge to the Selden patent. The result was that the Selden patent became virtually worthless and a new association (which would eventually become the [[Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association]]) was formed.<ref name="carculture" /> The new association instituted a cross-licensing agreement among all US automotive manufacturers: although each company would develop technology and file patents, these patents were shared openly and without the exchange of money among all the manufacturers.<ref name="carculture" /> By the time the US entered [[World War II]], 92 Ford patents and 515 patents from other companies were being shared among these manufacturers, without any exchange of money (or lawsuits).<ref name="carculture" />

Early instances of the free sharing of source code include [[IBM]]'s source releases of its [[operating system]]s and other programs in the 1950s and 1960s, and the [[SHARE (computing)|SHARE]] user group that formed to facilitate the exchange of software.<ref name="autogenerated172">{{cite book|title=IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry: An Economic History|last=Fisher|first=Franklin M.|publisher=Praeger|year=1983|isbn=978-0-03-063059-0|pages=172–9|author2=James W. McKie|author3=Richard B. Mancke}} IBM unbundled (began charging for) software 23 June 1969</ref><ref name="autogenerated2">[http://www.cozx.com/~dpitts/ibm7090.html Dave Pitts' IBM 7090 support] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150827134534/http://www.cozx.com/~dpitts/ibm7090.html |date=2015-08-27 }}{{spaced ndash}}An example of distributed source: Page contains a link to [[IBM 7090/94 IBSYS]] source, including [[COBOL]] and [[FORTRAN]] compilers.</ref> Beginning in the 1960s, [[ARPANET]] researchers used an open "[[Request for Comments]]" (RFC) process to encourage feedback in early telecommunication network protocols. This led to the birth of the early Internet in 1969.

The sharing of source code on the Internet began when the Internet was relatively primitive, with software distributed via [[UUCP]], [[Usenet]], [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]], and [[Gopher (protocol)|Gopher]]. [[BSD]], for example, was first widely distributed by posts to comp.os.linux on the Usenet, which is also where its development was discussed. [[Linux]] followed in this model.

=== Open source as a term ===
The term "open source" was first proposed by a group of people in the [[free software movement]] who were critical of the political agenda and moral philosophy implied in the term "free software" and sought to reframe the discourse to reflect a more commercially minded position.<ref>{{Cite journal| publisher = Stanford University| last = O'Mahony| first = Siobhan Clare| title = The emergence of a new commercial actor: Community managed software projects| location = Stanford, CA| date = 2002|pages=34–42}}</ref> In addition, the ambiguity of the term "free software" was seen as discouraging business adoption.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/open-source.html |title=Goodbye, "free software"; hello, "open source" |quote=The problem with it is twofold. First, ... the term "free" is very ambiguous ... Second, the term makes a lot of corporate types nervous.|author=[[Eric S. Raymond]]}}</ref><ref name="infoworld1983">{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/?id=yy8EAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA31&dq=us%20government%20public%20domain%20software&pg=PA31#v=onepage&q=us%20government%20public%20domain%20software&f=false |website=[[InfoWorld]] |date=1983-06-23|title=Free software - Free software is a junkyard of software spare parts |quote=''"In contrast to commercial software is a large and growing body of free software that exists in the public domain. Public-domain software is written by microcomputer hobbyists (also known as "hackers") many of whom are professional programmers in their work life. [...] Since everybody has access to source code, many routines have not only been used but dramatically improved by other programmers."'' |first=Tom |last=Shea |accessdate=2016-02-10}}</ref>
The group included [[Christine Peterson]], [[Todd Anderson]], [[Larry Augustin]], [[Jon Hall (programmer)|Jon Hall]], [[Sam Ockman]], [[Michael Tiemann]] and [[Eric S. Raymond]]. Peterson suggested "open source" at a meeting<ref name=osihistory>{{cite web|url=http://www.opensource.org/history |title=History of the OSI |date=19 September 2006 |first=Michael |last=Tiemann |authorlink=Michael Tiemann |publisher=[[Open Source Initiative]] |accessdate=23 August 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20021001164015/http://www.opensource.org/docs/history.php |archivedate=1 October 2002 |df= }}</ref> held at [[Palo Alto, California]], in reaction to [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]]'s announcement in January 1998 of a source code release for [[Netscape Navigator|Navigator]]. [[Linus Torvalds]] gave his support the following day, and Phil Hughes backed the term in ''[[Linux Journal]]''. [[Richard Stallman]], the founder of the free software movement, initially seemed to adopt the term, but later changed his mind.<ref name=osihistory/><ref name="rmsdissent">{{cite web|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/open-source-misses-the-point.html |title=Why Open Source misses the point of Free Software |publisher=fsf.org |date=2012-05-18 |accessdate=2012-11-14}}</ref> Netscape released its source code under the [[Netscape Public License]] and later under the [[Mozilla Public License]].<ref name="Muffatto000">{{cite book  | title = Open Source: A Multidisciplinary Approach  | first = Moreno  | last = Muffatto  | publisher = Imperial College Press  | year = 2006  | isbn = 978-1-86094-665-3 }}</ref>

Raymond was especially active in the effort to popularize the new term. He made the first public call to the free software community to adopt it in February 1998.<ref name="raymondCall">{{cite web|url=http://www.catb.org/~esr/open-source.html |title=Goodbye, "free software"; hello, "open source" |publisher=Catb.org |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref> Shortly after, he founded The [[Open Source Initiative]] in collaboration with [[Bruce Perens]].<ref name=osihistory/>

The term gained further visibility through an event organized in April 1998 by technology publisher [[Tim O'Reilly]]. Originally titled the "Freeware Summit" and later known as the "Open Source Summit",<ref name=opensourcesummit>{{cite web|url=http://linuxgazette.net/issue28/rossum.html |title=Open Source Summit |website=Linux Gazette |date=1998-04-10 |accessdate=2015-02-07 |first=Guido |last=van Rossum |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131229053622/http://linuxgazette.net/issue28/rossum.html |archivedate=29 December 2013}}</ref> the event was attended by the leaders of many of the most important free and open-source projects, including Linus Torvalds, [[Larry Wall]], [[Brian Behlendorf]], [[Eric Allman]], [[Guido van Rossum]], [[Michael Tiemann]], [[Paul Vixie]], [[Jamie Zawinski]], and Eric Raymond. At that meeting, alternatives to the term "free software" were discussed. Tiemann argued for "sourceware" as a new term, while Raymond argued for "open source". The assembled developers took a vote, and the winner was announced at a press conference the same evening.<ref name=opensourcesummit />

"Open source" has never managed to entirely supersede the older term "free software", giving rise to the combined term [[free and open-source software]] (FOSS).

==Economics==
{{main|Open-source economics}}
Some economists agree that open-source is an [[information good]]<ref>{{cite book|title=The economics and management of intellectual property : towards intellectual capitalism|last=Granstrand|first=Ove|publisher=E. Elgar|year=1999|isbn=978-1-85898-967-9|location=Cheltenham, UK}}</ref> or "knowledge good" with original work involving a significant amount of time, money, and effort. The cost of reproducing the work is low enough that additional users may be added at zero or near zero cost{{spaced ndash}}this is referred to as the [[marginal cost]] of a product. [[Copyright]] creates a monopoly so the price charged to consumers can be significantly higher than the marginal cost of production. This allows the author to recoup the cost of making the original work. Copyright thus creates access costs for consumers who value the work more than the marginal cost but less than the initial production cost. Access costs also pose problems for authors who wish to create a [[derivative work]]—such as a copy of a software program modified to fix a bug or add a feature, or a [[remix]] of a song—but are unable or unwilling to pay the copyright holder for the right to do so.

Being organized as effectively a "[[consumers' cooperative]]", open source eliminates some of the access costs of consumers and creators of derivative works by reducing the restrictions of copyright. Basic economic theory predicts that lower costs would lead to higher consumption and also more frequent creation of derivative works.  Organizations such as [[Creative Commons]] host websites where individuals can file for alternative "licenses", or levels of restriction, for their works.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://creativecommons.org/about/licenses/ |title=About The Licenses |publisher=Creative Commons |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>
These self-made protections free the general society of the costs of policing copyright infringement.

Others argue that since consumers do not pay for their copies, creators are unable to recoup the initial cost of production and thus have little economic incentive to create in the first place. By this argument, consumers would lose out because some of the goods they would otherwise purchase would not be available. In practice, content producers can choose whether to adopt a proprietary license and charge for copies, or an open license. Some goods which require large amounts of professional research and development, such as the [[pharmaceutical industry]] (which depends largely on [[patent]]s, not copyright for intellectual property protection) are almost exclusively proprietary, although increasingly sophisticated technologies are being developed on open-source principles.<ref>J.M. Pearce, ''[[Open-Source Lab (book)|Open-Source Lab]]: How to Build Your Own Hardware and Reduce Research Costs'', Elsevier, 2014</ref>

There is evidence that open-source development creates enormous value.<ref>[http://3dprintingindustry.com/2015/02/02/3d-printed-open-hardware-syringe-pump-value-800m/ 3D Printed Open Hardware Syringe Yields $800M Value, Study Finds]- ''3D Printing Industry'' 2-2-2015</ref> For example, in the context of [[open-source hardware]] design, digital designs are shared for free and anyone with access to digital manufacturing technologies (e.g. [[RepRap]] 3D printers) can replicate the product for the cost of materials.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wittbrodt | first1 = B.T. | last2 = Glover | first2 = A.G. | last3 = Laureto | first3 = J. | last4 = Anzalone | first4 = G.C. | last5 = Oppliger | first5 = D. | last6 = Irwin | first6 = J.L. | last7 = Pearce | first7 = J.M. | year = 2013 | title = Life-cycle economic analysis of distributed manufacturing with open-source 3-D printers | url = | journal = Mechatronics | volume = 23 | issue = 6| pages = 713–726 | doi = 10.1016/j.mechatronics.2013.06.002 }}</ref> The original sharer may receive feedback and potentially improvements on the original design from the [[peer production]] community.

===Licensing alternatives===
{{further|Business models for open-source software}}
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Smart phones.jpg|thumb|Google Android operating system]] -->
Alternative arrangements have also been shown to result in good creation outside of the proprietary license model. Examples include:{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

*[[File:Wikipedia-logo-en-big.png|thumb|Wikipedia is an example of a global application of the open source model.]]Creation for its own sake – For example, [[Wikipedia]] editors add content for recreation. Artists have a drive to create. Both communities benefit from free starting material.
* Voluntary after-the-fact donations – used by [[shareware]], [[street performer]]s, and [[public broadcasting]] in the United States.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* Patron – For example, [[open access]] publishing relies on institutional and government funding of research faculty, who also have a professional incentive to publish for reputation and career advancement. Works of the U.S. federal government are automatically released into the [[public domain]].{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* [[Freemium]] – Give away a limited version for free and charge for a premium version (potentially using a [[dual license]]).
* Give away the product and charge something related – Charge for support of open-source [[enterprise software]], give away music but charge for concert admission.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* Give away work in order to gain market share – Used by artists, in corporate software to spoil a dominant competitor (for example in the [[browser wars]] and the [[Android operating system]]).{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}
* For own use – Businesses or individual software developers often create software to solve a problem, bearing the full cost of initial creation. They will then open source the solution, and benefit from the improvements others make for their own needs. Communalizing the maintenance burden distributes the cost across more users; [[free rider problem|free riders]] can also benefit without undermining the creation process.

==Open-source applications==
[[File:121212 2 OpenSwissKnife.png|thumb|250px|Open-source model application domains]]
Social and political views have been affected by the growth of the concept of open source. Advocates in one field often support the expansion of open source in other fields. But [[Eric Raymond]] and other founders of the [[open-source movement]] have sometimes publicly argued against speculation about applications outside software, saying that strong arguments for software openness should not be weakened by overreaching into areas where the story may be less compelling. The broader impact of the open-source movement, and the extent of its role in the development of new information sharing procedures, remain to be seen.

The [[open-source movement]] has inspired increased [[transparency (humanities)|transparency]] and liberty in [[biotechnology]] research, for example by [http://Therapoid.net/ open therapeutics] and [[CAMBIA]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cambia.org/daisy/cambia/470.html |title='Open-Source Practices for Biotechnology' — Cambia — Enabling Innovation |publisher=Cambia |accessdate=2012-10-25 |archive-date=1 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101235609/http://www.cambia.org/daisy/cambia/470.html |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Even the research methodologies themselves can benefit from the application of open-source principles.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pearce|first=Joshua M.|title=Open Source Research in Sustainability|journal=Sustainability: The Journal of Record|date=1 August 2012|volume=5|issue=4|pages=238–243|doi=10.1089/sus.2012.9944}}</ref> It has also given rise to the rapidly-expanding [[open-source hardware]] movement.

===Computer software===
{{main|Free and open-source software}}
[[File:Blender 2.59 Startup.png|right|thumb|[[Blender (software)|Blender]] is an open-source 3D graphics editor.]]
[[File:Android 6.0-en.png|thumb|150px|[[Android (operating system)|Android]], the most popular mobile operating system (as of Nov 2012)<ref name="idcQ3">{{cite web |url=http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS23771812 |title=Android Marks Fourth Anniversary Since Launch with 75.0% Market Share in Third Quarter, According to IDC — prUS23771812 |publisher=Idc.com |accessdate=2012-11-03 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103041944/http://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS23771812 |archivedate=3 November 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>]]
[[Open-source software]] is software which source code is published and made available to the public, enabling anyone to copy, modify and redistribute the source code without paying royalties or fees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lucidimagination.com/solutions/value-of-open-source |title=FAQ &#124; LucidWorks |publisher=Lucidimagination.com |date=2012-08-08 |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>
Open-source code can evolve through community cooperation. These communities are composed of individual programmers as well as large companies. Some of the individual programmers who start an open-source project may end up establishing companies offering products or services incorporating open-source programs.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} Examples of open-source software products are:<ref>{{cite web|author=Randolph Metcalfe |url=http://www.oss-watch.ac.uk/resources/softwareexamples.xml |title=Examples of Open Source Software |publisher=OSS Watch |date=2012-01-31 |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>
*[[Linux]] (that much of world's server parks are running)
*[[MediaWiki]] (that Wikipedia is based upon)
* Many more:
** [[List of free and open-source software packages]]
** [[List of formerly proprietary software]]

===Electronics===
[[File:Open-source-hardware-logo.svg|thumb|100px|[[Open Source Hardware]] logo]]
[[Open-source hardware]] is hardware which initial specification, usually in a software format, is published and made available to the public, enabling anyone to copy, modify and redistribute the hardware and source code without paying royalties or fees. Open-source hardware evolves through community cooperation. These communities are composed of individual hardware/software developers, hobbyists, as well as very large companies. Examples of open-source hardware initiatives are:
* [[Openmoko]]: a family of open-source [[mobile phone]]s, including the hardware specification and the [[operating system]].
* [[OpenRISC]]: an open-source microprocessor family, with architecture specification licensed under [[GNU GPL]] and implementation under [[LGPL]].
* [[Sun Microsystems]]'s [[OpenSPARC]] T1 Multicore processor. Sun has released it under GPL.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opensparc.net/ |title=An Open Source Processor used in Sun SPARC Servers |publisher=OpenSPARC |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>
* [[Arduino]], a microcontroller platform for hobbyists, artists and designers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arduino.cc/ |title=Arduino — HomePage |publisher=Arduino.cc |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>
* [[GizmoSphere]], an open-source development platform for the embedded design community; the site includes code downloads and hardware schematics along with free user guides, spec sheets and other documentation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gizmosphere.org |title=GizmoSphere Website |publisher=gizmosphere.org |year = 2013}}</ref>
* [[Simputer]], an open hardware [[handheld computer]], designed in [[India]] for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inappropriate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Handhelds/Open_Source/Simputer/ |website=Open Directory |title=Computers: Systems: Handhelds: Open Source: Simputer |publisher=Dmoz.org |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>
* [[LEON]]: A family of open-source microprocessors distributed in a library with peripheral [[IP core]]s, open [[SPARC]] V8 specification, implementation available under [[GNU GPL]].
* [[Tinkerforge]]: A system of open-source stackable microcontroller building blocks. Allows control of motors and read out sensors with the programming languages C, C++, C#, Object Pascal, Java, PHP, Python and Ruby over a USB or Wifi connection on Windows, Linux and Mac OS X. All of the hardware is licensed under [[CERN Open Hardware License|CERN OHL]] (CERN Open Hardware License).
* [[Open Compute Project]]: designs for computer data center including power supply, Intel motherboard, AMD motherboard, chassis, racks, battery cabinet, and aspects of electrical and mechanical design.<ref name = "OpenComputeProj">{{cite web
 | title = Download Specs & Designs
 | website = Open Compute Project website
 | publisher = Facebook Inc.
 | year = 2011
 | url = http://opencompute.org/specs/
 | accessdate = 2011-08-08
 | archive-date = 23 August 2011
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110823093349/http://opencompute.org/specs/
 | dead-url = yes
 }}</ref>
* [[Lasersaur]], an open-source [[laser cutter]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lasersaur.com/ |title=Lasersaur — HomePage |publisher=Lasersaur.com |accessdate=2013-05-25}}</ref>

===Food and beverages===
[[File:Voresol label medium.png|thumb|100px|[[Vores Øl|Vores Øl - An Open Source Beer]]]]
[[File:Barack Obama and Dakota Meyer sharing a beer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Barack Obama]] and [[Dakota Meyer]] drinking [[White House Honey Ale]] in 2011. The recipe is available for free.]]
Some publishers of [[open-access]] journals have argued that [[Open data|data]] from [[food science]] and [[gastronomy]] studies should be freely available to aid [[reproducibility]].<ref>http://blogs.biomedcentral.com/bmcblog/2013/12/02/mega-bites-how-open-data-and-gastronomy-are-proving-a-recipe-for-success/</ref> A number of people have published creative commons licensed recipe books.<ref>{{cite web|title=TEXTURE - A hydrocolloid recipe collection|author=Martin Lersch|url=http://blog.khymos.org/wp-content/2009/02/hydrocolloid-recipe-collection-v3.0.pdf}}</ref>

* [[Open-source cola]]s – cola soft drinks, similar to [[Coca-Cola]] and [[Pepsi]], whose recipe is open source and developed by volunteers. The taste is said to be comparable to that of the standard beverages. Most corporations producing beverages hold their formulas as closely guarded secrets.<ref name="octavio1">{{cite web|url=http://alfredo.octavio.net/soft_drink_formula.pdf|title=Open Cola Soft Drink Formula, Version 1.1.3 from Tyromaniac|publisher=Alfredo.octavio.net|accessdate=2012-10-25|archive-date=23 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723231716/http://alfredo.octavio.net/soft_drink_formula.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref>
* [[Free Beer]] (originally ''Vores Øl'') – is an open-source beer created by students at the [[IT University of Copenhagen|IT-University]] in [[Copenhagen]] together with [[Superflex]], an artist collective, to illustrate how open-source concepts might be applied outside the digital world.<ref>The concept expands upon a statement found in the [[Free Software Definition]]: "Free software is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as in 'free speech' not as in 'free beer.'"</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=[[Richard Stallman|Stallman, Richard M.]]|url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html |title=The Gnu Organisation: What is free software?|publisher=Gnu.org |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Cohn|first=David|title=Free Beer for Geeks|journal=Wired News|date=18 July 2005|url=https://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,68144,00.html?tw=wn_17culthead}}</ref>
* In 2002, the beer company [[Brewtopia]] in Australia started an open-source brewery and invited the general population to be involved in the development and ownership of the brewery, and to vote on the development of every aspect of its beer, Blowfly, and its road to market. In return for their feedback and input, individuals received shares in the company, which is now publicly traded on a stock exchange in Australia. The company has always adhered to its open-source roots and is the only beer company in the world that allows the public to design, customise and develop its own beers online.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://brewtopia.com.au/about|title=About Brewtopia|last=|first=|date=|website=Brewtopia|publisher=Brewtopia.com|accessdate=2017-07-16}}</ref>

===Digital content===
[[File:OK LOGO COLOUR RGB.svg|thumb|[[Open Knowledge Foundation]] logo]]
* Open-content projects organized by the Wikimedia Foundation – Sites such as Wikipedia and Wiktionary have embraced the open-content [[Creative Commons]] content licenses. These licenses were designed to adhere to principles similar to various open-source software development licenses. Many of these licenses ensure that content remains free for re-use, that source documents are made readily available to interested parties, and that changes to content are accepted easily back into the system. Important sites embracing open-source-like ideals are [[Project Gutenberg]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ |title=Project Gutenberg — free ebooks |publisher=Gutenberg.org |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref> and [[Wikisource]], both of which post many books on which the copyright has expired and are thus in the [[public domain]], ensuring that anyone has free, unlimited access to that content.
* [[Open ICEcat]] is an open catalog for the IT, CE and Lighting sectors with product data-sheets based on [[Open Content License]] agreement. The digital content are distributed in XML and URL formats.
*[[Google Sketchup]]'s [[3D Warehouse]] is an open-source design community centered around the use of proprietary software that's free.
* The [[University of Waterloo Stratford Campus]] invites students every year to use its three-storey Christie [[MicroTiles]] wall as a digital canvas for their creative work.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://uwaterloo.ca/stratford-campus/research/microtile-wall/ |title=Want to take 3 storeys to tell your story |publisher=uwaterloo.ca/stratford-campus |accessdate=2013-04-07 |archive-date=18 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130418020321/https://uwaterloo.ca/stratford-campus/research/microtile-wall |dead-url=yes }}</ref>

===Medicine===
* Pharmaceuticals – There have been several proposals for open-source pharmaceutical development,<ref>{{cite journal
 |author=Munos B
 |title=Can open-source R&D reinvigorate drug research?
 |journal=Nat Rev Drug Discov
 |volume=5
 |issue=9
 |pages=723–9
 |date=September 2006
 |pmid=16915233
 |doi=10.1038/nrd2131
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
 |vauthors=Maurer SM, Rai A, Sali A |title=Finding cures for tropical diseases: is open source an answer?
 |journal=PLoS Med.
 |volume=1
 |issue=3
 |pages=e56
 |date=December 2004
 |pmid=15630466
 |pmc=539047
 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0010056
 }}</ref> which led to the establishment of the Tropical Disease Initiative<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tropicaldisease.org/ |title=the Tropical Disease Initiative |publisher=Tropicaldisease.org |date=2009-07-16 |accessdate=2012-10-25 |archive-date=29 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129130739/http://tropicaldisease.org/ |dead-url=yes }}</ref> and the Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://openwetware.org/wiki/OSDDMalaria:GSK_Arylpyrrole_Series:Story_so_far |title=The Open Source Drug Discovery for Malaria Consortium |publisher=Openwetware.org |date=2012-12-14 |accessdate=2013-03-18}}</ref>
* Genomics – The term "open-source genomics" refers to the combination of rapid release of sequence data (especially raw reads) and crowdsourced analyses from bioinformaticians around the world that characterised the analysis of the [[2011 E. coli O104:H4 outbreak]].<ref>{{cite journal
 |author=Rohde H
 |title=Open-Source Genomic Analysis of Shiga-Toxin–Producing E. coli O104:H4
 |journal=N Engl J Med
 |year=2011
 |pmid=21793736
 |last2=Qin
 |first2=J
 |last3=Cui
 |first3=Y
 |last4=Li
 |first4=D
 |last5=Loman
 |first5=NJ
 |last6=Hentschke
 |first6=M
 |last7=Chen
 |first7=W
 |last8=Pu
 |first8=F
 |last9=Peng
 |first9=Y
 |last10=Li
 |first10=Junhua
 |last11=Xi
 |first11=Feng
 |last12=Li
 |first12=Shenghui
 |last13=Li
 |first13=Yin
 |last14=Zhang
 |first14=Zhaoxi
 |last15=Yang
 |first15=Xianwei
 |last16=Zhao
 |first16=Meiru
 |last17=Wang
 |first17=Peng
 |last18=Guan
 |first18=Yuanlin
 |last19=Cen
 |first19=Zhong
 |last20=Zhao
 |first20=Xiangna
 |last21=Christner
 |first21=Martin
 |last22=Kobbe
 |first22=Robin
 |last23=Loos
 |first23=Sebastian
 |last24=Oh
 |first24=Jun
 |last25=Yang
 |first25=Liang
 |last26=Danchin
 |first26=Antoine
 |last27=Gao
 |first27=George F.
 |last28=Song
 |first28=Yajun
 |last29=Li
 |first29=Yingrui
 |last30=Yang
 |first30=Huanming
 |volume=365
 |issue=8
 |pages=718–24
 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1107643
|display-authors=8
 }}</ref>
*  [[OpenEMR]] – OpenEMR is an ONC-ATB Ambulatory EHR 2011-2012 certified electronic health records and medical practice management application. It features fully integrated electronic health, records, practice management, scheduling, electronic billing, and is the base for many EHR programs. http://www.open-emr.org/

===Science and engineering===
[[File:Open Access logo PLoS white.svg|thumb|100px|[[Open access]]]]
* Research – The [[Science Commons]] was created as an alternative to the expensive legal costs of sharing and reusing scientific works in journals etc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sciencecommons.org/ |title=Science — Creative Commons |publisher=Sciencecommons.org |date=2010-11-17 |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>
* Research – [[The Open Source Science Project]] was created to increase the ability for students to participate in the research process by providing them access to microfunding{{spaced ndash}}which, in turn, offers non-researchers the opportunity to directly invest, and follow, cutting-edge scientific research. All data and methodology is subsequently published in an openly accessible manner under a Creative Commons fair use license.
* Research – [[The Open Solar Outdoors Test Field]] (OSOTF)<ref name="osotf">{{cite journal|last=Pearce|first=Joshua. M|author2=Adegboyega Babasola|author3=Rob Andrews|title=Open Solar Photovoltaic Systems Optimization|journal=Proceedings of the 16th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference|year=2012|pages=1–7|url=http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/features/conference/2012/papers/Pearce-Babasola-Andrews-queensu.pdf}}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> is a grid-connected [[photovoltaic]] test system, which continuously monitors the output of a number of photovoltaic modules and correlates their performance to a long list of highly accurate meteorological readings. The OSOTF is organized under open-source principles – All data and analysis is to be made freely available to the entire photovoltaic community and the general public.<ref name="osotf" /><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.appropedia.org/OSOTF |title=Open Solar Outdoors Test Field — Appropedia: The sustainability wiki |journal=Energy for Sustainable Development |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=379–388 |doi=10.1016/j.esd.2012.06.006 |accessdate=2012-10-25|year=2012 |last1=Buitenhuis |first1=A.J |last2=Pearce |first2=J.M }}</ref>
* Engineering – [[Hyperloop]], a form of high-speed transport proposed by entrepreneur [[Elon Musk]], which he describes as "an elevated, reduced-pressure tube that contains pressurized capsules driven within the tube by a number of linear electric motors".<ref>{{cite web|title=Hyperloop|url=http://www.teslamotors.com/blog/hyperloop|website=Tesla Motors website|accessdate=22 September 2013|last =Musk|first = Elon|authorlink = Elon Musk|date = 12 August 2013}}</ref>
* Construction – [[WikiHouse]] is an open-source project for designing and building [[house]]s.<ref name=LaBarre>{{cite web|last=LaBarre|first=Suzanne|title=WikiHouse, An Online Building Kit, Shows How To Make A House In 24 Hours|url=http://www.fastcodesign.com/1664873/wikihouse-an-online-building-kit-shows-how-to-make-a-house-in-24-hours|website=Co.Design|publisher=[[Fast Company (magazine)|Fast Company, Inc]]|accessdate=17 December 2013|date=25 August 2011}}</ref><ref name=Kingsley>{{cite web|last=Kingsley|first=Jeremy|title=The WikiHouse Revolution|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/future_tense/2012/02/wikihouse_the_diy_movement_and_architectural_innovation_.html|website=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|publisher=[[The Slate Group|The Slate Group, LLC]]|accessdate=17 December 2013|date=22 February 2012}}</ref>
* Energy research - The [[Open Energy Modelling Initiative]] promotes open-source models and open data in energy research and policy advice.

====Robotics====
{{Main|Open-source robotics}}
An open-source robot is a [[robot]] whose blueprints, schematics, or source code are released under an open-source model.

==== Transport ====
* Open Trip Planner – this code base is growing rapidly, with adoption in Portland, New York, The Netherlands and Helsinki.
* TravelSpirit – a greater level of 'super-architecture' ambition, to bring a range of open source projects together, in order to deliver 'Mobility as a Service'

===Fashion===
* [[Eyewear]] – In June 2013, an open-source eyewear brand, Botho, has started trading under the UK based Open Optics Ltd company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.botho.co.uk |title=Botho — The Open Source Eyewear Brand|publisher=www.botho.co.uk|accessdate=2012-06-24}}</ref>

===Other===
[[File:VIA OpenBook 1 M.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[VIA OpenBook]] is an open-source hardware laptop reference design.]]
* Open-source principles can be applied to technical areas such as digital communication protocols and data storage formats.
* [[Open-design movement|Open-design]] – which involves applying open-source methodologies to the design of artifacts and systems in the physical world. It is very nascent but has huge potential.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adciv.org/Open_collaborative_design |title=Open collaborative design |publisher=AdCiv |date=2010-07-29 |accessdate=2012-10-25 |archive-date=29 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629170541/http://adciv.org/Open_collaborative_design |dead-url=yes }}</ref>
* [[Open-source appropriate technology]] (OSAT) refers to technologies that are designed in the same fashion as [[free and open-source software]].<ref name="buitenhuis">A. J. Buitenhuis, I. Zelenika and J. M. Pearce, "[http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/pearce.pdf Open Design-Based Strategies to Enhance Appropriate Technology Development] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725131916/http://nciia.org/sites/default/files/pearce.pdf |date=25 July 2018 }}", ''Proceedings of the 14th Annual National Collegiate Inventors and Innovators Alliance Conference : Open'', 25–27 March 2010, pp. 1-12.</ref> These technologies must be "[[appropriate technology]]" (AT) – meaning technology that is designed with special consideration to the environmental, ethical, cultural, social, political, and economic aspects of the community it is intended for. An example of this application is the use of open-source 3D printers like the [[RepRap]] to manufacture appropriate technology.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=J.M. Pearce |author2=C. Morris Blair |author3=K.J. Laciak |author4=R. Andrews |author5=A. Nosrat |author6=I. Zelenika-Zovko |title=3-D Printing of Open Source Appropriate Technologies for Self-Directed Sustainable Development |journal=Journal of Sustainable Development |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=17–29 |year=2010 |url=http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jsd/article/view/6984 |doi=10.5539/jsd.v3n4p17}}</ref>
* [[Open-source learning|Teaching]] – which involves applying the concepts of open source to instruction using a shared web space as a platform to improve upon learning, organizational, and management challenges. An example of an Open-source courseware is the Java Education & Development Initiative (JEDI).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kenai.com/projects/jedi |title=JEDI: The Open Source {{not a typo|Curricullum}} — Project Kenai |publisher=Kenai.com |accessdate=2012-10-25 |archive-date=16 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516040735/http://kenai.com/projects/jedi |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Other examples include [[Khan Academy]] and [[wikiversity]]. At the university level, the use of [[Open-source appropriate technology|open-source-appropriate technology]] classroom projects has been shown to be successful in forging the connection between science/engineering and social benefit:<ref>{{cite journal |author=J.M. Pearce |title=Teaching Physics Using Appropriate Technology Projects |journal=The Physics Teacher |volume=45 |pages=164–7 |year=2007 |url=http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=PHTEAH000045000003000164000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes |doi=10.1119/1.2709675 |issue=3|bibcode=2007PhTea..45..164P }}</ref> This approach has the potential to use university students' access to resources and testing equipment in furthering the development of [[appropriate technology]]. Similarly OSAT has been used as a tool for improving [[service learning]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Joshua M. Pearce |title=Appropedia as a Tool for Service Learning in Sustainable Development |journal=Journal of Education for Sustainable Development |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=45–53 |year=2009 |url=http://jsd.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/3/1/45 |doi=10.1177/097340820900300112|citeseerx=10.1.1.620.246 }} [http://hdl.handle.net/1974/5306 Q-Space pre-print]</ref><ref>S. Murphy and N. Saleh, "[http://hdl.handle.net/1974/5171 Information literacy in CEAB's accreditation criteria: the hidden attribute]", In ''Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Innovation and Practices in Engineering Design and Engineering Education'', 2009. Hamilton, ON 27–29 July 2009.</ref>
* There are few examples of business information (methodologies, advice, guidance, practices) using the open-source model, although this is another case where the potential is enormous. [[ITIL]] is close to open source. It uses the [[The Cathedral and the Bazaar|Cathedral model]] (no mechanism exists for user contribution) and the content must be bought for a fee that is small by business consulting standards (hundreds of British pounds). Various checklists are published by government, banks or accounting firms.
* An open-source group emerged in 2012 that is attempting to design a firearm that may be downloaded from the internet and "printed" on a [[3D printing|3D Printer]].<ref name=f20120823>{{cite news|last=Greenberg|first=Andy|title='Wiki Weapon Project' Aims To Create A Gun Anyone Can 3D-Print At Home|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2012/08/23/wiki-weapon-project-aims-to-create-a-gun-anyone-can-3d-print-at-home/|accessdate=2012-08-27|newspaper=Forbes|date=2012-08-23}}</ref> Calling itself [[Defense Distributed]], the group wants to facilitate "a working plastic gun that could be downloaded and reproduced by anybody with a 3D printer".<ref name=pcm20120824>{{cite news|last=Poeter|first=Damon|title=Could a 'Printable Gun' Change the World?|url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2408899,00.asp|accessdate=2012-08-27|newspaper=PC Magazine|date=2012-08-24}}</ref>
* Agrecol, a German NGO has developed an open-source licence  for seeds operating with [[copyleft]] and created OpenSourceSeeds as a respective service provider. Breeders that apply the license to their new invented material prevent it from the threat of privatisation and help to establish a commons-based breeding sector as an alternative to the commercial sector.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bollier.org/blog/new-open-source-license-fights-enclosure-seeds|title=New Open Source License Fights the Enclosure of Seeds {{!}} David Bollier|website=www.bollier.org|language=en|access-date=2017-07-03}}</ref>
* [[Open Source Ecology]], farm equipment and global village construction kit.

==Society and culture==
{{disputed section|date=December 2016}}
The rise of open-source culture in the 20th century resulted from a growing tension between creative practices that involve require access to content that is often [[copyright]]ed, and restrictive intellectual property laws and policies governing access to copyrighted content. The two main ways in which intellectual property laws became more restrictive in the 20th century were extensions to the term of copyright (particularly in the [[United States]]) and penalties, such as those articulated in the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] (DMCA), placed on attempts to circumvent anti-piracy technologies.<ref name="copyright1998">{{cite web|url=http://www.copyright.gov/legislation/dmca.pdf |title=The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 |format=PDF |date = December 1998|author = US Copyright Office |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>

Although artistic appropriation is often permitted under [[fair use|fair-use]] doctrines, the complexity and ambiguity of these doctrines creates an atmosphere of uncertainty among cultural practitioners. Also, the protective actions of copyright owners create what some call a "[[Chilling effect (term)|chilling effect]]" among cultural practitioners.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chillingeffects.org/ |title=Chilling Effects Clearinghouse |publisher=Chillingeffects.org |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>

The idea of an "open-source" culture runs parallel to "[[Free Culture movement|Free Culture]]," but is substantively different. ''Free culture'' is a term derived from the [[free software movement]], and in contrast to that vision of culture, proponents of open-source culture (OSC) maintain that some intellectual property law needs to exist to protect cultural producers. Yet they propose a more nuanced position than corporations have traditionally sought. Instead of seeing intellectual property law as an expression of instrumental rules intended to uphold either natural rights or desirable outcomes, an argument for OSC takes into account diverse goods (as in "the Good life") and ends.

Sites such as [[ccMixter]] offer up free web space for anyone willing to license their work under a [[Creative Commons]] license. The resulting cultural product is then available to download free (generally accessible) to anyone with an Internet connection.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Open source software development – Just another case of collective invention?|url=http://ccmixter.org/about|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fccmixter.org%2Fabout&date=2011-12-22|archivedate=2011-12-22}}</ref> Older analog technologies such as the [[telephone]] or [[television]] have limitations on the kind of interaction users can have.

Through various technologies such as [[peer-to-peer]] networks and [[blogs]], cultural producers can take advantage of vast [[social networks]] to distribute their products. As opposed to traditional media distribution, redistributing digital media on the Internet can be virtually costless. Technologies such as [[BitTorrent (protocol)|BitTorrent]] and [[Gnutella]] take advantage of various characteristics of the Internet protocol ([[TCP/IP]]) in an attempt to totally decentralize file distribution.

{{further|Open-source software movement}}

===Government===
* [[Open politics]] (sometimes known as ''Open-source politics'') is a political process that uses Internet technologies such as blogs, email and polling to provide for a rapid feedback mechanism between political organizations and their supporters. There is also an alternative conception of the term ''Open-source politics'' which relates to the development of public policy under a set of rules and processes similar to the open-source software movement.
* [[Open-source governance]] is similar to open-source politics, but it applies more to the democratic process and promotes the freedom of information.
* The [[South Korean government]] wants to increase its use of free and open-source software, in order to decrease its dependence on proprietary software solutions. It plans to make open standards a requirement, to allow the government to choose between multiple operating systems and web browsers. Korea's Ministry of Science, ICT & Future Planning is also preparing ten pilots on using open-source software distributions.<ref>https://joinup.ec.europa.eu/community/osor/news/south-korean-government-switch-open-source</ref>

===Ethics===
Open-source ethics is split into two strands:
* Open-source ethics as an ethical school – Charles Ess and David Berry are researching whether ethics can learn anything from an open-source approach. Ess famously even defined the [[Association of Internet Researchers|AoIR]] Research Guidelines as an example of open-source ethics.<ref>[http://flosshub.org/sites/flosshub.org/files/berry2.pdf Berry (2004) Internet Ethics: Privacy, Ethics and Alienation{{spaced ndash}}An Open Source Approach.]{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} (PDF file)</ref>
* Open-source ethics as a professional body of rules – This is based principally on the computer ethics school, studying the questions of ethics and professionalism in the computer industry in general and software development in particular.<ref>{{cite journal |author=El-Emam, K |title=Ethics and Open Source |journal=Empirical Software Engineering |volume=6 |issue=4 |year=2001 |url=http://springerlink.metapress.com/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=hf0bld3qlk0unn8f8x2m&referrer=parent&backto=issue,2,12;journal,14,33;linkingpublicationresults,1:100262,1#ContactOfAuthor1}}</ref>

===Religion===
Irish philosopher Richard Kearney has used the term "open-source Hinduism" to refer to the way historical figures such as Mohandas Gandhi and Swami Vivekananda worked upon this ancient tradition.<ref>{{cite book |first=Richard |last=Kearney |title=Anatheism: Returning to God After God |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRiTJ_6JFYYC&pg=PR13 |year=2011 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-14789-7 |page=xiii}}</ref>

===Media===
[[Open-source journalism]] formerly referred to the standard journalistic techniques of news gathering and fact checking, reflecting ''[[open-source intelligence]]'' a similar term used in military intelligence circles. Now, ''open-source journalism'' commonly refers to forms of innovative publishing of [[online journalism]], rather than the sourcing of news stories by a professional journalist. In the 25 December 2006 issue of TIME magazine this is referred to as [[user generated content|user created content]] and listed alongside more traditional open-source projects such as [[OpenSolaris]] and [[Linux]].

[[Blog|Weblogs]], or blogs, are another significant platform for open-source culture. Blogs consist of periodic, reverse chronologically ordered posts, using a technology that makes webpages easily updatable with no understanding of design, code, or [[file transfer]] required. While corporations, political campaigns and other formal institutions have begun using these tools to distribute information, many blogs are used by individuals for personal expression, political organizing, and socializing. Some, such as [[LiveJournal]] or [[WordPress]], utilize open-source software that is open to the public and can be modified by users to fit their own tastes. Whether the code is open or not, this format represents a nimble tool for people to borrow and re-present culture; whereas traditional websites made the illegal reproduction of culture difficult to regulate, the mutability of blogs makes "open sourcing" even more uncontrollable since it allows a larger portion of the population to replicate material more quickly in the public sphere.

[[Messageboards]] are another platform for open-source culture. Messageboards (also known as discussion boards or forums), are places online where people with similar interests can congregate and post messages for the community to read and respond to. Messageboards sometimes have moderators who enforce community standards of etiquette such as banning users who are [[spamming|spammers]]. Other common board features are private messages (where users can send messages to one another) as well as chat (a way to have a real time conversation online) and image uploading. Some messageboards use [[phpBB]], which is a free open-source package. Where blogs are more about individual expression and tend to revolve around their authors, messageboards are about creating a conversation amongst its users where information can be shared freely and quickly. Messageboards are a way to remove intermediaries from everyday life—for instance, instead of relying on commercials and other forms of advertising, one can ask other users for frank reviews of a product, movie or CD. By removing the cultural middlemen, messageboards help speed the flow of information and exchange of ideas.

[[OpenDocument]] is an [[open format|open]] [[document file format]] for saving and exchanging editable office documents such as text documents (including memos, reports, and books), [[spreadsheet]]s, charts, and presentations. Organizations and individuals that store their data in an open format such as OpenDocument avoid being [[Vendor lock-in|locked into]] a single software vendor, leaving them free to switch software if their current vendor goes out of business, raises their prices, changes their software, or changes their [[software license|licensing]] terms to something less favorable.

[[Open-source film|Open-source movie production]] is either an open call system in which a changing crew and cast collaborate in movie production, a system in which the end result is made available for re-use by others or in which exclusively open-source products are used in the production. The 2006 movie [[Elephants Dream]] is said to be the "world's first open movie",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elephantsdream.org/ |title=Elephants Dream |publisher=Elephants Dream |date=2006-08-13 |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref> created entirely using [[open-source technology]].

An open-source documentary film has a production process allowing the open contributions of archival material [[footage]], and other filmic elements, both in unedited and edited form, similar to crowdsourcing. By doing so, on-line contributors become part of the process of creating the film, helping to influence the editorial and visual material to be used in the documentary, as well as its thematic development. The first open-source documentary film is the non-profit "[[The American Revolution]]", which went into development in 2006, and will examine the role media played in the cultural, social and political changes from 1968 to 1974 through the story of radio station WBCN-FM in Boston.<ref>"Web Power to the People," The Boston Herald, 29 September 2005</ref><ref>"The Glory Days of the Rock of Boston," Boston Globe, Op-Ed, 18 July 2009.</ref><ref>"'BCN Documentary Looks for Archival Contributors," Boston Herald, 11 August 2009</ref><ref>"WBCN and The American Revolution," The Huffington Post, 11 August 2009</ref> The film is being produced by Lichtenstein Creative Media and the non-profit Filmmakers Collaborative. Open Source Cinema is a website to create Basement Tapes, a feature documentary about copyright in the digital age, co-produced by the National Film Board of Canada.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nfb.ca |title=Watch Documentaries and Animated Films Online |publisher=NFB.ca |date=2012-08-27 |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>
[[Open-source film|Open-source film-making]] refers to a form of film-making that takes a method of idea formation from open-source software, but in this case the 'source' for a filmmaker is raw unedited footage rather than programming code. It can also refer to a method of film-making where the process of creation is 'open' i.e. a disparate group of contributors, at different times contribute to the final piece.

[[Open-IPTV]] is [[IPTV]] that is not limited to one recording studio, production studio, or cast. Open-IPTV uses the Internet or other means to pool efforts and resources together to create an online community that all contributes to a show.

===Education===
[[File:Global Open Educational Resources Logo.svg|thumb|100px|[[Open Educational Resources]] logo]]
Within the academic community, there is discussion about expanding what could be called the "intellectual commons" (analogous to the [[Creative Commons]]). Proponents of this view have hailed the [[OpenStax CNX|Connexions]] Project at [[Rice University]], [[MIT OpenCourseWare|OpenCourseWare]] project at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], [[Eugene Thacker]]'s article on "open-source DNA", the "Open Source Cultural Database", [[Salman Khan (educator)|Salman Khan]]'s [[Khan Academy]] and [[Wikipedia]] as examples of applying open source outside the realm of computer software.

[[Open-source curriculum|Open-source curricula]] are instructional resources whose digital source can be freely used, distributed and modified.

Another strand to the academic community is in the area of research. Many funded research projects produce software as part of their work. There is an increasing interest in making the outputs of such projects available under an open-source license. In the UK the [[Jisc|Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC)]] has developed a policy on open-source software. JISC also funds a development service called [[OSS Watch]] which acts as an advisory service for higher and further education institutions wishing to use, contribute to and develop open-source software.

On 30 March 2010, President Barack Obama signed the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, which included $2 billion over four years to fund the [[TAACCCT|TAACCCT program]], which is described as "the largest OER (open education resources) initiative in the world and uniquely focused on creating curricula in partnership with industry for credentials in vocational industry sectors like manufacturing, health, energy, transportation, and IT".<ref>http://openeducation2013.sched.org/event/23553161b01967fd7ff58eea22ce24b2#.U_qxw2Mpft8</ref>

===Innovation communities===
The principle of sharing pre-dates the open-source movement; for example, the free sharing of information has been institutionalized in the scientific enterprise since at least the 19th century. Open-source principles have always been part of the scientific community. The sociologist [[Robert K. Merton]] described the four basic elements of the community—universal ism (an international perspective), communal ism (sharing information), disinterestedness (removing one's personal views from the scientific inquiry) and organized skepticism (requirements of proof and review) that accurately describe the scientific community today.

These principles are, in part, complemented by US law's focus on protecting expression and method but not the ideas themselves. There is also a tradition of publishing research results to the scientific community instead of keeping all such knowledge proprietary. One of the recent initiatives in scientific publishing has been [[Open access (publishing)|open access]]—the idea that research should be published in such a way that it is free and available to the public. There are currently many open access journals where the information is available free online, however most journals do charge a fee (either to users or libraries for access). The [[Budapest Open Access Initiative]] is an international effort with the goal of making all research articles available free on the Internet.

The [[National Institutes of Health]] has recently proposed a policy on "Enhanced Public Access to NIH Research Information". This policy would provide a free, searchable resource of NIH-funded results to the public and with other international repositories six months after its initial publication. The NIH's move is an important one because there is significant amount of public funding in scientific research. Many of the questions have yet to be answered—the balancing of profit vs. public access, and ensuring that desirable standards and incentives do not diminish with a shift to open access.

Farmavita.Net is a community of pharmaceuticals executives that has recently proposed a new business model of open-source pharmaceuticals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.farmavita.net/content/view/336/84/ |title=Pharmaceutical Licensing Network — Open Source Pharmaceuticals — New Business Model |publisher=Farmavita.Net |date=2007-01-12 |accessdate=2012-10-28}}</ref> The project is targeted to development and sharing of know-how for manufacture of essential and life-saving medicines. It is mainly dedicated to the countries with less developed economies where local pharmaceutical research and development resources are insufficient for national needs. It will be limited to generic (off-patent) medicines with established use. By definition, a medicinal product has a "well-established use" if is used for at least 15 years, with recognized efficacy and an acceptable level of safety. In that event, the expensive clinical test and trial results could be replaced by appropriate scientific literature.

[[Benjamin Franklin]] was an early contributor eventually donating all his inventions including the [[Franklin stove]], [[bifocals]], and the [[lightning rod]] to the public domain.

New NGO communities are starting to use the open-source technology as a tool. One example is the Open Source Youth Network started in 2007 in Lisboa by ISCA members.<ref>[http://www.isca-web.org/english/youth/yource/thenetwork] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070319051530/http://www.isca-web.org/english/youth/yource/thenetwork|date=19 March 2007}}</ref>

[[Open innovation]] is also a new emerging concept which advocate putting R&D in a common pool. The [[Eclipse (software)|Eclipse]] platform is openly presenting itself as an Open innovation network.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eclipse.org/org/foundation/membersminutes/20070920MembersMeeting/07.09.12-Eclipse-Open-Innovation.pdf |title=Eclipse|publisher=Eclipse.org|accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>

===Arts and recreation===
Copyright protection is used in the performing arts and even in athletic activities. Some groups have attempted to remove copyright from such practices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yogaunity.org |title=Open Source Yoga Unity — Home |publisher=Yogaunity.org |accessdate=2012-10-25}}</ref>

In 2012, Russian music composer, scientist and [[Russian Pirate Party]] member Victor Argonov presented detailed raw files of his electronic opera "2032"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://argonov.ru/2032.html |title=Техно-опера "2032: Легенда о несбывшемся грядущем" |publisher=Argonov.ru |accessdate=2013-06-07}}</ref> under free license [[Creative Commons license|CC-BY-NC 3.0]]. This opera was originally composed and published in 2007 by Russian label [[MC Entertainment]] as a commercial product, but then the author changed its status to free. In his blog [http://argonov.livejournal.com] he said that he decided to open raw files (including wav, midi and other used formats) to the public in order to support worldwide pirate actions against [[SOPA]] and [[Personal Information Protection Act|PIPA]]. Several Internet resources,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://muznews.rockzvuk.com/news/pervaja_v_mire_muzykalnaja_opera_s_otkrytymi_iskhodnikami/2012-01-25-202 |title=Первая в мире музыкальная опера с открытыми исходниками — 25 Января 2012 — Новости музыки и шоубизнеса |publisher=Muznews.rockzvuk.com |accessdate=2013-06-07 |archive-date=28 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328055611/http://muznews.rockzvuk.com/news/pervaja_v_mire_muzykalnaja_opera_s_otkrytymi_iskhodnikami/2012-01-25-202 |dead-url=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linux.org.ru/forum/talks/7294092 |title=Музыкальная опера "2032" становится opensource — Talks — Форум|publisher=Linux.org.ru |accessdate=2013-06-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://netskop.ru/kulmztura/news_2012-01-19-16-40-02-974.html |title=Первая в мире музыкальная опера с открытыми исходниками |publisher=Netskop.ru |accessdate=2013-06-07}}</ref> called "2032" the first open-source musical opera in history.

=== Other related movements ===
{{cleanup split|Open-source software movement|date=November 2016}}

The following are events and applications that have been developed via the open source community, and echo the ideologies of the open source movement.<ref name="ref_e_TnL">{{cite journal|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ757139&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ757139|title=The case for open source: Open source has made significant leaps in recent years. what does it have to offer education?|year=2007|journal= Technology & Learning|volume= 27|issue=7|page= 16}}</ref>

'''[[OpenCourseWare|Open Education Consortium]]'''&nbsp;— an organization composed of various colleges that support open source and share some of their material online. This organization, headed by [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], was established to aid in the exchange of open source educational materials.

'''[[Wikipedia]]'''&nbsp;— user-generated [[Internet encyclopedia project|online encyclopedia]] with sister projects in academic areas, such as [[Wikiversity]]&nbsp;— a community dedicated to the creation and exchange of learning materials<ref name="ref_e_Warger">Warger, T. 
(2002). [http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/eqm0233.pdf The Open Source Movement] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717100415/http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/eqm0233.pdf |date=17 July 2011 }}. Retrieved 22 November 2009, from Education Resources Information Center</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}

'''[[Project Gutenberg]]'''&nbsp;— prior to the existence of [[Google Scholar]] Beta, this was the first supplier of [[E-book|electronic books]] and the very first free library project<ref name="ref_e_Warger" />{{failed verification|date=March 2016}}

'''Synthetic Biology'''- This new technology is potentially important because it promises to enable cheap, lifesaving new drugs as well as helping to yield biofuels that may help to solve our energy problem. Although synthetic biology has not yet come out of its "lab" stage, it has potential to become industrialized in the near future. In order to industrialize open source science, there are some scientists who are trying to build their own brand of it.<ref>Wilson Center. (2009). [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ondemand/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.play&mediaid=09AE937D-D3F4-4501-4BBEF8D8F8EED0CD Synthetic Biology: Feasibility of the Open Source Movement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324170602/http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ondemand/index.cfm?fuseaction=home.play&mediaid=09AE937D-D3F4-4501-4BBEF8D8F8EED0CD |date=24 March 2010 }}. Wislson On Demand Center.</ref>

=== Ideologically-related movements ===
The [[open access|open-access movement]] is a movement that is similar in ideology to the open source movement. Members of this movement maintain that academic material should be readily available to provide help with “future research, assist in teaching and aid in academic purposes.” The Open access movement aims to eliminate subscription fees and licensing restrictions of academic materials<ref name="ref_a4">Harnad, S. (14 November 2009). [http://www.e-zine-articles.com/access-movement-implications-future-aca Zine & Articles: Open Access Movement and Its Implications for the Future of Academic Writing]. Retrieved 22 November 2009.</ref>

The [[free-culture movement]] is a movement that seeks to achieve a culture that engages in collective freedom via freedom of expression, free public access to knowledge and information, full demonstration of creativity and innovation in various arenas and promotion of citizen liberties.<ref name="FreeCulture">Students For Free Culture. (2009). [http://freeculture.org/ Main Page]. Retrieved 22 November 2009, from free culture.org</ref>{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}

[[Creative Commons]] is an organization that “develops, supports, and stewards legal and technical infrastructure that maximizes digital creativity, sharing, and innovation.” It encourages the use of protected properties online for research, education, and creative purposes in pursuit of a universal access.  Creative Commons provides an infrastructure through a set of copyright licenses and tools that creates a better balance within the realm of “all rights reserved” properties.<ref name="Creative Commons">{{cite web|url=https://creativecommons.org/|title=Creative Commons Organization|publisher=Creative Commons|accessdate=2011-10-20}}</ref> The Creative Commons license offers a slightly more lenient alternative to “all rights reserved” copyrights for those who do not wish to exclude the use of their material.<ref>{{cite web|title=How to find Creative Commons images on Flickr|url=http://www.newmediarights.org/open_source/licensing/creative_commons/how_find_creative_commons_images_flickr|website=New Media Rights|accessdate=2011-10-20}}</ref>

[[The Zeitgeist Movement]] is an international social movement that advocates a transition into a [[sustainability|sustainable]] "resource-based economy" based on [[collaboration]] in which monetary incentives are replaced by commons-based ones with everyone [[sharing economy|having access]] to everything (from code to products) as in "open source everything".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Dostaler|first1=Kim|title=The Zeitgeist Movement: Getting to the Root of the Problem|url=http://truththeory.com/2012/07/19/the-zeitgeist-movement-getting-to-the-root-of-the-problem/|accessdate=10 June 2015|date=19 July 2012|archive-date=12 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150612050645/http://truththeory.com/2012/07/19/the-zeitgeist-movement-getting-to-the-root-of-the-problem/|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Dobson|first1=Stuart|title=Forget the Class War, How to Win the Fight Against the Elite|url=http://blog.thezeitgeistmovement.com/blog/stuart-dobson/forget-class-war-how-win-fight-against-elite|accessdate=10 June 2015|date=27 January 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150611154722/http://blog.thezeitgeistmovement.com/blog/stuart-dobson/forget-class-war-how-win-fight-against-elite|archivedate=11 June 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> While its activism and events are typically focused on media and education, TZM is a major supporter of open source projects worldwide since they allow for uninhibited advancement of science and technology, independent of constraints posed by institutions of patenting and capitalist investment.<ref>{{cite web|title=Open Source Ecology - Zeitgeist movement|url=http://opensourceecology.org/wiki/Zeitgeist_movement|publisher=[[Open Source Ecology]]}}</ref>

[[P2P Foundation]] is an “international organization focused on studying, researching, documenting and promoting [[Social peer-to-peer processes|peer to peer practices]] in a very broad sense”. Its objectives incorporate those of the open source movement, whose principles are integrated in a larger socio-economic model.<ref name="P2P Foundation">{{cite web|url=http://p2pfoundation.net/P2P_Foundation:About/|title=P2P Foundation:About|publisher=P2P Foundation|accessdate=2015-02-15|archive-date=4 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604235707/http://p2pfoundation.net/P2P_Foundation:About|dead-url=yes}}</ref>

==See also==
{{see also cleanup|date=June 2015}}
{{Portal|Free software}}
{{Refbegin|3}}

===Lists===
* [[List of commercial open-source applications]]
* [[List of open-source healthcare software]]
* [[List of open-source software packages]]
* [[List of open-source video games]]
* [[List of trademarked open-source software]]
* [[List of open-source Android applications]]

===Terms based on open source===
* [[Open-source appropriate technology]]
* [[Open-source economics]]
* [[Open Source Ecology]]
* [[Open-source governance]]
* [[Open-source hardware]]
* [[Open Source Initiative]]
* [[Open-source license]]
* [[Open-source political campaign]]
* [[Open-source record label]]
* [[Open-source religion]]
* [[Open-source robotics]]
* [[Open-source software]]
* [[Open-source movement]]

===Other===
* ''[[Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution]]'' (book)
* [[Business models for open-source software]]
* [[Collaborative intelligence]]
* [[Commons-based peer production]]
* [[Commercial open-source applications]]
* [[Community source]]
* [[Digital freedom]]
* [[Diseconomy of scale]]
* [[Embrace, extend and extinguish]]
* [[Free Beer]]
* [[Free software]]
* [[Gift economy]]
* [[:wikt:Transwiki:Glossary of legal terms in technology|Glossary of legal terms in technology]]
* [[Halloween Documents]]
* [[Linux]]
* [[Mass collaboration]]
* [[Network effect]]
* [[Open access (publishing)]]
* [[Open content]]
* [[Open data]]
* [[Open-design movement]]
* [[Open format]]
* [[Open implementation]]
* [[Open innovation]]
* [[OpenJDK]]
* [[Open research]]
* [[Open security]]
* [[OpenSolaris]]
* [[Open Source Ecology]]
* [[Open Source Lab (book)]]
* [[Comparison of open source and closed source]]
* [[Open system (computing)]]
* [[Open standard]]
* [[OpenDWG]]
* [[Openness]]
* [[Peer production]]
* [[Proprietary software]]
* [[Shared source]]
* [[Sharing economy]]
* [[Vendor lock-in]]
* [[Web literacy]] (Open Practices)

{{Refend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title= The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom |first=Yochai |last=Benkler |year=2006 |publisher=Yale University Press |url=http://www.benkler.org/Benkler_Wealth_Of_Networks.pdf}}
* {{cite book |title= Copy, Rip, Burn: The Politics of Copyleft and Open Source |first=David M. |last=Berry |year=2008 |publisher=London:Pluto Press |isbn=978-0745324142}}
* Karl Fogel. [http://producingoss.com Producing Open Source Software] (How to run a successful free-software project). Free PDF version available.
* {{cite book |title=Innovation Happens Elsewhere: Open Source as Business Strategy |first=Ron |last=Goldman |first2=Richard P. |last2=Gabriel |year=2005 |publisher=Richard P. Gabriel |url=http://dreamsongs.com/IHE/IHE.html |isbn=978-1-55860-889-4}}
* {{cite book |title=Open Source Database Driven Web Development: A Guide for Information Professionals |first=Isaac Hunter |last=Dunlap |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford: Chandos |url=http://www.chandospublishing.com/chandos_publishing_record_detail.php?ID=98 |isbn=978-1-84334-161-1}}
*{{cite book |author1=Kostakis, V. |author2=Bauwens, M. |title=Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy |year=2014 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-41506-6}} [http://p2pfoundation.net/Network_Society_and_Future_Scenarios_for_a_Collaborative_Economy (wiki)]
* Nettingsmeier, Jörn. "So What? I Don't Hack!" [http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3/nettingsmeier_dont_hack.html ''eContact! 11.3{{spaced ndash}}Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application''] (September 2009). Montréal: [[Canadian Electroacoustic Community|CEC]].
* {{cite book |title=Free Software Free Society: Selected essays of Richard M. Stallman |first=Richard M. |last=Stallman |url=http://shop.fsf.org/product/free-software-free-society |access-date=11 November 2018 |archive-date=21 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121061824/http://shop.fsf.org/product/free-software-free-society/ |dead-url=yes }}
* {{Cite journal
 |last=Schrape |first=Jan-Felix
 |year=2017
 |title=Open-source projects as incubators of innovation. From niche phenomenon to integral part of the industry
 |journal=[[Convergence (journal)|Convergence]]
 |volume= |pages=135485651773579
 |doi=10.1177/1354856517735795
}}
* Various authors. [http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3 ''eContact! 11.3{{spaced ndash}}Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application''] (September 2009). Montréal: [[Canadian Electroacoustic Community|CEC]].
* Various authors. "[http://cecpublic.pbworks.com/OpenSource Open Source Travel Guide <nowiki>[</nowiki>wiki<nowiki>]</nowiki>]". [http://cec.sonus.ca/econtact/11_3 ''eContact! 11.3{{spaced ndash}}Logiciels audio " open source " / Open Source for Audio Application''] (September 2009). Montréal: [[Canadian Electroacoustic Community|CEC]].
* {{cite book |first=Steve |last=Weber |title=The Success of Open Source |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ELieXMxR1h4C |year=2004 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-01292-9 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |title=Open Source Hardware: An Introductory Approach |first=Partha Pratim |last=Ray |first2=Rebika |last2=Rai |year=2013 |publisher=Lap Lambert Publishing House |isbn=978-3-659-46591-8}}

===Literature on legal and economic aspects===

* {{cite journal |last=Benkler |first=Y. |title=Coase's Penguin, or, Linux and The Nature of the Firm |journal=Yale Law Journal |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=369–446 |date=December 2002 |jstor=1562247 |url=http://www.benkler.org/CoasesPenguin.PDF |format=PDF |doi=10.2307/1562247|arxiv=cs/0109077 |hdl=10535/2974 }}
* {{cite web |last=Berry |first=D.M. |last2=Moss |first2=G. |title=Libre Culture: Meditations on Free Culture |date=2008 |website= |publisher=Pygmalion Books |location=Canada |url=https://archive.org/details/LibreCultureMeditationsOnFreeCulture |format=PDF}}
* {{cite web |last=Bitzer |first=J. |last2=Schröder |first2=P.J.H. |title=The Impact of Entry and Competition by Open Source Software on Innovation Activity |date=2005 |website=Industrial Organization 0512001 |publisher=EconWPA |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/wpa/wuwpio/0512001.html |format=PDF}}
* {{cite journal |last=v. Engelhardt |first=S. |title=The Economic Properties of Software |journal=Jena Economic Research Papers |volume=2 |issue= |pages=2008–045 |year=2008 |doi= |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/jrp/jrpwrp/2008-045.html |format=PDF}}
* v. Engelhardt, S. (2008): [https://ideas.repec.org/p/jrp/jrpwrp/2008-047.html "Intellectual Property Rights and Ex-Post Transaction Costs: the Case of Open and Closed Source Software", Jena Economic Research Papers 2008-047]. (PDF)
* {{cite web |last=v. Engelhardt |first=S. |last2=Swaminathan |first2=S. |title=Open Source Software, Closed Source Software or Both: Impacts on Industry Growth and the Role of Intellectual Property Rights |date=2008 |website=Discussion Papers of DIW Berlin 799 |publisher= |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/diw/diwwpp/dp799.html |format=PDF}}
* European Commission. (2006). [http://flossimpact.eu/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516054527/http://flossimpact.eu/ |date=16 May 2016 }} Economic impact of open source software on innovation and the competitiveness of the Information and Communication Technologies sector in the EU]. Brussels.
* {{cite book |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Feller |editor2-first=B. |editor2-last=Fitzgerald |editor3-first=S.A. |editor3-last=Hissam |title=Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C0Z30r8qdpcC&pg=PR4 |year=2005 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-06246-6 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=v. Hippel, E. |author2=v. Krogh, G. |title=Open source software and the "private-collective" innovation model: Issues for organization science |journal=Organization Science |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=209–223 |year=2003 |doi= 10.1287/orsc.14.2.209.14992|url=|hdl=1721.1/66145 }}
*{{cite book |author1=Kostakis, V. |author2=Bauwens, M. |title=Network Society and Future Scenarios for a Collaborative Economy |year=2014 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-41506-6}} [http://p2pfoundation.net/Network_Society_and_Future_Scenarios_for_a_Collaborative_Economy (wiki)]
* {{cite journal |author=Lerner J., Pathak P. A., Tirole, J. |title=The Dynamics of Open Source Contributors |journal=American Economic Review |volume=96 |issue=2 |pages=114–8 |year=2006 |doi=10.1257/000282806777211874 |url=http://econ-www.mit.edu/files/3023 |citeseerx=10.1.1.510.9948 |access-date=11 November 2018 |archive-date=4 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104174431/http://econ-www.mit.edu/files/3023 |dead-url=yes }}
* {{cite journal |author=Lerner, J., Tirole, J. |title=Some simple economics on open source |journal=Journal of Industrial Economics |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=197–234 |year=2002 |doi= 10.1111/1467-6451.00174|url=|citeseerx=10.1.1.461.3373 }} [http://www.people.hbs.edu/jlerner/simple.pdf earlier revision (PDF)]
* {{cite journal |author1=Lerner, J. |author2=Tirole, J. |title=The Scope of Open Source Licensing |journal=The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization |volume=21 |pages=20–56 |year=2005 |doi=10.1093/jleo/ewi002|citeseerx=10.1.1.72.465 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Lerner, J. |author2=Tirole, J. |title=The Economics of Technology Sharing: Open Source and Beyond |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=99–120 |year=2005 |doi=10.1257/0895330054048678}}
* {{cite journal |author1=Lerner, J. |author2=Tirole, J. |title=The Economics of Technology Sharing: Open Source and Beyond |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=99–120 |year=2005 |doi=10.1257/0895330054048678}}
* {{cite journal |author=Maurer, S.M. |title=Open source biology: Finding a niche (or maybe several) |journal=UMKC Law Review |volume=76 |issue=2 |year=2008 |ssrn=1114371 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1114371 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Osterloh |first=M. |last2=Rota |first2=S. |title=Open source software development — Just another case of collective invention? |journal=Research Policy |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=157–171 |year=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.respol.2006.10.004 |url=http://www.crema-research.ch/papers/2005-08.pdf |format=PDF}}
* {{cite journal |last=Riehle |first=D. |title=The Economic Motivation of Open Source: Stakeholder Perspectives |journal=IEEE Computer |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=25–32 |date=April 2007 |url=http://www.riehle.org/computer-science/research/2007/computer-2007-article.html |doi=10.1109/MC.2007.147}}
* {{cite book |last=Rossi |first=M.A. |chapter=Decoding the free/open source software puzzle: A survey of theoretical and empirical contributions |chapterurl=https://ideas.repec.org/p/usi/wpaper/424.html |chapter-format=PDF |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Bitzer |editor2-first=P. |editor2-last=Schröder |title=The Economics of Open Source Software Development |publisher=Elsevier |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-444-52769-1 |pages=15–55 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Schiff |first=A. |title=The Economics of Open Source Software: A Survey of the Early Literature |journal=Review of Network Economics |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=66–74 |year=2002 |format=PDF |url=http://www.rnejournal.com/articles/schiff_software_mar02.pdf |doi=10.2202/1446-9022.1004 |access-date=11 November 2018 |archive-date=7 May 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030507164146/http://www.rnejournal.com/articles/schiff_software_mar02.pdf |dead-url=yes }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Schwarz, M. |author2=Takhteyev, Y. |title=Half a Century of Public Software Institutions: Open Source as a Solution to the Hold-Up Problem |journal=Journal of Public Economic Theory |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=609–639 |year=2010 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9779.2010.01467.x |url=|citeseerx=10.1.1.625.2368 }} [http://www.nber.org/papers/w14946 earlier revision]
* {{cite journal |last=Spagnoletti |first=P. |last2=Federici |first2=T. |title=Exploring the Interplay Between FLOSS Adoption and Organizational Innovation |journal=Communications of the Association for Information Systems (CAIS) |volume=29 |issue=15 |pages=279–298 |year=2011 |doi= |url=http://aisel.aisnet.org/cais/vol29/iss1/15/}}
* {{cite book |last=Abramson |first=Bruce |title=Digital Phoenix; Why the Information Economy Collapsed and How it Will Rise Again |year=2005 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-51196-4}}
* {{cite book |first=K.S. |last=Sampathkumar |title=Understanding FOSS Version 4.0 revised |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2JwU71HSkikC |isbn=978-8-184-65469-1}}

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Open Source}}
{{Wiktionary|open source}}
* [http://opensource.com/resources/what-open-source What is open source?] (opensource.com)
* [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_NSNQQND "An open-source shot in the arm?"] ''[[The Economist]]'', Jun 10th 2004
* [https://code.google.com/opensource/osa-hall-of-fame.html Google-O'Reilly Open Source Awards]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071207171952/http://opencert.iist.unu.edu/ UNU/IIST Open Source Software Certification]
* [http://www.comparebusinessproducts.com/fyi/open-source-open-world {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919043700/https://www.comparebusinessproducts.com/fyi/open-source-open-world |date=19 September 2018 }} Open Source Open World{{spaced ndash}}Open Standards Throughout the Globe]
* ''[http://thechangelog.com/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607195159/http://thechangelog.com/ |date=7 June 2012 }} The Changelog]'', a podcast and blog that covers what's fresh and new in Open Source (essentially covering "the changelog" of open source projects)
* [http://www.sms.cam.ac.uk/media/517352;jsessionid=62FE4CCB3807753999235E2EA54E5009 Can We Open Source Everything? The Future of the Open Philosophy. University of Cambridge.]
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