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Hejaz

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki

Hejaz

ٱلْحِجَاز

Al-Ḥijāz
Above: Islam's holiest site, Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque), which surrounds the Ka'bah (middle), in Mecca, land of Muhammad's birth and ancestry and an annual point of pilgrimage for millions of Muslims. Below: Map of the Hejaz showing the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Yanbu and Tabuk. The Saudi Arabian region is outlined in red and the 1923 Kingdom is in green.
Above: Islam's holiest site, Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque), which surrounds the Ka'bah (middle), in Mecca, land of Muhammad's birth and ancestry and an annual point of pilgrimage for millions of Muslims.


Below: Map of the Hejaz showing the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Yanbu and Tabuk. The Saudi Arabian region is outlined in red and the 1923 Kingdom is in green.
Location of Hejaz
RegionsAl-Bahah, Mecca, Medina and Tabuk

The Hejaz (/hiːˈdʒæz, hɪˈ-/, also US: /hɛˈ-/; Arabic: ٱلْحِجَاز‎, romanized: al-Ḥijāz, lit. 'the Barrier', Hejazi pronunciation: [alħɪˈdʒaːz]) is a region in the west of Saudi Arabia. It includes the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Yanbu and Taif. It is also known as the "Western Province" in Saudi Arabia.[1] It is bordered in the west by the Red Sea, in the north by Jordan, in the east by the Najd, and in the south by the 'Asir Region.[2] Its largest city is Jeddah, the second largest city in Saudi Arabia, with Mecca and Medina being the fourth and fifth largest cities respectively in the country. The Hejaz is the most cosmopolitan region in the Arabian Peninsula.[3]

The Hejaz is significant for being the location of the Islamic holy cities of Mecca48|22|e=29|s=ns-4|[4] and Medina,9|25|e=129|s=ns-5|[5]33|09|e=73|s=ns-6|[6]63|1|e=11|s=ns-7|[7] the first and second holiest sites in Islam, respectively. As the site of the two holiest sites in Islam, the Hejaz has significance in the Arab and Islamic historical and political landscape. The region of Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia,[8] Arabic is the predominant language as in the rest of Saudi Arabia, with Hejazi Arabic being the most widely spoken dialect in the region. Hejazi Saudis are of ethnically diverse origins.[3]

The region, according to Islamic tradition, is the birthplace of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who was born in Mecca, which is locally considered to have been founded by the Islamic prophets and matriarch Abraham, Hagar and Ishmael.[9][10] The area became part of his empire through the early Muslim conquests, and it formed part of successive caliphates, first the Rashidun Caliphate, followed by the Umayyad Caliphate, and finally the Abbasid Caliphate. The Ottoman Empire held partial control over the area; after its dissolution, an independent Kingdom of Hejaz existed briefly in 1925 before being conquered by the neighbouring Sultanate of Nejd, creating the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd.[11] In September 1932, the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd joined the Saudi dominions of Al-Hasa and Qatif, creating the unified Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[12][13]

Etymology[edit]

The name of the region is derived from a verb ḥajaza (حَجَز), from the Arabic root ḥ-j-z (ح-ج-ز), meaning "to separate,"[14] and it is so called as it separates the land of the Najd in the east from the land of Tihāmah in the west.

History[edit]

Prehistoric and ancient times[edit]

The city of Al-'Ula in 2012. The city's archaeological district is in the foreground, with the Hijaz Mountains in the background.

One or possibly two megalithic dolmen have been found in Hejaz.[15]

The Hejaz includes both the Mahd adh-Dhahab ("Cradle of the Gold") (23°30′13″N 40°51′35″E / 23.50361°N 40.85972°E / 23.50361; 40.85972

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) and a water source, now dried out, that used to flow 600 miles (970 km) north east to the Persian Gulf via the Wādi Al-Rummah and Wādi Al-Bātin system. Archaeological research led by of Boston University and the University of Qassim indicates that the river system was active and 2500–3000 BCE.[16]

The northern part of the Hejaz was part of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea.[17]

Era of Saleh[edit]

Main article: Mada'in Salih
Hegra or Al-Ḥijr or Madā’in Ṣāliḥ ("Cities of Saleh")

Saudi Arabia's and Hejaz's first World Heritage Site that was recognized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is that of Al-Hijr. The name "Al-Ḥijr" ("The Land of Stones" or "The Rocky Place") occurs in the Qur'an,15|80|e=84|s=ns-18|[18] and the site is known for having structures carved into rocks, similar to Petra.[19][20] Construction of the structures is credited to the people of Thamud. The location is also called "Madā’in Ṣāliḥ" ("Cities of Saleh"),7|73|e=79|s=ns-21|[21]11|61|e=69|s=ns-22|[22]26|141|e=158|s=ns-23|[23]54|23|e=31|s=ns-24|[24]89|6|e=13|s=ns-25|[25]91|11|e=15|s=ns-26|[26] as it is speculated to be the city in which the Islamic prophet Saleh was sent to the people of Thamud. After the disappearance of Thamud from Mada'in Saleh, it came under the influence of other people, such as the Nabataeans, whose capital was Petra. Later, it would lie in a route used by Muslim Pilgrims going to Mecca.[17][27][28][29]

Era of Abraham and Ishmael[edit]

According to Arab and Islamic sources, the civilization of Mecca started after Ibrāhīm (Abraham) brought his son Ismāʿīl (Ishmael) and wife Hājar (Hagar) here, for the latter two to stay. Some people from the Yemeni tribe of Jurhum settled with them, and Isma'il reportedly married two women, one after divorcing another, at least one of them from this tribe, and helped his father to construct or re-construct the Ka'bah ('Cube'),2|127|t=y|s=ns-30|[30]3|96|t=y|s=ns-31|[31]22|25|e=37|s=ns-32|[32] which would have social, religious, political and historical implications for the site and region.[9][10]

For example, in Arab or Islamic belief, the tribe of Quraysh would descend from Isma'il ibn Ibrahim, be based in the vicinity of the Ka'bah,106|1|e=4|s=ns-33|[33] and include Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn Abd Manaf. From the Period of Jāhiliyyah ('Ignorance') to the days of Muhammad, the often-warring Arab tribes would cease their hostilities during the time of Pilgrimage, and go on pilgrimage to Mecca, as inspired by Ibrāhim.22|25|e=37|s=ns-32|[32] It was during such an occasion that Muhammad met some Medinans who would allow him to migrate to Medina, to escape persecution by his opponents in Mecca.[34][35][36][37][38][39]

Era of Muhammad[edit]

Main article: Muhammad in Islam
Muhammad's Mosque in Medina, his place-of-residence after the Hijrah (Migration) from Mecca, 2010

As the land of Mecca48|22|e=29|s=ns-4|[4] and Medina,9|25|e=129|s=ns-5|[5]33|09|e=73|s=ns-6|[6]63|1|e=11|s=ns-7|[7] the Hejaz was where Muhammad was born, and where he founded a Monotheistic Ummah of followers, bore patience with his foes or struggled against them, migrated from one place to another, preached or implemented his beliefs, lived and died. Given that he had both followers and enemies here, a number of battles or expeditions were carried out in this area, like those of Al-Aḥzāb ("The Confederates"), Badr3|110|e=128|s=ns-40|[40] and Ḥunayn. They involved both Meccan companions, such as Hamzah ibn Abdul-Muttalib, Ubaydah ibn al-Harith and Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, and Medinan companions.9|25|e=129|s=ns-5|[5][38][39][41][42] The Hejaz fell under Muhammad's influence as he emerged victorious over his opponents, and was thus a part of his empire.[9][34][36][37][43][44][45]

Subsequent history[edit]

Due to the presence of the two holy cities in the Hejaz, the region was ruled by numerous empires. The Hejaz was at the center of the Rashidun Caliphate, in particular whilst its capital was Medina from 632 to 656 ACE. The region was then under the control of regional powers, such as Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, throughout much of its later history. After the Ottomans lost control of it, Hejaz became an independent state.

Brief independence[edit]

Main article: Kingdom of Hejaz

After the end of the of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, in 1916, Hussein bin Ali became the leader of an independent State of Hejaz.[46] In 1924, Ali bin Hussein succeeded as the King of Hejaz. Then Ibn Saud succeeded Hussein as the King of Hejaz and Nejd. Ibn Saud ruled the two as separate units, known as the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd from 1926 to 1932.

In modern Saudi Arabia[edit]

Main article: Regions of Saudi Arabia

On 23 September 1932, the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[47] The day is a national holiday called Saudi National Day.[48]

Culture[edit]

Religion[edit]

The cultural setting of Hejaz is greatly influenced by Islamic culture. Hejaz contains Makkah and Madinah where Islam was firstly established. Moreover, Qur’an is considered the constitution of Saudi Arabia and the Islamic law "sharia’" is the main legal source. In Saudi Arabia, Islam is not just adhered politically by the government but also it has a great influence on the people's culture and everyday life.[49][50] The society is in general deeply religious, conservative, traditional, and family-oriented. Many attitudes and traditions are centuries-old, derived from Arab civilization and Islamic heritage.

Cuisine[edit]

Hejazi cuisine has mostly Arabian dishes like rest of Saudi Arabia. Grilled meat dishes such as shawarma and kebab are well-known in Hejaz. Some dishes are native to the Hejaz, like Saleeg.[51] The Hejazi dishes are known for their spice.

Geography[edit]

Harrat Khaybar seen from the International Space Station

The region is located along the Red Sea Rift. It is also known for its darker, more volcanic sand. Depending on the previous definition, the Hejaz includes some of the mountains of the Sarat range, which topographically separate the Najd from Tehamah. Bdellium plants are also abundant in the Hejaz. Saudi Arabia, and in particular the Hejaz, is home to more than 2000 dormant volcanoes.[52] Lava fields in the Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of ḥarrāt (حَرَّات, singular: ḥarrah (حَرَّة)), form one of Earth's largest alkali basalt regions, covering some 180,000 km2 (69,000 sq mi), an area greater than the state of Missouri.[53]

Flags[edit]

Cities[edit]

Workers laying tracks for the Hejaz Railway near Tabuk, 1906

Al Bahah Region:

Al Madinah Region:

Makkah Province:

Tabuk Region:

International tourism development[edit]

As a component of Saudi Vision 2030, a 28,000 square kilometer tourism destination is under development[60] on the Red Sea coast between the towns of Umluj (25°03′00″N 37°15′54″E / 25.0500°N 37.2651°E / 25.0500; 37.2651

⧼validator-fatal-error⧽



) and Al-Wajh (26°14′12″N 36°28′08″E / 26.2366°N 36.4689°E / 26.2366; 36.4689

⧼validator-fatal-error⧽



), in the northern section of the Hejazi coast. The project will involve "the development of 22 of the 90+ islands"[61] that lie along the coast to create a "fully integrated luxury mixed-use destination."[62] and will be "governed by laws on par with international standards".[63]

Demographics[edit]

The Hejaz is the most populated region in Saudi Arabia,[8] containing 35% of the population of Saudi Arabia.[64] Most people of Hejaz are Sunnis with a Shia minority in the cities of Medina, Mecca and Jeddah. Many consider themselves more cosmopolitan because Hejaz was for centuries a part of the great empires of Islam from the Umayyads to the Ottomans.[65] People of Hejaz, who feel particularly connected to the holy places of Mecca and Medina, have probably the most strongly articulated identity of any regional grouping in Saudi Arabia.[66]

Gallery[edit]

Notable Hejazis[edit]

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

Al-Abwa'[edit]

Further information: Al-Abwa'

Mecca[edit]

Pre–6th century CE[edit]

Since[edit]

Medina[edit]

Pre–6th century CE[edit]

Since[edit]

Ta'if[edit]

6th–7th centuries CE[edit]

Since[edit]

See also[edit]


Other articles of the topic Saudi Arabia : WWE Crown Jewel, History of Saudi Arabia, Kaaba

Other articles of the topic History : 1 BC, Sprinkler (dance), Currency

Other articles of the topic Asia : AJC Play
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Explanatory notes[edit]

  1. ↑ Quran: 7:73–79;7|73|e=79|s=ns-21|[21] 11:61–69;11|61|e=69|s=ns-22|[22] 26:141–158;26|141|e=158|s=ns-23|[23] 54:23–31;54|23|e=31|s=ns-24|[24] 89:6–13;89|6|e=13|s=ns-25|[25] 91:11–15.91|11|e=15|s=ns-26|[26]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ Mackey, p. 101. "The Western Province, or the Hejaz[...]"
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Hopkins, Daniel J. (2001). Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary. p. 479. ISBN 0-87779-546-0. Retrieved 17 March 2013. Search this book on
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Leatherdale, Clive (1983). Britain and Saudi Arabia, 1925–1939: The Imperial Oasis. p. 12. ISBN 9780714632209. Search this book on
  4. ↑ 48|22|e=29|s=ns_4-0|4.0 48|22|e=29|s=ns_4-1|4.1 Quran 48:22–29
  5. ↑ 9|25|e=129|s=ns_5-0|5.0 9|25|e=129|s=ns_5-1|5.1 9|25|e=129|s=ns_5-2|5.2 9|25|e=129|s=ns_5-3|5.3 Quran 9:25–129
  6. ↑ 33|09|e=73|s=ns_6-0|6.0 33|09|e=73|s=ns_6-1|6.1 Quran 33:09–73
  7. ↑ 63|1|e=11|s=ns_7-0|7.0 63|1|e=11|s=ns_7-1|7.1 Quran 63:1–11
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Mecca: Islam's cosmopolitan heart". The Hijaz is the largest, most populated, and most culturally and religiously diverse region of Saudi Arabia, in large part because it was the traditional host area of all the pilgrims to Mecca, many of whom settled and intermarried there.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Lings, Martin (1983). Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. Islamic Texts Society. ISBN 978-0-946621-33-0. Search this book on
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Glassé, Cyril (1991). "Kaaba". The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-0606-3126-0.
  11. ↑ Yamani, M. (2009), Cradle of Islam: the Hijaz and the quest for an Arabian identity, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 978-1-84511-824-2 (Pbk. ed.)
  12. ↑ Al-Rasheed, M. A History of Saudi Arabia. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.[verification needed]
  13. ↑ A Brief overview of Hejaz - Hejaz history[verification needed]
  14. ↑ Rutter, Eldon (February 1931). "The Hejaz". The Geographical Journal. 77 (2): 97–108. doi:10.2307/1784385. JSTOR 1784385.
  15. ↑ Gajus Scheltema (2008). Megalithic Jordan: an introduction and field guide. ACOR. ISBN 978-9957-8543-3-1. Retrieved 5 October 2012. Search this book on
  16. ↑ Sullivan, Walter (1993-03-30). "Science Watch; Signs of Ancient River". The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-06-25.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Kesting, Piney. "Saudi Aramco World (May/June 2001): Well of Good Fortune". Retrieved 2014-04-07.
  18. 15|80|e=84|s=ns_18-0|↑ Quran 15:80–84
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Butler, J. W. S.; Schulte-Peevers, A.; Shearer, I. (2010-10-01). Oman, UAE & Arabian Peninsula. Lonely Planet. pp. 316–333. ISBN 9781741791457. Search this book on
  20. ↑ "Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)". UNESCO. Retrieved 2014-04-07.
  21. ↑ 7|73|e=79|s=ns_21-0|21.0 7|73|e=79|s=ns_21-1|21.1 Quran 7:73–79
  22. ↑ 11|61|e=69|s=ns_22-0|22.0 11|61|e=69|s=ns_22-1|22.1 Quran 11:61–69
  23. ↑ 26|141|e=158|s=ns_23-0|23.0 26|141|e=158|s=ns_23-1|23.1 Quran 26:141–158
  24. ↑ 54|23|e=31|s=ns_24-0|24.0 54|23|e=31|s=ns_24-1|24.1 Quran 54:23–31
  25. ↑ 89|6|e=13|s=ns_25-0|25.0 89|6|e=13|s=ns_25-1|25.1 Quran 89:6–13
  26. ↑ 91|11|e=15|s=ns_26-0|26.0 91|11|e=15|s=ns_26-1|26.1 Quran 91:11–15
  27. ↑ Hizon, Danny. "Madain Saleh: Arabia's Hidden Treasure – Saudi Arabia". Retrieved 2009-09-17.
  28. ↑ "ICOMOS Evaluation of Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih) World Heritage Nomination" (PDF). World Heritage Center. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
  29. ↑ "Information at nabataea.net". Retrieved 2009-09-17.
  30. 2|127|t=y|s=ns_30-0|↑ Quran 2:127 (Translated by Yusuf Ali)
  31. 3|96|t=y|s=ns_31-0|↑ Quran 3:96 (Translated by Yusuf Ali)
  32. ↑ 22|25|e=37|s=ns_32-0|32.0 22|25|e=37|s=ns_32-1|32.1 Quran 22:25–37
  33. 106|1|e=4|s=ns_33-0|↑ Quran 106:1–4
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad (1955). Guillaume, Alfred (translator), ed. Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah – The Life of Muhammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 88–589. ISBN 978-0-1963-6033-1. Search this book on
  35. ↑ Karen Armstrong (2002). Islam: A Short History. p. 11. ISBN 0-8129-6618-X. Search this book on
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Firestone, Reuven (1990). Journeys in Holy Lands: The Evolution of the Abraham-Ishmael Legends in Islamic Exegesis. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0331-0. Search this book on
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 al-Tabari (1987). Brinner, William M., ed. The History of al-Tabari Vol. 2: Prophets and Patriarchs. Albany, NY: State University of NY Press. ISBN 978-0-87395-921-6. Search this book on
  38. ↑ 38.00 38.01 38.02 38.03 38.04 38.05 38.06 38.07 38.08 38.09 38.10 38.11 38.12 Mubarakpuri, S. R. (2002). "The Compensatory 'Umrah (Lesser Pilgrimage)". Ar-Raḥīq Al-Makhtūm ("The Sealed Nectar"). Darussalam. pp. 127–47. ISBN 9960-899-55-1. Archived from the original on 2011-08-20. Retrieved 2014-10-06. Search this book on
  39. ↑ 39.00 39.01 39.02 39.03 39.04 39.05 39.06 39.07 39.08 39.09 39.10 39.11 39.12 Haykal, Husayn (1976), The Life of Muhammad, Islamic Book Trust, pp. 217–18, ISBN 978-983-9154-17-7
  40. 3|110|e=128|s=ns_40-0|↑ Quran 3:110–128
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:57:74
  42. ↑ Witness Pioneer "Pre-Badr Missions and Invasions"
  43. ↑ "Muhammad". Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world.
  44. ↑ Holt (1977), p. 57
  45. ↑ Lapidus (2002), pp. 31–32
  46. ↑ Hourani, Albert (2005). A History of the Arab Peoples. pp. 315–319. ISBN 978-0-571-22664-1. Search this book on
  47. ↑ "History of Arabia". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  48. ↑ "History of Saudi Arabia. ( The Saudi National Day 23, Sep )". Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
  49. ↑ "Saudi Arabia – Religion". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved February 5, 2019.
  50. ↑ "Islam | The Embassy of The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia". www.saudiembassy.net. Retrieved February 5, 2019.
  51. ↑ "Saleeg — a Saudi dish that won't let you down". Arab News. 2013-09-11. Retrieved 2021-06-23.
  52. ↑ "The Tourists Guide To The 10 Amazing Volcanoes in Saudi Arabia". insidesaudi.com. Retrieved 2021-01-09.
  53. ↑ "VOLCANIC ARABIA: It started with tremors". archive.aramcoworld.com. Retrieved 2021-01-09.
  54. ↑ "Al-Baha City Profile". The Saudi Network. Retrieved 2012-10-02.
  55. ↑ بـتـصـرف عـن مـجـلـة الأمـانـة الـعـدد عـشـرون شـوال 1419 تـصـدر عـن أمـانـة الـمـديـنـة الـمـنـورة إمـارة مـنـطـقـة الـمـديـنـة الـمـنـورة
  56. ↑ "Brief about Ta'if City". Ta'if City (in العربية). Taif Municipality. Retrieved 2016-04-26.
  57. ↑ "Rābigh". GeoNames. Retrieved 2017-11-28.
  58. ↑ "Al-Juhfah | Hajj & Umrah Planner". hajjumrahplanner.com. Retrieved 2017-04-10.
  59. ↑ "Tabouk City Profile, Saudi Arabia". The Saudi Network. Retrieved 2017-05-04.
  60. ↑ "Construction underway on Saudi Red Sea project site". 27 February 2019. Retrieved 2019-03-31.
  61. ↑ "Red Sea project master plan wins approval". 17 September 2017. Retrieved 2019-03-31.
  62. ↑ "Hospitality is 'anchor' of Red Sea project". 27 January 2019. Retrieved 2019-03-31.
  63. ↑ "Saudi Arabia to allow women in bikinis at new beach resort". 4 August 2017. Retrieved 2017-08-14.
  64. ↑ "Saudi Arabia Population Statistics 2011 (Arabic)" (PDF). p. 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 15, 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  65. ↑ Riedel, Bruce (2011). "Brezhnev in the Hejaz" (PDF). The National Interest. 115. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 15, 2013. Retrieved April 23, 2012. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  66. ↑ Beranek, Ondrej (January 2009). "Divided We Survive: A Landscape of Fragmentation in Saudi Arabia" (PDF). Middle East Brief. 33: 1–7. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
  67. ↑ "The Infallibles Taken from Kitab al Irshad By Sheikh al Mufid". al-islam.org. Retrieved 2008-11-20.
  68. ↑ Maqsood, Ruqaiyyah Waris. "The Prophet's Line Family No 3 – Qusayy, Hubbah, and Banu Nadr to Quraysh". Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood Dawah. Archived from the original on May 30, 2008. Retrieved 2013-07-01. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  69. ↑ Book of Genesis, Chapters 10, 11, 16, 17, 21 and 25
  70. ↑ 1 Chronicles, Chapter 1
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 Ibn Hisham. The Life of the Prophet Muhammad. 1. p. 181. Search this book on
  72. ↑ SUNY Press :: History of al-Tabari Vol. 39, The Archived September 12, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
  73. ↑ "Adab of Islam". Masud. Retrieved 2017-08-08.
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 74.2 Maqsood, Ruqaiyyah Waris. "The Prophet's Family Line No. 4 – Amr (Hashim), the Founder of the Hashimites". Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood Dawah. Archived from the original on May 30, 2008. Retrieved 3 August 2011. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 75.2 75.3 75.4 75.5 75.6 Chittick, William C. (1981). A Shi'ite Anthology. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-87395-510-2. Search this book on
  76. ↑ Jaffer, Masuma (2003). Lady Fatima Masuma (a) of Qom. Qum: Jami'at al-Zahra: Islamic Seminary for Women. Search this book on
  77. ↑ Browne, Edward G. (2002), Islamic Medicine, p. 11, ISBN 81-87570-19-9
  78. ↑ "Pusat Sejarah Brunei" (in Bahasa Melayu). www.history-centre.gov.bn. Archived from the original on April 15, 2015. Retrieved August 23, 2016. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]


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