Addiction suppression
Addiction suppression can be described as the experience of a total or partial suppression of a psychological addiction to a specific substance and the cravings associated with it. This can occur as an effect which lasts long after the compound which induced it wears off or it can last only while the compound is still active. Addiction suppression is a rare effect that is most commonly associated with psychedelics,[1] psilocin,[2] Salvia divinorum,[3] LSD,[2] ibogaine[4] and N-acetylcysteine (NAC).[5]
In comparison, N-acetylcysteine seems to suppress feelings of addiction in a more direct and consistent manner. This is thought to occur as a result of its action on glutaminergic and dopaminergic pathways which may reverse brain functions that have become disturbed by heavy drug addiction.[5] This mechanism has been shown to provide relief for those who struggle with compulsive redosing, reward behaviors and psychological cravings, and has been shown to positively reverse nicotine addiction,[6] cocaine addiction,[7] marijuana dependence[8] and many other compulsive behaviors.[9]
Acetylcysteine[edit]
Acetylcysteine has been successfully tried as a treatment for a number of psychiatric disorders.[10][11][12] A systematic review from 2015, and several earlier medical reviews, indicated that there is favorable evidence for N-acetylcysteine efficacy in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, specific drug addictions (cocaine), and a certain form of epilepsy (progressive myoclonic).[10][11][13][14][15][16] Tentative evidence also supports use in cannabis use disorder.[17]
Evidence to date does not support the efficacy for N-acetylcysteine in treating addictions to gambling, methamphetamine, or nicotine, although pilot controlled data are encouraging.[13] Based upon preclinical evidence and limited clinical evidence, NAC appears to normalize glutamate neurotransmission into the nucleus accumbens and other brain structures, in part by upregulating the expression of excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2), a.k.a. glutamate transporter 1 (GLT1), in individuals with addiction.[18] While NAC has been demonstrated to modulate glutamate neurotransmission in adult humans who are addicted to cocaine, NAC does not appear to modulate glutamate neurotransmission in healthy adult humans.[18]
NAC has been hypothesized to exert beneficial effects through its modulation of glutamate and dopamine neurotransmission as well as its antioxidant properties.[11]
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ↑ "Psychedelics: Entering a new age of addiction therapy". The Pharmaceutical Journal. 2014. doi:10.1211/PJ.2014.20066899.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Johnson, Matthew W; Garcia-Romeu, Albert; Cosimano, Mary P; Griffiths, Roland R (2014). "Pilot study of the 5-HT2AR agonist psilocybin in the treatment of tobacco addiction". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 28 (11): 983–92. doi:10.1177/0269881114548296. PMC 4286320. PMID 25213996.
- ↑ Valdés, Díaz & Paul 1983, p. 287.
- ↑ Franciotti, Kevin (21 August 2013). "Mind-altering drug could offer life free of heroin". New Scientist.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Moran, M. M; McFarland, K; Melendez, R. I; Kalivas, P. W; Seamans, J. K (2005). "Cystine/Glutamate Exchange Regulates Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Presynaptic Inhibition of Excitatory Transmission and Vulnerability to Cocaine Seeking". Journal of Neuroscience. 25 (27): 6389–93. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1007-05.2005. PMC 1413952. PMID 16000629.
- ↑ Knackstedt, Lori A; Larowe, Steven; Mardikian, Pascale; Malcolm, Robert; Upadhyaya, Himanshu; Hedden, Sarra; Markou, Athina; Kalivas, Peter W (2009). "The Role of Cystine-Glutamate Exchange in Nicotine Dependence in Rats and Humans". Biological Psychiatry. 65 (10): 841–5. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.040. PMC 2756612. PMID 19103434.
- ↑ Larowe, Steven D; Mardikian, Pascale; Malcolm, Robert; Myrick, Hugh; Kalivas, Peter; McFarland, Krista; Saladin, Michael; McRae, Aimee; Brady, Kathleen (2006). "Safety and Tolerability of N-Acetylcysteine in Cocaine-Dependent Individuals". American Journal on Addictions. 15 (1): 105–10. doi:10.1080/10550490500419169. PMC 1513138. PMID 16449100.
- ↑ Gray, Kevin M; Watson, Noreen L; Carpenter, Matthew J; Larowe, Steven D (2010). "N-Acetylcysteine (NAC) in Young Marijuana Users: An Open-Label Pilot Study". The American Journal on Addictions. 19 (2): 187–9. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.2009.00027.x. PMC 2826714. PMID 20163391.
- ↑ Kalivas, Peter W; Lalumiere, Ryan T; Knackstedt, Lori; Shen, Haowei (2009). "Glutamate transmission in addiction". Neuropharmacology. 56: 169–73. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.07.011. PMC 3280337. PMID 18675832.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Dean O, Giorlando F, Berk M (Mar 2011). "N-acetylcysteine in psychiatry: current therapeutic evidence and potential mechanisms of action". Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. 36 (2): 78–86. doi:10.1503/jpn.100057. PMC 3044191. PMID 21118657.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Berk M, Malhi GS, Gray LJ, Dean OM (Mar 2013). "The promise of N-acetylcysteine in neuropsychiatry". Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 34 (3): 167–77. doi:10.1016/j.tips.2013.01.001. PMID 23369637.
- ↑ Bavarsad Shahripour R, Harrigan MR, Alexandrov AV (Mar 2014). "N-acetylcysteine (NAC) in neurological disorders: mechanisms of action and therapeutic opportunities". Brain and Behavior. 4 (2): 108–22. doi:10.1002/brb3.208. PMC 3967529. PMID 24683506.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Slattery J, Kumar N, Delhey L, Berk M, Dean O, Spielholz C, Frye R (Aug 2015). "Clinical trials of N-acetylcysteine in psychiatry and neurology: A systematic review". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 55: 294–321. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.04.015. PMID 25957927.
- ↑ Berk M, Dean OM, Cotton SM, Jeavons S, Tanious M, Kohlmann K, Hewitt K, Moss K, Allwang C, Schapkaitz I, Robbins J, Cobb H, Ng F, Dodd S, Bush AI, Malhi GS (Jun 2014). "The efficacy of adjunctive N-acetylcysteine in major depressive disorder: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 75 (6): 628–36. doi:10.4088/JCP.13m08454. PMID 25004186.
- ↑ Oliver G, Dean O, Camfield D, Blair-West S, Ng C, Berk M, Sarris J (Apr 2015). "N-acetyl cysteine in the treatment of obsessive compulsive and related disorders: a systematic review". Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience. 13 (1): 12–24. doi:10.9758/cpn.2015.13.1.12. PMC 4423164. PMID 25912534.
- ↑ Samuni Y, Goldstein S, Dean OM, Berk M (Aug 2013). "The chemistry and biological activities of N-acetylcysteine". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 1830 (8): 4117–29. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.04.016. PMID 23618697.
- ↑ Minarini, A; Ferrari, S; Galletti, M; Giambalvo, N; Perrone, D; Rioli, G; Galeazzi, GM (2 November 2016). "N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of psychiatric disorders: current status and future prospects". Expert opinion on drug metabolism & toxicology: 1–14. doi:10.1080/17425255.2017.1251580. PMID 27766914.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 McClure EA, Gipson CD, Malcolm RJ, Kalivas PW, Gray KM (2014). "Potential role of N-acetylcysteine in the management of substance use disorders". CNS Drugs. 28 (2): 95–106. doi:10.1007/s40263-014-0142-x. PMC 4009342. PMID 24442756.
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