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Agglutination test

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki






See also: Agglutination (biology)

Agglutination test

Agglutination test
Medical diagnostics
Latex slide agglutination test.
MeSHD000372
MedlinePlus003334

An agglutination test is a procedure requested by a doctor or other medical professional to detect a specific antibody or antigen present in a range bodily fluids (saliva,[1] blood[2], urine[3] and cerebrospinal fluid[4] etc.).[5] Major applications of agglutination testing involve the diagnosis of a pathogen or disease,[6] serotyping a bacterial strain[7] and ABO blood typing.[8] This test is performed by a scientist or lab technician in the laboratory who will then provide the agglutination test results to the doctor or medical professional.[9] There are different forms of agglutination tests available, and each test is used according to the antigen or antibody of interest, sensitivity, effort, timing, and whether it is qualitative or quantitative.[10][11]


History

Widal test slide showing the O and H antigens of Salmonella typhi agglutinating with the patient’s serum sample.

Typhoid fever was a major public health problem during the 1800s whereby, the diagnosis of this disease remained unclear due to its similar fever-like symptoms as observed in other conditions such as malaria, hepatitis and dengue[12].

Georges Fernand Isidore Widal (1862–1929) developed the first agglutination test in 1896 (Widal test) to detect the presence of the Salmonella typhi (S. typhi) bacteria in a patients blood serum.[citation needed] This diagnostic test involved the extraction of a bodily fluid such as blood or urine in a suspected S. typhi-infected patient with fever-like symptoms.[13] These samples were definitively tested for the presence of the agglutin (antibody) in regards to the sample type.[14]

The presence of S typhi antibodies in the patient’s sample detects the presence of Salmonella typhi flagella (H) and somatic (O) antigens, which results in agglutination.[15]

This method provided a quick and straightforward analysis of the disease, thus, helping to alleviate the public health concern at the time, due to the importance a fast and accurate clinical diagnosis of this disease plays in its effective management and treatment.[16]

The discovery of the Widal test further aided in the development of successive qualitative and quantitative agglutination tests used in current medical diagnosis.[17]

Background

The process of agglutination develops due to the formation of a stable lattice network which involves a two-phase reaction known as the sensitisation (primary phase) and the lattice formation (secondary phase).[18]

The primary phase involves antibody (Ab) and antigen (Ag) binding, which involves antibodies reacting with a single antigenic determinant site (epitope) on the surface of an antigen such as bacterial cells.[19]

The secondary phase occurs after the primary phase and involves the rapid formation of cross-linkages between antibodies and antigens.[3] During cross-linkages, the gaps between particles are bridged as the Fab portion of the antibody attach onto the antigenic determinants of two adjacent antigen particles.[20] These multiple cross-linkage formations result in the structure of a lattice, which can be visually observed as clumping.[21] This secondary phase is dependent on environmental conditions such as ionic strength of milieu, pH and temperature.[22]

Diagrammatic structural representation of an antibody. (1) the antigen binding site, (2) the Fab region and (3) the Fc region.
Antigen-antibody complex formation resulting in a lattice formation.
Immunoglobulin (IgM) antibodies binding to adjacent antigen epitopes on the surface of bacterial cells resulting in cross-linking and lattice formation.

Extraction

Saliva collection in tube for laboratory examination.

There are multiple methods of bodily fluid extractions used during agglutination tests, and each is used regarding the antigen or antibody of interest.[23]

Saliva

The extraction of saliva is a method used to detect and test the presence of specific bacteria in a patient’s serum.[24]

This procedure involves gathering the patient’s saliva (enough to fill a saliva collection tube) for laboratory analysis.[25]

Examples of agglutination tests involving saliva extraction include the rapid and invasive-free detection of Streptococcus gordonii.[1]

Blood

Extraction of blood via a venipuncture for laboratory testing.

The extraction of blood is a standard method used for agglutination tests.[26]

This method commonly involves the use of a venipuncture to extract a patient’s blood sample.[27] This extraction method is used in many agglutination tests, which detects the presence of bacterial antigens in a patient’s blood.[28]

The use of blood testing via agglutination tests provides a fast and easy method to detect the presence of antigens, thus, serving an important role in clinical diagnosis.[29]

The agglutination test also provides information regarding the blood typing of individuals required during donor and recipient blood transfusions.[30]

Blood extraction is also used in agglutination tests to detect the presence of white blood cells (leukoagglutination) as seen in the detection of Pneumonia (Mycoplasma pneumoniae).[2]

Urine

Urine collected in sample vial for laboratory testing.

The extraction of urine is a method used to detect and test the presence of specific bacteria in a patient’s serum.[28]

This procedure involves the collection of the patient’s urine (enough to fill a urine collection vial) for laboratory analysis.[31]

Examples of agglutination tests involving urine extraction include the invasive-free rapid detection of visceral leishmaniasis[3] and the presence of invasive bacterial infection in children.[32]

Cerebrospinal fluid

Cerebrospinal fluid extraction via lumbar puncture.

The extraction of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) through a lumbar puncture is a method used to gather a patient’s sample for agglutination test analysis for the detection of specific bacteria in a patient’s serum.[33]

This test involves the insertion of a spinal needle between the lumbar vertebrae to extract cerebrospinal fluid from the subarachnoid space of a lying or seated patient.[34]

Although this procedure is invasive, the spinal level is highly selective, which prevents the occurrence of spinal injuries.[35]

Another method used for the extraction of CSF is spinal anaesthesia which involves the removal of a patients CSF in a seated position, the use of this procedure is implemented in special clinical circumstances to prevent the formation of scoliosis or unreliable anatomical landmarks in obese patients.[36]

In children, both a lying flexed position and seated position can be used when obtaining CSF, however, due to the anatomical differences of children's spines to adults, the lumbar punctures are inserted at different spinal locations while using different methods such as the Cincinnati method.[37]

The CSF collection of lumbar punctures are sent to laboratories for testing and diagnosis via agglutination tests.[38]

Examples of antibody-mediated tests for CSF include the detection of antigens in common bacterial pathogens, the diagnosis of neurosyphilis,[39] Lyme disease,[40] and the detection of specific antibodies in patient samples.[4]

Methods

Agglutination test used to determine the ABO blood type of a patient blood samples.

Slide agglutination test

Slide agglutination tests are used in many laboratory settings to detect the presence of an antigen by using a known antibody which binds to the specific antigen of interest.[41]

This test involves placing a specified concentration and volume of the killed antigen of interest with the patient’s serum sample on a slide, plate, or card.[42] This mixture is then carefully rocked side to side, which allows both the primary and secondary phases of agglutination to occur over a specified period (seconds to minutes).[43][44]

The diagnosis of the results is made though naked eye observations of clump formation in the mixed samples.[45]

Slide agglutination tests are also used for the serotyping of bacterial strains, such as Salmonella for the diagnosis of a disease or illness.[46] Additionally, this test is also commonly used to identify the ABO blood type group of a patient due to its rapid qualitative, inexpensive, and straightforward methodological approach.[8]

The slide agglutination test does not provide quantitative analysis.[47]

Tube agglutination test

The tube agglutination test (also known as the serum agglutination test (SAT)) is a laboratory test which involves the serial dilution and testing of a patient’s serum.[48] The test is performed by the preparation of different dilutions of a patient’s serum (doubling dilutions) at increasing concentrations.[49] Specifically defined amounts of antigen are then added to each of these tubes and incubated at 37ºC for approximately 20 hours.[50] After incubation, the tubes are then qualitatively observed to detect the presence of clumps at the bottom of each test tube.[49] This test is analysed using the 50% agglutination method to obtain the titer about its relative agglutination amount.[50] This test only provides a semi-quantitative analysis, is less time-consuming and requires small volumes of antigen and serum.[51] This test is laborious, time consuming, requires several reagents and additional confirmatory ELISA tests.[52] Examples of the use of this method can be seen when detecting the presence of Brucellosis.[53]

Passive agglutination test

The passive agglutination test is used in laboratory settings to detect the presence of a specific antibody through the use of particles or cells (without antigenic markers) coated with a known antigen (insoluble).[54] These coated particles (soluble) such as red blood cells, latex,[55] bentonite[56] or charcoal[57] are mixed with the patient’s serum (or bodily fluid sample).[54] This mixture is then left to allow primary and secondary phases of agglutination to occur over a specified period (seconds to minutes).[58] The clumping of the mixture indicates the presence of the antibodies which are specific to the antigen of interest.[54] This procedure provides a qualitative analysis which is rapid and simple but does require laborious preparation and is expensive.[54] Examples of the use of this method involve the detection of rheumatoid factor,[59] antinuclear antibodies[60] in LE cell test and group A streptococcus.[61]

Reverse passive agglutination test

The reverse passive agglutination test is used in the laboratory setting to detect the presence of a specific antigen.[62] This procedure involves the attachment of the complementary antibody to a solid surface carrier particle instead of the antigen.[63] When the patients bodily fluid sample containing the antigen of interest is added to the solid surface, the antigens bind to the soluble antibody coated in the carrier particles causing the primary and secondary phases of agglutination to occur within minutes to hours.[64] This procedure is sensitive for antibody detection and provides a qualitative analysis which is rapid, efficient and straightforward but does require laborious preparation of dilutions and the right quantities of antigen and antibodies.[65] Examples of the use of this method involve the detection of tubercular meningitis[62] and the toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae.[66]

Microscopic agglutination test

Microplate wells of different blood dilutions to determine the titer of an antigen of interest.

The microscopic agglutination test (MAT) is a standard laboratory test used for the serodiagnosis of leptospirosis in a patient’s serum sample.[67]

This procedure involves the preparation of serial dilutions of a patient's serum.[67] These dilutions are then mixed with a specified amount of the live strain of the antigen of interest.[68] The presence of leptospires in a patient’s sample is observed by the presence of agglutinated clumps under dark-field microscopy.[69] The titer is determined by qualitative comparison to the control after 2 weeks to determine the point of 50% agglutination.[70]

This qualitative method requires the maintenance of live cultures, paired sera for optimal results, is time-consuming and is less sensitive than ELISA.[71]

Examples of its use include diagnosis and epidemiological serological characterisation of leptospiral isolates.[70]

Haemagglutination test (HAT)

Schematic diagram of the direct Coombs test, showing how it is performed at the micro- and macroscopic scale.

The haemagglutination test is used in the laboratory setting to detect the presence of a specific viral or microbial antigens[72] or for the ABO grouping of a patient’s blood.[73]

Viral and microbial antigens contain proteins which bind to the surface of red blood cells resulting in agglutination.[74] The detection of viral antigens in a patient’s blood is tested through the process of serial dilutions into an assay tray (microtiter plate).[75] Standard defined amounts of the antigen of interest are then added to each of these wells and left for approximately 30 minutes to allow primary and secondary phases of agglutination to occur.[76]

This semi-quantitative method provides a quick and inexpensive method for the estimation of the number of viral particles.[76] Examples of the use of this method involve the detection of Newcastle disease virus (NDV),[77] adenovirus type 3,[78] Avian influenza virus (AIV),[79] Avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV)[80] and mycoplasma synoviae.[81]

This test is also used for blood typing of a patient’s blood by using antibodies which bind to the A or B blood group antigens in a patient’s blood with the addition of a direct Coombs test in the presence of confounding antibodies.[76][82]

See also

  • Agglutination (Biology), a biological understanding.
  • Antigen-antibody interaction, further understanding of background.
  • Widal test, first agglutination test.
  • Saliva testing, the extraction and testing of saliva.
  • Blood test, the extraction and testing of blood.
  • Venipuncture, a common method of blood extraction.
  • Lumbar puncture, method used for CSF extraction.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Itzek, A.; Chen, Z.; Merritt, J.; Kreth, J. (2017). "Effect of salivary agglutination on oral streptococcal clearance by human polymorphonuclear neutrophil granulocytes". Molecular Oral Microbiology. 32 (3): 197–210. doi:10.1111/omi.12164. PMC 5116291. PMID 27194631.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Kubota, Yasushi; Hirakawa, Yuka; Wakayama, Kazuo; Kimura, Shinya (2017). "Peculiar cold-induced leukoagglutination in Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia". Turkish Journal of Hematology. 34 (4): 354–355. doi:10.4274/tjh.2017.0203. PMC 5774369. PMID 28611012.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Adcock, P. M.; Paul, R. I.; Marshall, G. S. (1995). "Effect of urine latex agglutination tests on the treatment of children at risk for invasive bacterial infection". Pediatrics. 96 (5 Pt 1): 951–4. PMID 7478842.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Olson, D. A.; Hoeprich, P. D. (1984). "Analysis of bacterial isolates from cerebrospinal fluid". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 19 (2): 144–146. doi:10.1128/JCM.19.2.144-146.1984. PMC 271004. PMID 6699142.
  5. ↑ Brandão AP, Camargo ED, da Silva ED, Silva MV, Abrão RV (1998). "Macroscopic agglutination test for rapid diagnosis of human leptospirosis". J Clin Microbiol. 36 (11): 3138–42. doi:10.1128/JCM.36.11.3138-3142.1998. PMC 105289. PMID 9774553.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ Yu, Hui; Zhao, Guangying; Dou, Wenchao (2015-06-06). "Simultaneous Detection of Pathogenic Bacteria Using Agglutination Test Based on Colored Silica Nanoparticles". Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. 16 (8): 716–723. doi:10.2174/1389201016666150505121713. ISSN 1389-2010. PMID 25941889.
  7. ↑ Lalitha MK, Pai R, John TJ, Thomas K, Jesudason MV, Brahmadathan KN; et al. (1996). "Serotyping of Streptococcus pneumoniae by agglutination assays: a cost-effective technique for developing countries". Bull World Health Organ. 74 (4): 387–90. PMC 2486887. PMID 8823960.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Mujahid, Adnan; Dickert, Franz (2015). "Blood Group Typing: From Classical Strategies to the Application of Synthetic Antibodies Generated by Molecular Imprinting". Sensors. 16 (1): 51. Bibcode:2015Senso..16...51M. doi:10.3390/s16010051. PMC 4732084. PMID 26729127. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  9. ↑ Johnson, J.; Duffy, K.; New, L.; Holliman, R. E.; Chessum, B. S.; Fleck, D. G. (1989). "Direct agglutination test and other assays for measuring antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 42 (5): 536–541. doi:10.1136/jcp.42.5.536. PMC 1141964. PMID 2732349.
  10. ↑ Gerber MA, Caparas LS, Randolph MF (1990). "Evaluation of a new latex agglutination test for detection of streptolysin O antibodies". J Clin Microbiol. 28 (3): 413–5. doi:10.1128/JCM.28.3.413-415.1990. PMC 269633. PMID 2182665.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ↑ Miller, Gail Lorenz; Stanley, W. M. (1944). "Quantitative Aspects of the Red Blood Cell Agglutination Test for Influenza Virus". The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 79 (2): 185–195. doi:10.1084/jem.79.2.185. ISSN 1540-9538. PMC 2135446. PMID 19871362.
  12. ↑ Marineli, F.; Tsoucalas, G.; Karamanou, M.; Androutsos, G. (2013). "Mary Mallon (1869-1938) and the history of typhoid fever". Annals of Gastroenterology. 26 (2): 132–134. PMC 3959940. PMID 24714738.
  13. ↑ Storey, Helen L.; Huang, Ying; Crudder, Chris; Golden, Allison; De Los Santos, Tala; Hawkins, Kenneth (2015). "A Meta-Analysis of Typhoid Diagnostic Accuracy Studies: A Recommendation to Adopt a Standardized Composite Reference". PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0142364. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1042364S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142364. PMC 4643909. PMID 26566275.
  14. ↑ Hoffman, Stephen L.; Flanigan, Timothy P.; Klaucke, Douglas; Leksana, Budhi; Rockhill, Robert C.; Punjabi, Narain H.; Pulungsih, SRI Pandam; Sutomo, Arini; Moechtar, M. Asril (1986). "The Widal Slide Agglutination Test, A Valuable Rapid Diagnostic Test in Typhoid Fever Patients at the Infectious Diseases Hospital of Jakarta". American Journal of Epidemiology. 123 (5): 869–875. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a114316. PMID 3962968.
  15. ↑ Gruenewald, R.; Dixon, D. P.; Brun, M.; Yappow, S.; Henderson, R.; Douglas, J. E.; Backer, M. H. (1990). "Identification of Salmonella somatic and flagellar antigens by modified serological methods". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 56 (1): 24–30. Bibcode:1990ApEnM..56...24G. doi:10.1128/AEM.56.1.24-30.1990. PMC 183245. PMID 1689983.
  16. ↑ Bhutta, Zulfiqar A. (2006). "Current concepts in the diagnosis and treatment of typhoid fever". BMJ. 333 (7558): 78–82. doi:10.1136/bmj.333.7558.78. PMC 1489205. PMID 16825230.
  17. ↑ Olopoenia, L. A (2000-02-01). "Classic methods revisited: Widal agglutination test - 100 years later: still plagued by controversy". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 76 (892): 80–84. doi:10.1136/pmj.76.892.80. ISSN 0032-5473. PMC 1741491. PMID 10644383.
  18. ↑ Souf, Selma (2016). "Recent advances in diagnostic testing for viral infections". Bioscience Horizons. 9: hzw010. doi:10.1093/biohorizons/hzw010. ISSN 1754-7431. PMC 7189836 Check |pmc= value (help). Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  19. ↑ ELEK SD; SMITH BV; HIGHMAN W (1964). "The Interaction of Antigen and Antibody in Agglutination. A Study by Electron Microscopy". Immunology. 7: 570–85. PMC 1423412. PMID 14210767.
  20. ↑ Gupta, A.; Chaudhary, V. K. (2003). "Whole-Blood Agglutination Assay for On-Site Detection of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 41 (7): 2814–2821. doi:10.1128/JCM.41.7.2814-2821.2003. PMC 165333. PMID 12843006. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  21. ↑ Essers, L.; Radebold, K. (1980). "Rapid and reliable identification of Staphylococcus aureus by a latex agglutination test". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 12 (5): 641–643. doi:10.1128/JCM.12.5.641-643.1980. PMC 273662. PMID 7024295.
  22. ↑ Herman, Morris; Wiener, Alexander S. (1939-04-01). "The Second Stage of the Agglutinative Reaction". The Journal of Immunology. 36 (4): 255–259. ISSN 0022-1767.
  23. ↑ Ellis, Richard W.; Sobanski, Michael A. (2000). "Diagnostic particle agglutination using ultrasound: A new technology to rejuvenate old microbiological methods". Journal of Medical Microbiology. 49 (10): 853–859. doi:10.1099/0022-1317-49-10-853. PMID 11023182.
  24. ↑ Scannapieco, Frank A. (1994). "Saliva-Bacterium Interactions in Oral Microbial Ecology". Critical Reviews in Oral Biology & Medicine. 5 (3): 203–248. doi:10.1177/10454411940050030201. PMID 7703323.
  25. ↑ Hofman, Lindsay F. (2001). "Human Saliva as a Diagnostic Specimen". The Journal of Nutrition. 131 (5): 1621S–1625S. doi:10.1093/jn/131.5.1621S. PMID 11340128.
  26. ↑ Sohn, Emily (2017). "Diagnosis: Frontiers in blood testing". Nature. 549 (7673): S16–S18. Bibcode:2017Natur.549S..16S. doi:10.1038/549S16a. PMID 28953862. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  27. ↑ Ortells-Abuye, Nativitat; Busquets-Puigdevall, Teresa; Díaz-Bergara, Maribel; Paguina-Marcos, Marta; Sánchez-Pérez, Inma (2014). "A cross-sectional study to compare two blood collection methods: Direct venous puncture and peripheral venous catheter". BMJ Open. 4 (2): e004250. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004250. PMC 3939659. PMID 24578539.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Kaldor, Jakov; Asznowicz, Richard; Buist, David G. P. (1977). "Latex Agglutination in Diagnosis of Bacterial Infections, with Special Reference to Patients with Meningitis and Septicemia". American Journal of Clinical Pathology. 68 (2): 284–289. doi:10.1093/ajcp/68.2.284. PMID 879103.
  29. ↑ Lima-Oliveira, Gabriel; Lippi, Giuseppe; Salvagno, Gian Luca; Picheth, Geraldo; Guidi, Gian Cesare (2015). "Laboratory Diagnostics and Quality of Blood Collection / Laboratorijska Dijagnostika I Kvalitet Uzimanja Uzoraka Krvi". Journal of Medical Biochemistry. 34 (3): 288–294. doi:10.2478/jomb-2014-0043. PMC 4922344. PMID 28356839. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  30. ↑ Huet, Maxime; Cubizolles, Myriam; Buhot, Arnaud (2018). "Red Blood Cell Agglutination for Blood Typing within Passive Microfluidic Biochips". High-Throughput. 7 (2): 10. doi:10.3390/ht7020010. PMC 6023492. PMID 29671804. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  31. ↑ Cook, J. D.; Strauss, K. A.; Caplan, Y. H.; LoDico, C. P.; Bush, D. M. (2007-10-01). "Urine pH: the Effects of Time and Temperature after Collection". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 31 (8): 486–496. doi:10.1093/jat/31.8.486. ISSN 0146-4760. PMID 17988463.
  32. ↑ Islam, Mohammad Zahidul; Ahmed, Iftikhar; Sarder, Abdul Halim; Mirza, Rusella; Kimura, Eisaku; Hashiguchi, Yoshihisa; Itoh, Makoto; Ekram, A. R. M. Saifuddin; Shamsuzzaman, S. M. (2004). "Direct Agglutination Test with Urine Samples for the Diagnosis of Visceral Leishmaniasis". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 70 (1): 78–82. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2004.70.78. PMID 14971702.
  33. ↑ Finlay, F. O.; Witherow, H.; Rudd, P. T. (1995). "Latex agglutination testing in bacterial meningitis". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 73 (2): 160–161. doi:10.1136/adc.73.2.160. PMC 1511195. PMID 7574863.
  34. ↑ Doherty, C. M.; Forbes, R. B. (2014). "Diagnostic Lumbar Puncture". The Ulster Medical Journal. 83 (2): 93–102. PMC 4113153. PMID 25075138.
  35. ↑ Chan, P.; Hellmuth, J.; Colby, D.; Kroon, E.; Sacdalan, C.; Fletcher, J.; Patel, P.; Pinyakorn, S.; Valcour, V.; Ananworanich, J.; Spudich, S. (2018). "Safety of lumbar puncture procedure in an international research setting during acute HIV infection". Journal of Virus Eradication. 4 (1): 16–20. doi:10.1016/S2055-6640(20)30236-3. PMC 5851179. PMID 29568548.
  36. ↑ "Studies from Emory University Yield New Information about Neuroradiology (Difficult Lumbar Puncture: Pitfalls and Tips from the Trenches)". Obesity, Fitness & Wellness Week. August 19, 2017. p. 400. ProQuest 1927703398 – via ProQuest.
  37. ↑ Bonadio, William (January 2014). "Pediatric Lumbar Puncture and Cerebrospinal Fluid Analysis". The Journal of Emergency Medicine. 46 (1): 141–150. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2013.08.056. PMID 24188604.
  38. ↑ Khater, Walaa Shawky; Elabd, Safia Hamed (2016). "Identification of Common Bacterial Pathogens Causing Meningitis in Culture-Negative Cerebrospinal Fluid Samples Using Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction". International Journal of Microbiology. 2016: 1–5. doi:10.1155/2016/4197187. PMC 4983665. PMID 27563310.
  39. ↑ Ratnam, Sam (January 2005). "The laboratory diagnosis of syphilis". The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases & Medical Microbiology = Journal Canadien des Maladies Infectieuses et de la Microbiologie Medicale. 16 (1): 45–51. doi:10.1155/2005/597580. ISSN 1712-9532. PMC 2095002. PMID 18159528.
  40. ↑ Arimitsu, Y.; Takashima, I.; Yoshii, Z.; Higashi, Y.; Kameyama, S.; Mizuguchi, J. (1991). "Application of the Microcapsule Agglutination Test to Serologic Studies of an Early Stage of Lyme Disease in Japan". Journal of Infectious Diseases. 163 (3): 682–683. doi:10.1093/infdis/163.3.682. PMID 1995749.
  41. ↑ Myrick, B. A.; Ellner, P. D. (1982). "Evaluation of the latex slide agglutination test for identification of Staphylococcus aureus". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 15 (2): 275–277. doi:10.1128/JCM.15.2.275-277.1982. PMC 272075. PMID 7068822.
  42. ↑ Danielsson, Dan; Kronvall, Göran (1974). "Slide Agglutination Method for the Serological Identification of Neisseria gonorrhoeae with Anti-Gonococcal Antibodies Adsorbed to Protein A-Containing Staphylococci". Applied Microbiology. 27 (2): 368–374. doi:10.1128/AEM.27.2.368-374.1974. PMC 380037. PMID 4207280.
  43. ↑ Parija, Subhashchandra; Biswas, Rakhi (2011). "A rapid slide agglutination test for the diagnosis of neurocysticercosis in the rural health set up". Tropical Parasitology. 1 (2): 94–8. doi:10.4103/2229-5070.86942. PMC 3593488. PMID 23508849.
  44. ↑ Rosario, M.; Capeding, Z.; Nohynek, H.; Ruutu, P.; Leinonen, M. (1991). "Evaluation of a new tube latex agglutination test for detection of type-specific pneumococcal antigens in urine". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 29 (9): 1818–1821. doi:10.1128/JCM.29.9.1818-1821.1991. PMC 270217. PMID 1774301.
  45. ↑ Lim, Pak-Leong; Tam, Frankie C. H.; Cheong, Yuet-Meng; Jegathesan, M. (1998). "One-Step 2-Minute Test to Detect Typhoid-Specific Antibodies Based on Particle Separation in Tubes". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 36 (8): 2271–2278. doi:10.1128/JCM.36.8.2271-2278.1998. PMC 105030. PMID 9666004.
  46. ↑ John, T. J.; Sivadasan, K.; Kurien, B. (1984). "Evaluation of passive bacterial agglutination for the diagnosis of typhoid fever". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 20 (4): 751–753. doi:10.1128/JCM.20.4.751-753.1984. PMC 271424. PMID 6490859.
  47. ↑ Mantur, Basappa G.; Amarnath, Satish K.; Patil, Giridhar A.; Desai, Arun S. (2014). "Clinical utility of a quantitative Rose Bengal slide agglutination test in the diagnosis of human brucellosis in an endemic region". Clinical Laboratory. 60 (4): 533–541. doi:10.7754/clin.lab.2013.121120. ISSN 1433-6510. PMID 24779287.
  48. ↑ Banerjee, D. P.; Sharma, S. K.; Gautam, O. P.; Sarup, Shanti (1978). "The use of spleen antigen in the tube agglutination test for diagnosis of anaplasmosis in cattle". Tropical Animal Health and Production. 10 (2): 83–86. doi:10.1007/BF02235312. PMID 664018. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Ley, Benedikt; Mtove, George; Thriemer, Kamala; Amos, Ben; von Seidlein, Lorenz; Hendriksen, Ilse; Mwambuli, Abraham; Shoo, Aikande; Malahiyo, Rajabu; Ame, Shaali M.; Kim, Deok R.; Ochiai, Leon R.; Clemens, John D.; Reyburn, Hugh; Wilfing, Harald; Magesa, Stephen; Deen, Jacqueline L. (2010). "Evaluation of the Widal tube agglutination test for the diagnosis of typhoid fever among children admitted to a rural hdospital in Tanzania and a comparison with previous studies". BMC Infectious Diseases. 10: 180. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-10-180. PMC 2898821. PMID 20565990.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 wasihun, Araya Gebreyesus; Wlekidan, Letemichael Negash; Gebremariam, Senay Aregawi; Welderufael, Abadi Luel; Muthupandian, Saravanan; Haile, Tadesse Dejenie; Dejene, Tsehaye Asmelash (June 2015). "Diagnosis and Treatment of Typhoid Fever and Associated Prevailing Drug Resistance in Northern Ethiopia". International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 35: 96–102. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2015.04.014. PMID 25931197.
  51. ↑ Gaikwad, Ujjwalan; Rajurkar, Monali (2014). "Diagnostic efficacy of Widal slide agglutination test against Widal tube agglutination test in enteric fever". International Journal of Medicine and Public Health. 4 (3): 227. doi:10.4103/2230-8598.137706.
  52. ↑ Mohseni, K.; Mirnejad, R.; Piranfar, V.; Mirkalantari, S. (2017). "A Comparative Evaluation of ELISA, PCR, and Serum Agglutination Tests for Diagnosis of Brucella Using Human Serum". Iranian Journal of Pathology. 12 (4): 371–376. doi:10.30699/ijp.2017.28293. PMC 5844682. PMID 29563933.
  53. ↑ Purwar, Shashank; Metgud, S. C.; Mutnal, M. B.; Nagamoti, M. B.; Patil, C. S. (2016). "Utility of Serological Tests in the Era of Molecular Testing for Diagnosis of Human Brucellosis in Endemic Area with Limited Resources". Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 10 (2): DC26–9. doi:10.7860/JCDR/2016/15525.7311. PMC 4800530. PMID 27042465.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 Yoshida, T.; Matsui, T.; Kobayashi, S.; Yamamoto, N. (1987). "Evaluation of passive particle agglutination test for antibody to human immunodeficiency virus". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 25 (8): 1433–1437. doi:10.1128/JCM.25.8.1433-1437.1987. PMC 269241. PMID 3305558.
  55. ↑ Scotland, S. M.; Flomen, R. H.; Rowe, B. (1989). "Evaluation of a reversed passive latex agglutination test for detection of Escherichia coli heat-labile toxin in culture supernatants". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 27 (2): 339–340. doi:10.1128/JCM.27.2.339-340.1989. PMC 267305. PMID 2644296.
  56. ↑ Johnson, H. M.; Brenner, K.; Angelotti, R.; Hall, H. E. (1966). "Serological Studies of Types A, B, and e Botulinal Toxins by Passive Hemagglutination and Bentonite Flocculation". Journal of Bacteriology. 91 (3): 967–974. doi:10.1128/JB.91.3.967-974.1966. PMC 315986. PMID 5326104.
  57. ↑ Gordon, Morris A.; Lapa, Edward (1971). "Charcoal Particle Agglutination Test for Detection of Antibody to Cryptococcus neoformans: A Preliminary Report". American Journal of Clinical Pathology. 56 (3): 354–359. doi:10.1093/ajcp/56.3.354. PMID 5094496.
  58. ↑ Schipper, I. A.; Kelling, C.; Ebeltoft, H.; Graves, D. (1973). "Comparison of the direct agglutination and indirect hemagglutination tests in the determination of blood serum titers to Escherichia coli organisms". Applied Microbiology. 25 (3): 458–60. doi:10.1128/AEM.25.3.458-460.1973. PMC 380828. PMID 4572895.
  59. ↑ Ziff, Morris (1957). "The agglutination reaction in rheumatoid arthritis". Journal of Chronic Diseases. 5 (6): 644–667. doi:10.1016/0021-9681(57)90074-7. PMID 13428829.
  60. ↑ Kumar, Yashwant; Bhatia, Alka; Minz, Ranjana (2009). "Antinuclear antibodies and their detection methods in diagnosis of connective tissue diseases: A journey revisited". Diagnostic Pathology. 4: 1. doi:10.1186/1746-1596-4-1. PMC 2628865. PMID 19121207.
  61. ↑ Bisno, A. L.; Ofek, I.; Beachey, E. H. (1976). "Antigens of group a streptococci involved in passive hemagglutination reactions". Infection and Immunity. 13 (2): 407–412. doi:10.1128/IAI.13.2.407-412.1976. PMC 420627. PMID 770327.
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Venkatesh, K.; Parija, S. C.; Mahadevan, S.; Negi, V. S. (January 2007). "Reverse passive haemagglutination (RPHA) test for detection of mycobacterial antigen in the cerebrospinal fluid for diagnosis of tubercular meningitis". The Indian Journal of Tuberculosis. 54 (1): 41–48. ISSN 0019-5707. PMID 17455423.
  63. ↑ Ravi, V.; Premkumar, S.; Chandramuki, A.; Kimura-Kuroda, J. (March 1989). "A reverse passive haemagglutination test for detection of Japanese encephalitis virus antigens in cerebrospinal fluid". Journal of Virological Methods. 23 (3): 291–298. doi:10.1016/0166-0934(89)90161-4. ISSN 0166-0934. PMID 2541154.
  64. ↑ Toma, C.; Sisavath, L.; Iwanaga, M. (1997). "Reversed passive latex agglutination assay for detection of toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 35 (12): 3147–9. doi:10.1128/JCM.35.12.3147-3149.1997. OCLC 679262108. PMC 230138. PMID 9399510.
  65. ↑ Chart, H.; Willshaw, G.A.; Cheasty, T. (June 2001). "Evaluation of a reversed passive latex agglutination test for the detection of Verocytotoxin (VT) expressed by strains of VT-producing Escherichia coli". Letters in Applied Microbiology. 32 (6): 370–374. doi:10.1046/j.1472-765x.2001.00921.x. ISSN 0266-8254. PMID 11412345. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  66. ↑ Toma, C.; Sisavath, L.; Iwanaga, M. (December 1997). "Reversed passive latex agglutination assay for detection of toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 35 (12): 3147–3149. doi:10.1128/JCM.35.12.3147-3149.1997. ISSN 0095-1137. PMC 230138. PMID 9399510.
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  68. ↑ Niloofa, Roshan; Fernando, Narmada; De Silva, Nipun Lakshitha; Karunanayake, Lilani; Wickramasinghe, Hasith; Dikmadugoda, Nandana; Premawansa, Gayani; Wickramasinghe, Rajitha; De Silva, H. Janaka; Premawansa, Sunil; Rajapakse, Senaka; Handunnetti, Shiroma (2015). "Diagnosis of Leptospirosis: Comparison between Microscopic Agglutination Test, IgM-ELISA and IgM Rapid Immunochromatography Test". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0129236. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1029236N. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129236. PMC 4472754. PMID 26086800.
  69. ↑ Bhatia, M.; Umapathy, BL; Navaneeth, BV (2015). "An evaluation of dark field microscopy, culture and commercial serological kits in the diagnosis of leptospirosis". Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology. 33 (3): 416–21. doi:10.4103/0255-0857.158570. PMID 26068347. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Effler, P. V.; Bogard, A. K.; Domen, H. Y.; Katz, A. R.; Higa, H. Y.; Sasaki, D. M. (2002). "Evaluation of Eight Rapid Screening Tests for Acute Leptospirosis in Hawaii". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 40 (4): 1464–1469. doi:10.1128/JCM.40.4.1464-1469.2002. PMC 140343. PMID 11923374.
  71. ↑ Mulla, Summaiya; Chakraborty, Tanuja; Patel, Manish; Pandya, H. P.; Dadhaniya, Vipul; Vaghela, Geeta (July 2006). "Diagnosis of leptospirosis and comparison of ELISA and MAT techniques". Indian Journal of Pathology & Microbiology. 49 (3): 468–470. ISSN 0377-4929. PMID 17001926.
  72. ↑ Wilson, Garrett; Ye, Zhiping; Xie, Hang; Vahl, Steven; Dawson, Erica; Rowlen, Kathy (2017). "Automated interpretation of influenza hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) assays: Is plate tilting necessary?". PLOS ONE. 12 (6): e0179939. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1279939W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0179939. PMC 5491073. PMID 28662088.
  73. ↑ Ashiba, Hiroki; Fujimaki, Makoto; Awazu, Koichi; Fu, Mengying; Ohki, Yoshimichi; Tanaka, Torahiko; Makishima, Makoto (2016). "Rapid detection of hemagglutination using restrictive microfluidic channels equipped with waveguide-mode sensors". Japanese Journal of Applied Physics. 55 (2): 027002. Bibcode:2016JaJAP..55b7002A. doi:10.7567/JJAP.55.027002.
  74. ↑ Bang, F. B.; Foard, M. A. (1952). "The Effect of Newcastle Disease Virus on Chicken Red Blood Cells: I. The Variation in Agglutination Patterns with Different Strains of Virus1". American Journal of Epidemiology. 55 (3): 363–372. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a119528. PMID 14933377.
  75. ↑ Zacour, Mary; Ward, Brian J.; Brewer, Angela; Tang, Patrick; Boivin, Guy; Li, Yan; Warhuus, Michelle; McNeil, Shelly A.; Leblanc, Jason J.; Hatchette, Todd F.; Public Health Agency of Canada Canadian Institutes of Health Influenza Research Network (PCIRN) (2016). "Standardization of Hemagglutination Inhibition Assay for Influenza Serology Allows for High Reproducibility between Laboratories". Clinical and Vaccine Immunology. 23 (3): 236–242. doi:10.1128/CVI.00613-15. PMC 4783428. PMID 26818953.
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 Costabile, Maurizio (2010). "Determining the Reactivity and Titre of Serum using a Haemagglutination Assay". Journal of Visualized Experiments (35). doi:10.3791/1752. PMC 2818707. PMID 20118894.
  77. ↑ Florman, A. L. (1947-04-01). "Hemagglutination with Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV)". Experimental Biology and Medicine. 64 (4): 458–463. doi:10.3181/00379727-64-15830. ISSN 1535-3702. PMID 20239458. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  78. ↑ Pereira, H.G.; De Figueiredo, M.V.T. (1962). "Mechanism of hemagglutination by adenovirus types 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6". Virology. 18: 1–8. doi:10.1016/0042-6822(62)90171-X. PMID 14485222.
  79. ↑ Killian, Mary Lea (2008). "Hemagglutination Assay for the Avian Influenza Virus". Avian Influenza Virus. Methods in Molecular Biology. 436. Humana Press. pp. 47–52. doi:10.1007/978-1-59745-279-3_7. ISBN 9781588299390. PMID 18370040. Search this book on
  80. ↑ Bingham, R. W.; Madge, M. H.; Tyrrell, D. A. J. (1975). "Haemagglutination by Avian Infectious Bronchitis Virus -- a Coronavirus". Journal of General Virology. 28 (3): 381–390. doi:10.1099/0022-1317-28-3-381. PMID 170378.
  81. ↑ Windsor, G.D.; Thompson, G.W.; Baker, N.W. (1975). "Haemagglutination and haemagglutination inhibition with Mycoplasma synoviae". Research in Veterinary Science. 18 (1): 59–63. doi:10.1016/S0034-5288(18)33631-2. PMID 1118664.
  82. ↑ Parker, Victoria; Tormey, Christopher A. (2017). "The Direct Antiglobulin Test: Indications, Interpretation, and Pitfalls". Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine. 141 (2): 305–310. doi:10.5858/arpa.2015-0444-RS. PMID 28134589.

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