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Cuisine of Antarctica

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki


Antarctica does not have a traditional cuisine due to the lack of permanent inhabitants, farms, or native wildlife. Food on research bases is imported and generally resembles what people eat in their home countries, with an emphasis on maximizing shelf life and nutritional value.

Overview

Main article: Wildlife of Antarctica § Animals
Emerald rockcod (Trematomus bernacchii)

Compared to other major oceans, the Southern Ocean has relatively few fish species concentrated in a few families. The most species-rich family is the snailfish (Liparidae), the cod icefish (Nototheniidae) and the eelpouts (Zoarcidae). Together, snailfish, eelpouts, and notothenioids account for nearly 90% of the more than 320 described fish species in the Southern Ocean. Many undescribed species, particularly among snailfish, are also present. On the Antarctic continental shelf and upper slope, there are more than 220 species, with notothenioids dominating both in the number of species and biomass. Southern Ocean snailfish and eelpouts are generally found in deep waters, while icefish are common in shallower waters.[1][2] Other families represented in the region include hagfish (Myxinidae), lamprey (Petromyzontidae), skates (Rajidae), pearlfish (Carapidae), morid cods (Moridae), eel cods (Muraenolepididae), gadid cods (Gadidae), horsefish (Congiopodidae), Antarctic sculpins (Bathylutichthyidae), triplefins (Tripterygiidae), and southern flounders (Achiropsettidae). Nearly 90% of fish species found south of the Antarctic Convergence are endemic to the region.[3] These species can be caught using specialized fishing equipment; however, fishing activities are strictly regulated under the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to protect the ecosystem.

The rocky shores of mainland Antarctica and its offshore islands provide nesting space for over 100 million birds every spring. These birds include species such as albatrosses, petrels, skuas, gulls, and terns.[4] The South Georgia pipit is endemic to South Georgia and some smaller surrounding islands. Ducks, including the South Georgia pintail and Eaton's pintail, inhabit South Georgia, Kerguelen, and Crozet.[5] The flightless penguins are almost entirely located in the Southern Hemisphere, with the exception of the equatorial Galapagos penguin. The greatest concentration of penguins is found on and around Antarctica. Four of the eighteen penguin species live and breed on the mainland and its close offshore islands, while another four species live on subantarctic islands.[6] Emperor penguins are known for their four overlapping layers of feathers, which help to keep them warm, and a countercurrent heat exchange system that reduces heat loss by cooling blood as it reaches extremities like their feet.[7] Emperor penguins are also the only Antarctic animals that breed during the winter.[8] Mainland species in Antarctica are legally protected from hunting and cannot be consumed. The Antarctic Treaty System, which governs the region, seeks to safeguard the environment and wildlife, with violations subject to penalties such as fines, imprisonment, or removal from Antarctica. Under the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, individuals accused of a crime in Antarctica are subject to the legal jurisdiction and penalties of their home country.[9]

Six pinniped species inhabit Antarctica. The largest, the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), can reach up to 4,000 kilograms (8,818 lb)[10] and over 6 metres (20 ft) in length,[11] while females of the smallest, the Antarctic fur seal (Arctophoca gazella), reach only 150 kilograms (331 lb). These two species live north of the sea ice and breed in harems on beaches. The other four species live on the sea ice. Crabeater seals (Lobodon carcinophagus) and Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) form breeding colonies, whereas leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) and Ross seals (Ommatophoca rossii) live solitary lives. Although these species hunt underwater, they breed on land or ice and spend significant time there, as they have no terrestrial predators.[10] The four species that inhabit sea ice are estimated to make up 50% of the total biomass of the world's seals.[12] Crabeater seals have a population of around 15 million, making them one of the most numerous large animals on the planet.[13] The New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri), one of the rarest and most localized pinnipeds, breeds almost exclusively on the subantarctic Auckland Islands, although it historically had a wider range.[14] Among permanent mammalian residents, Weddell seals live the furthest south.[15] There are ten cetacean species found in the Southern Ocean: six baleen whales and four toothed whales. The largest of these, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), grows to 24 metres (79 ft) long and weighs 84 tonnes. Many cetacean species are migratory and travel to tropical waters during the Antarctic winter.[16] Orcas, which do not migrate, nonetheless regularly travel to warmer waters, possibly to relieve the stress the temperature has on their skin.[17]

Most terrestrial invertebrates are restricted to the subantarctic islands. Although species diversity is low, those that inhabit Antarctica often have high population densities. In extreme areas of the mainland, such as the cold deserts, food webs can be limited to three nematode species, only one of which is a predator.[18] Many invertebrates on the subantarctic islands can live in subzero temperatures without freezing, whereas mainland species can survive being frozen.[19] Mites and springtails make up most terrestrial arthropod species, though spiders, beetles, and flies are also present.[18] Several thousand individuals from various mite and springtail species can be found within 1 square metre (10.8 sq ft). Beetles and flies are the most species-rich insect groups on the islands, and insects play an important role in recycling dead plant material.[19] The mainland of Antarctica has no macro-arthropods. Micro-arthropods are restricted to areas with vegetation, nutrients provided by vertebrates,[18] and the presence of liquid water.[19] Belgica antarctica, a wingless midge, is the only true insect found on the mainland and, at 2–6 mm (0.08–0.24 in) in size, is the mainland’s largest terrestrial animal.[20] Several lakes support various species of planktonic crustaceans.[21][22][23][24] Terrestrial earthworms and molluscs, along with micro-invertebrates such as nematodes, tardigrades, and rotifers, are also found.[18] Earthworms and insects are important decomposers.[19] The springtail Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni is endemic to southern Victoria Land, between Mt. George Murray (75°55′S) and Minna Bluff (78°28′S), and the adjacent nearshore islands.[25] Species of insects and mites identified in recent research from Antarctica include Belgica albipes, Belgica antarctica, and Siphlopteryx antarctica. Springtail species recorded include Antarcticinella monoculata, Cryptopygus antarcticus, Desoria klovstadi, Friesea grisea, Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni, Gressittacantha terranova, and Cryptopygus nivicolus. Mite species identified include Coccorhagidia keithi, Nanorchestes antarcticus, Stereotydeus mollis, and Tydeus setsukoae.[26]

Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) are extremely abundant, forming large swarms that can turn the water red,[27] remaining deep during the day and rising at night to feed on plankton;[28] during winter, they can shrink to a juvenile stage by consuming their own body tissue when food is scarce. Glyptonotus antarcticus and Ceratoserolis trilobitoides are large benthic isopods that demonstrate polar gigantism,[29][30] with many benthic crustaceans breeding year-round and raising their young in brood pouches.[31][32] Antarctic amphipods are diverse and abundant, feeding on algae and other animals in soft sediments, with some species, such as epimeriids, growing to large sizes.[33][34] King crabs and other crab species are found in deep Antarctic waters and, although once thought to be invaders, are now understood to be native;[35] however, many Antarctic marine animals remain highly vulnerable to even small temperature changes.[36] Slow-moving sea spiders are common in Antarctic waters, sometimes growing up to 35 cm (1 ft) in leg span,[37] and they feed on corals, sponges, and bryozoans along the seabed.

A female warty squid (Moroteuthis ingens).

Many aquatic mollusks are present in Antarctica. Bivalves such as Adamussium colbecki move around on the seafloor, while others such as Laternula elliptica live in burrows filtering the water above. There are around 70 cephalopod species in the Southern Ocean,[38] the largest of which is the colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni), which at up to 14 metres (46 ft) is among the largest invertebrates in the world.[39] Squid make up most of the diet of some animals, such as gray-headed albatrosses and sperm whales, and the warty squid (Moroteuthis ingens) is one of the subantarctic's most preyed upon species by vertebrates.[38]

The red Antarctic sea urchin (Sterechinus neumayeri) is the most well-known sea urchin species in the region and serves as a model organism in research.[40] Other species, such as those from the genus Abatus, also inhabit the Southern Ocean, burrowing through sediment to consume nutrients. Several species of brittle stars and starfish, including Odontaster validus and Labidiaster annulatus, are found in Antarctic waters and play key ecological roles.[41][42] Two species of salps, Salpa thompsoni and Ihlea racovitzai, are common, with the former found in ice-free areas and the latter near ice. These salps are low in nutritional value and are primarily consumed by fish, with larger animals eating them only when other food is scarce.[43] Marine worms, such as Parborlasia corrugata and Eulagisca gigantea, are also present, with the latter exemplifying Polar gigantism.[44][45] Like several other marine species of the region, Antarctic sponges are long-lived and sensitive to environmental changes, functioning as indicators of ecosystem health.[46] The largest species, Anoxycalyx joubini, can grow up to 2 m (6.5 ft) in height and provides habitat for various smaller organisms. Long-term studies of this sponge suggest it could live for up to 15,000 years, although recent observations show variable growth rates, with some individuals growing significantly in just a few years.[47][48]

Fungal diversity in Antarctica is lower compared to other regions, with around 1,150 identified species.[49] Lichens account for 400 of these species,[50] while 750 are non-lichenized,[49] and only about 20 are macroscopic.[50] The non-lichenized fungi belong to 416 different genera and represent all major fungal phyla. The first fungi from the subantarctic islands were identified in 1847, and the first species from the mainland were discovered in 1898. Fungal species are more abundant in terrestrial environments than marine ones, with larger species mainly found on the subantarctic islands and Antarctic Peninsula. Parasitic species in Antarctica often infect different types of hosts than they do in other regions. Less than 2-3% of species are considered endemic, and many fungi are shared with Arctic areas. The majority of fungi arrived in Antarctica through airborne currents or birds. Among the non-lichenized species, 63% are ascomycota, 23% basidiomycota, and smaller proportions of zygomycota, chytridiomycota, myxomycota, and oomycota are also present.[49] Antarctica's desert surface is not conducive to microscopic fungi due to temperature fluctuations, but stable nanoenvironments inside rocks support microbial populations. The most studied fungal communities are found in sandstone, where species arrange themselves in bands at varying depths. Antarctic environments host a range of microscopic fungi, especially yeasts.[51] Antarctica also hosts about 400 lichen species, which form symbiotic relationships with plants and fungi.[50] These lichens are highly adapted to the environment and come in three main types: crustose, foliose, and fruticose. Lichens are found in different regions, with the furthest south at 86°30'. Their growth rates vary significantly, from 1 centimetre (0.4 in) every 100 years in favorable areas to 1 centimetre (0.4 in) every 1,000 years in harsher regions, with growth typically occurring under protective layers of snow.[52]

The Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis) found on St. Andrews Bay, South Georgia.

The greatest plant diversity in Antarctica is found on the western edge of the Antarctic Peninsula.[50] Coastal algal blooms can cover up to 2 square kilometres (0.77 sq mi) of the peninsula.[53] Moss and lichen, well-adapted to the environment, can be found in rocks throughout the continent. The subantarctic islands provide a more favorable environment for plant growth than the mainland. Human activities, particularly whaling and sealing, have allowed many introduced species to establish themselves on the islands, with some thriving.[50] Some plant communities are found around fumaroles, vents that emit steam and gas, reaching temperatures of up to 60 °C (140 °F) around 10 centimetres (3.9 in) below the surface. This creates a warmer environment with liquid water due to the melting of snow and ice. The active volcano Mount Erebus and the dormant Mount Melbourne, both located in Antarctica's interior, each feature fumaroles. Two fumaroles are also present on the subantarctic islands: one on Deception Island in the South Shetland Islands, caused by a dormant volcano, and another on the South Sandwich Islands. The fumarole on Deception Island supports moss species that are not found elsewhere in Antarctica.[54] Antarctica's bryophytes include around 100 species of mosses and approximately 25 species of liverworts.[50] While not as widespread as lichens, bryophytes are found wherever plants can grow, with Ceratodon purpureus recorded as far south as 84°30' on Mount Kyffin. Unlike most bryophytes, most Antarctic bryophytes do not undergo a diploid sporophyte stage, instead reproducing asexually or having sex organs on their gametophyte stage. Only 30% of bryophytes on the Antarctic Peninsula and subantarctic islands have a sporophyte stage, and just 25% of those on the rest of the mainland produce sporophytes.[55] The Mount Melbourne fumarole hosts the only Antarctic population of Campylopus pyriformis, a species typically found in Europe and South Africa.[54] Subantarctic flora is dominated by coastal tussock grass, which can grow up to 2 metres (7 ft). Continental Antarctica is home to only two flowering plants: Antarctic hair grass (Deschampsia antarctica) and Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis). Both species are found only on the western edge of the Antarctic Peninsula and two nearby island groups, the South Orkney Islands and the South Shetland Islands.[50] Most Antarctic plant species are inedible and consuming them could result in illness. Additionally, it is generally illegal to harvest or consume wild plants in Antarctica. While some research stations have hydroponic greenhouses for food cultivation, the natural Antarctic flora is protected to preserve the ecosystem. The Antarctic Treaty prohibits the removal of native plants, and permits are required for scientific research or other activities that involve interacting with protected species.[56]

The food provided to temporary inhabitants of Antarctica mainly consists of cuisine from their home countries. Territorial claims in Antarctica are suspended under the Antarctic Treaty, but countries with research bases, such as Spain, China, India, Italy, Japan, Pakistan, Russia, South Africa, Poland, and the United States, export their national cuisines to their respective government-constructed research facilities.[57]

History

The history of food in Antarctica has been shaped by the continent's harsh environment and the need for sustenance during expeditions. Early explorers depended on provisions brought from their home countries, supplemented by limited resources from the Southern Ocean, and often faced challenges such as scurvy and starvation. Today, research stations benefit from more diverse and palatable meals, including vegetables grown in greenhouses and a range of imported goods.

The Endurance was among the first ships involved in Antarctic exploration and carried food supplies such as biscuits, York hams, sheep tongues, and 25 cases of whisky. After the ship sank and the crew became stranded, they relied heavily on hunting and foraging, consuming penguins, seals, seaweed, and occasionally the stomach contents of a sea leopard.[58] They also used pemmican, a mixture of dried beef and fat, to prepare a stew known as hoosh by combining it with crushed biscuits and melted snow.[59]

During the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, which spanned from the late 19th century to just after World War I, hunger was a shared challenge for all expeditions. Diaries and letters often mentioned food, with hoosh being a common description. Early explorers dealt with scurvy and, in some instances, starvation. Cookbooks brought on these expeditions were greatly valued. Due to food shortages, explorers depended on limited rations and supplemented their meals by hunting seals and penguins.[60][61]

In extreme cases, explorers resorted to consuming their pack animals, such as sled dogs and ponies, to reduce their load and obtain necessary sustenance.[60]

Modern research stations have improved access to food, offering a broader selection of imported goods and fresh vegetables grown in greenhouses. Special occasions, such as Midwinter Dinner, include meals that reflect the culinary skills of the chefs.[62] Some stations have successfully grown their own vegetables, providing a fresh source of nutrients, while seafood remains popular and is prepared in various ways.[63]

Cuisine

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.

Bannock

Freshly cooked bannock bread.

A bannock is a variety of flatbread or quick bread made from flour, typically round, and common in Scotland and other parts of Britain and Ireland. Usually cut into sections before serving, bannocks are often chosen for Antarctic expeditions because their dry components last a long time without refrigeration, ease of preparation with minimal equipment, and high caloric content.[64]

Hoosh

Hoosh, also known as hooch, is a type of stew made by combining sledging biscuits, pemmican, and water.[65][66] It often includes dried meat, fat, and a grain-based thickener agent.[67][68][69][70] This dish was common for early 20th-century Antarctic expeditions, including those led by Robert Falcon Scott (1910–1913) and Ernest Shackleton (1914–1916).[71][72]

Pemmican

Ball of pemmican.

Pemmican is a mixture of tallow, dried meat, and sometimes dried berries. It is a calorie-rich food that can be used in prepared meals or eaten raw. Historically, it was an important part of indigenous cuisine in certain parts of North America and is still prepared today. The meat is rich in fats and proteins, which help the body generate heat without requiring additional energy.[73][74] Pemmican was widely adopted by Europeans in the fur trade and later by Arctic and Antarctic explorers. Members of Ernest Shackleton's 1914–1916 Antarctic expedition resorted to eating dog pemmican when they were stranded on ice during the Antarctic summer.[75]

Sledging biscuits

Sledging biscuits are a durable, long-lasting biscuits are made from flour, salt, butter, water, and baking soda. They are favored on Antarctic expeditions due to their high energy content.[65][76][66]

References

  1. ↑ Eastman, J.T.; M.J. Lannoo (1998). "Morphology of the Brain and Sense Organs in the Snailfish Paraliparis devriesi: Neural Convergence and Sensory Compensation on the Antarctic Shelf". Journal of Morphology. 237 (3): 213–236. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-4687(199809)237:3<213::aid-jmor2>3.0.co;2-#. PMID 9734067. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ British Antarctic Survey. "Fish and Squid". Natural Environment Research Council. Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ Eastman, J.T. (2005). "The nature of the diversity of Antarctic fishes". Polar Biol. 28 (2): 93–107. Bibcode:2005PoBio..28...93E. doi:10.1007/s00300-004-0667-4. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ Australian Antarctic Division (12 August 2010). "Flying Birds". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ British Antarctic Survey. "Land Animals of Antarctica". Natural Environment Research Council. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 18 March 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  6. ↑ Australian Antarctic Division. "Penguins". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ Natural History Museum (2021-12-06). Why don't penguins' feet freeze? | Surprising Science. Retrieved 2024-11-29 – via YouTube.
  8. ↑ Australian Antarctic Division. "Adapting to the cold". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 18 January 2013. Retrieved 5 April 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  9. ↑ Rousseau, Bryant (28 September 2016). "Cold Cases: Crime and Punishment in Antarctica". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 January 2019.
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  17. ↑ Durban, J W; Pitman, R L (26 October 2011). "Antarctic killer whales make rapid, round-trip movements to subtropical waters: evidence for physiological maintenance migrations?". Biology Letters. 8 (2): 274–277. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0875. PMC 3297399. PMID 22031725.
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  21. ↑ Life on the edge: the plankton and chemistry of Beaver Lake, an ultra-oligotrophic epishelf lake, Antarctica
  22. ↑ Antarctic Lakes
  23. ↑ The biodiversity and ecology of Antarctic lakes: models for evolution
  24. ↑ Taxonomy, ecology and zoogeography of two East Antarctic freshwater calanoid copepod species: Boeckella poppei and Gladioferens antarcticus
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  26. ↑ Adams, B.J. (2006). "Diversity and distribution of Victoria Land biota". Soil Biology & Biochemistry. 38 (10): 3003–3018. Bibcode:2006SBiBi..38.3003A. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2006.04.030.
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  28. ↑ Australian Antarctic Division. "Krill". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  29. ↑ White, M.G. (1970). "Aspects of the breeding biology of Glyptonotus antarcticus (Eights)(Crustacea, Isopoda) at Signy Island, South Orkney Islands". In M.W. Holdgate. Antarctic Ecology. 1. Academic Press, London. pp. 279–285. ISBN 978-0123521026. Search this book on
  30. ↑ Held, C. (2003). "Molecular evidence for cryptic speciation within the widespread Antarctic crustacean Ceratoserolis trilobitoides (Crustacea, Isopoda)". Antarctic Biology in a Global Context. ISBN 90-5782-079-X.
  31. ↑ Wägele, J.-W. (1987). "On the reproductive biology of Ceratoserolis trilobitoides (crustacea: isopoda): Latitudinal variation of fecundity and embryonic development". Polar Biol. 7 (1): 11–24. Bibcode:1987PoBio…7…11W Check |bibcode= value (help). doi:10.1007/BF00286819. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  32. ↑ Heilmayer, O.; S. Thatje; C. McClelland; K. Conlna; T. Brey (2008). "Changes in biomass and elemental composition during early ontogeny of the Antarctic isopod crustacean Ceratoserolis trilobitoides" (PDF). Polar Biol. 31 (11): 1325–1331. Bibcode:2008PoBio..31.1325H. doi:10.1007/s00300-008-0470-8. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  33. ↑ Australian Antarctic Division. "The seabed". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 15 July 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  34. ↑ d’Udekem d’Acoz, C; M.L. Verheye (2017). "Epimeria of the Southern Ocean with notes on their relatives (Crustacea, Amphipoda, Eusiroidea)". European Journal of Taxonomy (359): 1–553. doi:10.5852/ejt.2017.359.
  35. ↑ H.J. Griffiths; R.J. Whittle; S.J. Roberts; M. Belchier; K. Linse (2013). "Antarctic Crabs: Invasive or Endurance?". PLOS ONE. 8 (7): e66981. Bibcode:2013PLoSO…866981G Check |bibcode= value (help). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066981. PMC 3700924. PMID 23843974.
  36. ↑ Peck, L.S.; K.E. Webb; D.M. Bailey (2004). "Extreme sensitivity of biological function to temperature in Antarctic marine species" (PDF). Functional Ecology. 18 (5): 625–630. Bibcode:2004FuEco..18..625P. doi:10.1111/j.0269-8463.2004.00903.x.
  37. ↑ Zerehi, S.S. (7 January 2016). "Researchers have more questions than answers about giant sea spiders". CBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Australian Antarctic Division. "Squid". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  39. ↑ Anderton, J. (23 February 2007). "Amazing specimen of world's largest squid in NZ". beehive.govt.nz. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
  40. ↑ Lee, Youne-Ho (2004). "Molecular phylogeny and divergence time of the Antarctic sea urchin (Sterechinus neumayeri) in relation to the South American sea urchins". Antarctic Science. 16 (1): 29–36. Bibcode:2004AntSc..16…29L Check |bibcode= value (help). doi:10.1017/S0954102004001786. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  41. ↑ Janosik, Alexis M.; Mahon, Andrew R.; Halanych, Kenneth M. (2011). "Evolutionary history of Southern Ocean Odontaster sea star species (Odontasteridae; Asteroidea)". Polar Biology. 34 (4): 575–586. Bibcode:2011PoBio..34..575J. doi:10.1007/s00300-010-0916-7. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  42. ↑ Dearborn, John H.; Edwards, Kelly C.; Fratt, David B. (1991). "Diet, feeding behavior, and surface morphology of the multi-armed Antarctic sea star Labidiaster annulatus (Echinodermata: Asteroidea)". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 77: 65–84. Bibcode:1991MEPS…77…65D Check |bibcode= value (help). doi:10.3354/meps077065.
  43. ↑ Australian Antarctic Division (12 August 2010). "Salps". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  44. ↑ Brueggeman, P. "Nemertina, proboscis worms" (PDF). Underwater Field Guide to Ross Island & McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  45. ↑ Weisberger, M. (17 July 2017). "Bizarre Marine Worm Resembles a Christmas Ornament from Hell". LiveScience. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
  46. ↑ Australian Antarctic Division (12 August 2010). "Sponges". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  47. ↑ Mohan, K.R. "Volcano Sponge of McMurdo Sound". AtlasObscura. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  48. ↑ Dayton, Paul K.; Kim, Stacy; Jarrell, Shannon C.; Oliver, John S.; Hammerstrom, Kamille; Fisher, Jennifer L.; O’Connor, Kevin; Barber, Julie S.; Robilliard, Gordon; Barry, James; Thurber, Andrew R.; Conlan, Kathy (2013). "Recruitment, Growth and Mortality of an Antarctic Hexactinellid Sponge, Anoxycalyx joubini". PLOS ONE. 8 (2): e56939. Bibcode:2013PLoSO…856939D Check |bibcode= value (help). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0056939. PMC 3584113. PMID 23460822.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 Bridge, Paul D; Spooner, Brian M; Roberts, Peter J (2008). "Non-lichenized fungi from the Antarctic region". Mycotaxon. 106: 485–490. Retrieved 19 March 2013.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 50.4 50.5 50.6 British Antarctic Survey. "Plants of Antarctica". Natural Environment Research Council. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  51. ↑ Selbmann, L; de Hoog, G S; Mazzaglia, A; Friedmann, E I; Onofri, S (2005). "Fungi at the edge of life: cryptoendolithic black fungi from Antarctic desert" (PDF). Studies in Mycology. 51: 1–32.
  52. ↑ Australian Antarctic Division. "Lichens". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 28 September 2012. Retrieved 23 March 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  53. ↑ Amos, Jonathan (20 May 2020). "Antarctic algal blooms: 'Green snow' mapped from space". BBC News. Retrieved 25 May 2020.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Australian Antarctic Division. "Plants". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 21 March 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  55. ↑ Australian Antarctic Division. "Mosses and liverworts". Government of Australia. Archived from the original on 28 September 2012. Retrieved 23 March 2013. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  56. ↑ "eCFR :: 45 CFR Part 670 —-Conservation of Antarctic Animals and Plants". ecfr.gov. Retrieved 27 April 2025.
  57. ↑ "The Antarctic Diet: How Food Fuels Science". unionkitchen.com. Retrieved 26 April 2025.
  58. ↑ Newby, John (18 April 2017). "Pass the Penguin: Diets of the Early Explorers". ends-of-earth.com. Retrieved 27 April 2025.
  59. ↑ Brophy, Daragh (25 December 2014). "Here's what Ernest Shackleton and his crew were having for dinner, inching through the ice 100 years ago today..." thejournal.ie. Retrieved 27 April 2025.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Baumgarthuber, Christine (18 April 2014). "The Art of Antarctic Cooking". thenewinquiry.com. Retrieved 27 April 2025.
  61. ↑ "New Exhibit: Food and Dining in the Heroic and Mechanical Age of Antarctic Exploration". byrd.osu.edu. Stearmer, Savannah, Kissel, Laura. Retrieved 27 April 2025.
  62. ↑ "Food - Australian Antarctic Program". antarctica.gov.au. 10 July 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2025.
  63. ↑ "Growing Vegetables In Permanent Ice". corporate.evonik.cn. Retrieved 27 April 2025.
  64. ↑ "Antarctic Bannocks Recipe Food from the Deep South". coolantarctica.com. Retrieved 30 April 2025.
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 "Recipes from Antarctica". www.coolantarctica.com. Retrieved 2020-05-11.
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 "Antarctica Sledging Biscuits – Around the World Travels". Retrieved 2020-05-11.
  67. ↑ Beau Riffenburgh: Nimrod, (Übersetzt von Sebastian Vogel), Berlin Verlag, Berlin 2006, ISBN 3-8270-0530-2 Search this book on ., p. 114.
  68. ↑ "Antarctic English..." Lingua Franca. ABC. 2002-01-05. Retrieved 2007-03-12.
  69. ↑ "Antarctic Expedition: Glossary". National Zoological Park. Archived from the original on 2007-03-21. Retrieved 2007-03-12. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  70. ↑ Hince, Bernadette (2000). The Antarctic Dictionary: A Complete Guide to Antarctic English. CSIRO Publishing. p. 169. ISBN 0-9577471-1-X. Search this book on
  71. ↑ Priestly, Raymond E. (January 1914). "Work and Adventures of the Northern Party of Captain Scott's Antarctic Expedition, 1910-1913". The Geographical Journal. The Geographical Journal, Vol. 43, No. 1. 43 (1): 1–14. Bibcode:1914GeogJ..43....1P. doi:10.2307/1778808. JSTOR 1778808.
  72. ↑ "Ask Adventure". National Geographic Adventure. February 2004. Archived from the original on 2007-01-31. Retrieved 2007-03-12. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  73. ↑ "Wo Lakota Making Wasna". Lakota Red Nations. 2017-11-30. Retrieved 2018-09-17.
  74. ↑ "NANF". www.tankabar.com.
  75. ↑ Alfred Lansing (1969), Endurance, New York: McGraw Hill, Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 58-59666
  76. ↑ "Antarctic Sledging Biscuits Recipe". www.coolantarctica.com. Retrieved 2020-05-11.



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