📜 Post with us on Reddit
📝 Create a new article
🏭 Create a company page
🇬🇧 - in English
🇫🇷 - en Français (FR)
🇵🇹 - em Português (PT)
🇩🇪 - auf Deutsch (DE)
🇯🇵 - 日本語で (JA)
Sponsored articles

You can edit almost every page by Creating an account and confirming your email.

Ecological Infrastructure

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki


Infrastructure has historically referred to structures built by humans, but since the 1980s there has been a shift in the definition and an increasing focus from many scientists and conservationists on ecological structures and ecosystems as another, distinct, type of infrastructure.[1]

These natural or partly-natural elements of ecosystems, which also play a role in ecosystem delivery, are known as ecological infrastructure.[2] Essentially, one can think of ecological infrastructure as a Nature-based equivalent of buildings, power stations, wastewater treatment plants, and other human-made infrastructure that delivers specific services and supports and drives socio-economic development.[3][4] The services delivered by ecological infrastructure may include things like renewable water, ecological climate regulation, soil formation, and disaster risk reduction, amongst others, while recent studies also emphasise the importance of ecological infrastructure in tackling various issues such as food security, water provision, and poverty alleviation.[4]

Distinction from green infrastructure

While ecological infrastructure is often conflated with green infrastructure,[5] there are a number of significant differences between these two terms, including the fact that the concept of green infrastructure is usually applied in urban environments as opposed to natural ecosystems.[6][7] Green infrastructure is also generally categorised as any infrastructure that provides environmental benefits or is geared towards sustainable development - whether it has natural elements to it or not.[3]

Distinctions between green infrastructure and ecological infrastructure can become blurred, however,[5] because sometimes people refer to specific natural ecosystems and green spaces as green infrastructure. This means that ecological infrastructure may sometimes be considered as a specific component of something more broadly defined as green infrastructure, like a park.[3] However, ecological infrastructure is far better understood as a concept distinct from green infrastructure and environmentally-friendly aspects of built infrastructure.[3]

Examples of Ecological Infrastructure

Pollinator habitats

Research has focused on the ability of certain species of beneficial insects to deliver critical ecosystem services by contributing to pollination and pest control in agricultural areas.[8][9] The variety of natural and semi-natural habitats that support pollinator species and their ability to deliver agricultural pollination can therefore be seen as a good example of ecological infrastructure supporting an ecosystem delivery service. This ecological infrastructure includes hedges, natural grassland, and forested areas that surround or are interspersed with agricultural fields,[6] with one specific strategy being the planting or protection of wildflower areas that support both pollinator species and natural enemies to common agricultural pests.[10]

Estuarine and coastal ecosystems

Estuarine and coastal ecosystems (ECE) provide a variety of ecosystem services and socio-economic benefits. These include acting as a natural sea defence barrier to protect coastlines from erosion by wave, wind, and tide action[11][12], as well as serving as tourist drawcards; climate, air quality and water regulation; and carbon sequestration.[12][13]

The ecosystem services provided by coastal dunes are often overlooked, undervalued,[14] and/or poorly understood.[15] Coastal protection is one of the primary ecosystem services provided by coastal dunes, with variations in their morphology as well as the presence or absence of foredunes and vegetation all contributing to the extent to which dunes can dissipate wave energy.[12] Studies have suggested that the degradation of dunes and the removal of their ecosystem functions contributes to the potential for biological invasions, with one of the mechanisms for this being reduced biodiversity. Dunes at different levels of maturity provide different services, with more mature dunes offering greater regulation and cultural ecosystem services.[16] More dynamic dune systems, meanwhile, safeguard biodiversity and can potentially provide as much as 50% more economic value mainly via recreation and coastal safety maintenance.[17]

Coastal vegetation like mangroves and other forests also play a major role in protecting inland areas from storm events, tsunamis, wind and salt spray, and coastal erosion.[18] Mangroves in particular offer a diverse suite of services, some sustainable and others, like the harvesting of firewood, less so.

In addition to the services provided by individual ECE components, it has been posited that these ecosystems provide a range of cumulative benefits that in combination are much more substantial than those provided by any one component on its own, due to the fact that they are found at the interface between coastal areas, terrestrial environments, and watersheds, highlighting the importance of managing these areas properly.[12] This close interconnectivity requires nuanced conservation and management strategies to maintain the health of all components, as seen by the central role played by seagrass beds[19] and mangroves as nursery grounds for economically and ecologically critical coral reef species.[20][21][22]

Natural landscape corridors and parks in an urban environments

Natural land and water areas existing within cities can provide services including bio-emissions, reductions in air pollution, and carbon sequestration,[23] as well as serving as recreational areas enhancing the physical and mental health of the urban population and providing other cultural services.[24] Studies have also suggested that with careful urban planning, landscape corridors can be designed to maximise the value of ecosystem services being delivered by ecological infrastructure in urban environments, by enhancing the connectivity of structural landscape elements,[25] as well as pointing to the importance of investing in the restoration and rehabilitation of ecological infrastructure including rivers, lakes, and woodlands in urban environments to provide ecological, social, and economic benefits.[26]

Soils and managed landscapes

Soils provide a host of ecosystem services, not least as productive land for agriculture, although it has been noted that a vast range of other ecosystem services that soil provides, as well as the importance of soil microbial communities, are generally overlooked when it comes to service provision, and are also much more difficult to quantify.[27] Some of these other services include decreasing the effects of floods, nutrient filtration, water cycling, and the treatment of both solid and liquid waste, as well as so-called 'supporting services' for above-ground ecosystems based on soil fertility.[27][28][29]

In terms of managed landscapes, Dominati (2013) states that research focusing on agro-systems based on the properties of soil usually involves a few main ecosystems services, including the provision of food, wood, and fibre; the filtration of nutrients and contaminants; pollination; carbon storage and the regulation of greenhouse gases; and cultural services like recreation.[27]

Source water bodies and wetlands

Natural source water bodies and other types of aquatic ecological infrastructure support adequate water supply around the world.[30][31] Dams and reservoirs that hold the majority of our source water are examples of human-made infrastructure integrated into a natural ecosystem, altering the natural processes of these ecosystems.[32][33] Lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams, meanwhile, are natural ecosystem elements that can be affected by the upstream discharge of residual nutrients in the effluent from wastewater treatment plants.[34] This creates a nutrient imbalance in downstream ecological infrastructure, which over time leads to nutrient overloads and eutrophication that significantly affect water quality and distorts the natural Water Cycle in these aquatic ecosystems.[34][35]

When it comes to water, there is growing awareness around the world of the benefits that can be provided by ecological infrastructure in being able to supplement, sustain, and sometimes substitute for built and engineered infrastructure.[4][5] For example, water management has been shown to benefit from the management of associated ecosystems,[5] such as the focus by administrators of the Panama Canal on protecting nearby forests and restricting agriculture to environmentally manage the entire watershed area surrounding the canal.[36]

There is increasingly a push towards nature-based water resource management solutions, and it has been posited that our built infrastructure and other anthropogenic factors often damage or destroy certain essential biophysical processes of the Water Cycle,[37][38][39] with the negative effects this can have on people, animals, and ecosystems outweighing the benefits they provide.[40]

Another concept gaining recognition is the idea that Nature-based solutions can be integrated with existing built infrastructure to remediate natural water bodies and maintain water quality throughout the Water Cycle, rather than only within the bounds of water treatment facilities and utilities.[5][41][42][43] These Nature-based solutions can be enabled by biotechnology, such as bio-dredging - encompassing the enzymatic digestion of organic sediment at the bottom of eutrophic lakes, as well as remediation of sediment contaminated with organic pollutants.[44] This process has also been studied in relation to the potential production of biogas.[45] Many source water bodies around the world are under increasing pressure from seasonal Harmful Algae Blooms (HABs) of toxin-producing cyanobacteria[35][46][47] that result in a wide variety of negative socio-economic and ecological impacts, including degraded water not fit for dinking, damaged fisheries, loss of tourism revenue, real estate value decreases, constrained agriculture, decreased resilience of the aquatic food web, and has significant implications for the health of human populations.[46]

Built infrastructure like wastewater treatment plants contribute to seasonal HABs by discharging residual nutrients into downstream water bodies,[48] with these nutrients accumulating in sediment nutrient stockpiles.[49] These stockpiles entrench eutrophic conditions that favour cyanobacteria, in a positive feedback loop that is exacerbated by conventional HAB treatments like the application of herbicides and algaecides.[50][51] Nutrient overloads have been shown to create imbalances in aquatic food webs in aquatic and freshwater environments,[52][38] causing a loss of ecosystem function and a shift to a eutrophic state.

Biotechnology aims to redress imbalances in aquatic ecosystems to support the return of a healthy aquatic food web, and the self-regulatory processes that naturally occur in aquatic ecosystems. In this way, eutrophic source water bodies can be returned to their natural state and thus converted into ecological infrastructure assets able to provide renewable water, helping to avert water shortages caused by cyanobacteria HABs, as well as alleviating pressure on water supply in the face of increasingly severe droughts and climate change.

Biotechnology also provides an opportunity in areas lacking effective built wastewater treatment infrastructure, particularly in the developing world; in sub-Saharan Africa, only 30% of wastewater is treated in built infrastructure, with the rest ending up in groundwater or source water bodies, degrading these associated aspects of ecological infrastructure and fuelling eutrophication.[53]

Research also highlights the importance of engaging various stakeholders to consolidate benefits for all. In South Africa, for example, an assessment of the conflict between water-related services and agricultural activities in degraded and pristine areas of three palmiet wetlands found that there were distinct possibilities for integrating these areas into a Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) scheme, due to the number of ecosystem services the wetlands provide and the fact that they lie above municipal dams pivotal in the supply of water to surrounding communities. The study recommended that urban decision-makers collaborate with private farmers to maximise the ecosystem services being provided by the wetlands.[54]

South Africa also seems to be moving ahead with attempts to integrate ecological infrastructure into the country's national agenda, following the 2018 launch of the Ecological Infrastructure for Water Security (EI4WS) project in Johannesburg, financed by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and a number of South African partners, and driven by the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI).[6]

References

  1. ↑ Silva, José Maria Cardoso da; Wheeler, Emily (2017). "Ecosystems as infrastructure". Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation. 15 (1): 32–35. doi:10.1016/j.pecon.2016.11.005. ISSN 2530-0644.
  2. ↑ "CHARTING OUR WATER FUTURE: Economic frameworks to inform decision-making", Investing in Water for a Green Economy, Routledge, pp. 67–79, 2015-03-24, doi:10.4324/9780203132937-13, ISBN 9780203132937, retrieved 2021-09-10
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 "• 'Ecological infrastructure' and 'green infrastructure'". biodiversityadvisor.sanbi.org. Archived from the original on 2021-09-09. Retrieved 2021-09-09.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Cumming, Tracey L.; Shackleton, Ross T.; Förster, Johannes; Dini, John; Khan, Ahmed; Gumula, Mpho; Kubiszewski, Ida (2017). "Achieving the national development agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through investment in ecological infrastructure: A case study of South Africa". Ecosystem Services. 27: 253–260. doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.05.005. hdl:10019.1/116948. ISSN 2212-0416.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 UN Environment Programme (2014). Green Infrastructure Guide for Water Management. Nairobi: UNEP. pp. 1–76. ISBN 978-92-807-3404-1. Search this book on
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 "Launch of the Ecological Infrastructure for Water Security Project, 31 May". SANBI. 2018-05-30. Retrieved 2021-09-09.
  7. ↑ Li, Feng; Liu, Xusheng; Zhang, Xiaoling; Zhao, Dan; Liu, Hongxiao; Zhou, Chuanbin; Wang, Rusong (2017). "Urban ecological infrastructure: an integrated network for ecosystem services and sustainable urban systems". Journal of Cleaner Production. 163: S12–S18. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.02.079.
  8. ↑ Losey, John E.; Vaughan, Mace (2006). "The Economic Value of Ecological Services Provided by Insects". BioScience. 56 (4): 311. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[311:TEVOES]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0006-3568. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  9. ↑ Kremen, C.; Chaplin-Kramer, R. (2007), "Insects as providers of ecosystem services: crop pollination and pest control.", Insect conservation biology, Wallingford: CABI, pp. 349–382, doi:10.1079/9781845932541.0349, ISBN 9781845932541, retrieved 2021-09-09
  10. ↑ Sidhu, C. Sheena; Joshi, Neelendra K. (2016-03-24). "Establishing Wildflower Pollinator Habitats in Agricultural Farmland to Provide Multiple Ecosystem Services". Frontiers in Plant Science. 7: 363. doi:10.3389/fpls.2016.00363. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 4806296. PMID 27047530.
  11. ↑ Koch, Evamaria W.; Barbier, Edward B.; Silliman, Brian R.; Reed, Denise J.; Perillo, Gerardo ME; Hacker, Sally D.; Granek, Elise F.; Primavera, Jurgenne H.; Muthiga, Nyawira; Polasky, Stephen; Halpern, Benjamin S. (2009). "Non-linearity in ecosystem services: temporal and spatial variability in coastal protection". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 7 (1): 29–37. doi:10.1890/080126. ISSN 1540-9309. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Barbier, Edward B.; Hacker, Sally D.; Kennedy, Chris; Koch, Evamaria W.; Stier, Adrian C.; Silliman, Brian R. (2011). "The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services". Ecological Monographs. 81 (2): 169–193. doi:10.1890/10-1510.1. ISSN 1557-7015. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  13. ↑ Koch, Evamaria W.; Barbier, Edward B.; Silliman, Brian R.; Reed, Denise J.; Perillo, Gerardo ME; Hacker, Sally D.; Granek, Elise F.; Primavera, Jurgenne H.; Muthiga, Nyawira; Polasky, Stephen; Halpern, Benjamin S. (2009). "Non-linearity in ecosystem services: temporal and spatial variability in coastal protection". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 7 (1): 29–37. doi:10.1890/080126. ISSN 1540-9309. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  14. ↑ Everard, Mark; Jones, Laurence; Watts, Bill (2010). "Have we neglected the societal importance of sand dunes? An ecosystem services perspective". Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 20 (4): 476–487. doi:10.1002/aqc.1114. ISSN 1099-0755.
  15. ↑ Richardson, Robert B.; Nicholls, Sarah (2021-04-01). "Characterizing the cultural ecosystem services of coastal sand dunes". Journal of Great Lakes Research. 47 (2): 546–551. doi:10.1016/j.jglr.2021.01.008. ISSN 0380-1330. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  16. ↑ Dang, Kinh Bac; Nguyen, Thu Thuy; Ngo, Huu Hao; Burkhard, Benjamin; Müller, Felix; Dang, Van Bao; Nguyen, Hieu; Ngo, Van Liem; Pham, Thi Phuong Nga (2021-07-01). "Integrated methods and scenarios for assessment of sand dunes ecosystem services". Journal of Environmental Management. 289: 112485. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112485. ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 33813298 Check |pmid= value (help). Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  17. ↑ Van Der Biest, K.; De Nocker, L.; Provoost, S.; Boerema, A.; Staes, J.; Meire, P. (2017-11-15). "Dune dynamics safeguard ecosystem services". Ocean & Coastal Management. 149: 148–158. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2017.10.005. hdl:10067/1459520151162165141. ISSN 0964-5691.
  18. ↑ Braatz, S.; Fortuna, S.; Broadhead, J.; Leslie, R. (2007). "Coastal protection in the aftermath of the Indian Ocean Tsunami. What role for forests and trees?" (PDF). Proceedings of the Regional Technical Workshop, Khao Lak, Thailand, 28–31 August 2006. FAO, Bangkok, Thailand.
  19. ↑ Verweij, Marieke C.; Nagelkerken, Ivan; Hans, Ingmar; Ruseler, Susanne M.; Mason, Paul R. D. (2008). "Seagrass nurseries contribute to coral reef fish populations". Limnology and Oceanography. 53 (4): 1540–1547. doi:10.4319/lo.2008.53.4.1540. ISSN 1939-5590. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  20. ↑ Dorenbosch, M.; van Riel, M. C.; Nagelkerken, I.; van der Velde, G. (2004-05-01). "The relationship of reef fish densities to the proximity of mangrove and seagrass nurseries". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 60 (1): 37–48. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2003.11.018. ISSN 0272-7714.
  21. ↑ Nagelkerken, Ivan; Grol, Monique G. G.; Mumby, Peter J. (2012-06-04). "Effects of Marine Reserves versus Nursery Habitat Availability on Structure of Reef Fish Communities". PLOS ONE. 7 (6): e36906. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036906. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3366965. PMID 22675474.
  22. ↑ Nagelkerken, I; Kleijnen, S; Klop, T; van den Brand, Racj; de la Morinière, Ec; van der Velde, G (2001). "Dependence of Caribbean reef fishes on mangroves and seagrass beds as nursery habitats: a comparison of fish faunas between bays with and without mangroves/seagrass beds". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 214: 225–235. doi:10.3354/meps214225. ISSN 0171-8630.
  23. ↑ Liu, Hongxiao; Hu, Yinhong; Li, Feng; Yuan, Lingxiong (2018-02-10). "Associations of multiple ecosystem services and disservices of urban park ecological infrastructure and the linkages with socioeconomic factors". Journal of Cleaner Production. 174: 868–879. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.139. ISSN 0959-6526.
  24. ↑ Romero-Duque, Luz Piedad; Trilleras, Jenny M.; Castellarini, Fabiana; Quijas, Sandra (2020-08-01). "Ecosystem services in urban ecological infrastructure of Latin America and the Caribbean: How do they contribute to urban planning?". Science of the Total Environment. 728: 138780. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.728m8780R. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138780. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32344225 Check |pmid= value (help). Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  25. ↑ Lee, Jung A.; Chon, Jinhyung; Ahn, Changwoo (2014). "Planning Landscape Corridors in Ecological Infrastructure Using Least-Cost Path Methods Based on the Value of Ecosystem Services". Sustainability. 6 (11): 7564–7585. doi:10.3390/su6117564.
  26. ↑ Elmqvist, T.; Setälä, H.; Handel, SN; Van Der Ploeg, S.; Aronson, J.; Blignaut, JN; Gómez-Baggethun, E.; Nowak, DJ; Kronenberg, J.; De Groot, R. (2015-06-01). "Benefits of restoring ecosystem services in urban areas". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 14: 101–108. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2015.05.001. ISSN 1877-3435.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Dominati, EJ (2013). "Natural capital and ecosystem services of soils" (PDF). Ecosystem Services in New Zealand - Conditions and Trends. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, New Zealand: 132–142 – via www.mwpress.co.nz.
  28. ↑ Andrews, Susan S.; Karlen, Douglas L.; Cambardella, Cynthia A. (2004). "The Soil Management Assessment Framework". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 68 (6): 1945–1962. Bibcode:2004SSASJ..68.1945A. doi:10.2136/sssaj2004.1945. ISSN 0361-5995.
  29. ↑ Sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem services in soils and sediments. 2005-07-01. Search this book on
  30. ↑ Fry, Lauren M.; Apps, Deanna; Gronewold, Andrew D. (2020-09-01). "Operational Seasonal Water Supply and Water Level Forecasting for the Laurentian Great Lakes". Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management. 146 (9): 04020072. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0001214. ISSN 1943-5452. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  31. ↑ Lewis, William M. (2000). "Basis for the protection and management of tropical lakes". Lakes & Reservoirs: Science, Policy and Management for Sustainable Use. 5 (1): 35–48. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1770.2000.00091.x. ISSN 1440-1770.
  32. ↑ Sabater, Sergi; Bregoli, Francesco; Acuña, Vicenç; Barceló, Damià; Elosegi, Arturo; Ginebreda, Antoni; Marcé, Rafael; Muñoz, Isabel; Sabater-Liesa, Laia; Ferreira, Verónica (2018-07-30). "Effects of human-driven water stress on river ecosystems: a meta-analysis". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 11462. Bibcode:2018NatSR...811462S. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-29807-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6065398. PMID 30061568.
  33. ↑ Ho, Michelle; Lall, Upmanu; Allaire, Maura; Devineni, Naresh; Kwon, Hyun Han; Pal, Indrani; Raff, David; Wegner, David (2017). "The future role of dams in the United States of America". Water Resources Research. 53 (2): 982–998. doi:10.1002/2016WR019905. ISSN 1944-7973. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Barone, Laura; Pilotti, Marco; Valerio, Giulia; Balistrocchi, Matteo; Milanesi, Luca; Chapra, Steven C.; Nizzoli, Daniele (2019-04-01). "Analysis of the residual nutrient load from a combined sewer system in a watershed of a deep Italian lake". Journal of Hydrology. 571: 202–213. Bibcode:2019JHyd..571..202B. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.01.031. ISSN 0022-1694. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "How the Growth of Algae Will Impact Freshwater Availability". Earth.Org - Past | Present | Future. 2020-11-17. Retrieved 2021-09-10.
  36. ↑ Carse, Ashley (2012-08-01). "Nature as infrastructure: Making and managing the Panama Canal watershed". Social Studies of Science. 42 (4): 539–563. doi:10.1177/0306312712440166. ISSN 0306-3127. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  37. ↑ White, Jay S.; Bayley, Suzanne E.; Curtis, P.Jeff (1999-09-01). "Sediment storage of phosphorus in a northern prairie wetland receiving municipal and agro-industrial wastewater". Ecological Engineering. 14 (1–2): 127–138. doi:10.1016/S0925-8574(99)00024-5. ISSN 0925-8574.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Fernández, Julia Martínez; Selma, Miguel Angel Esteve; Aymerich, Francisco Robledano; Sáez, María Teresa Pardo; Fructuoso, María Francisca Carreño (2005). "Aquatic birds as bioindicators of trophic changes and ecosystem deterioration in the Mar Menor lagoon (SE Spain)". Hydrobiologia. 550 (1): 221–235. doi:10.1007/s10750-005-4382-0. ISSN 0018-8158. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  39. ↑ Miller, M. H.; Robinson, J. B.; Coote, D. R.; Spires, A. C.; Draper, D. W. (1982). "Agriculture and Water Quality in the Canadian Great Lakes Basin: III. Phosphorus". Journal of Environmental Quality. 11 (3): 487–493. doi:10.2134/jeq1982.00472425001100030033x. ISSN 0047-2425.
  40. ↑ Palmer, M. A.; Liu, J.; Matthews, J. H.; Mumba, M.; D'Odorico, P. (2015-08-06). "Manage water in a green way". Science. 349 (6248): 584–585. Bibcode:2015Sci...349..584P. doi:10.1126/science.aac7778. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 26250670. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  41. ↑ Meyer, Chloé (2018-03-20). "UN World Water Development Report 2018: "Nature-based solutions for water"". dx.doi.org. doi:10.29104/wins.d.0052.2018. Retrieved 2021-09-10.
  42. ↑ Naddeo, Vincenzo; Balakrishnan, Malini; Choo, Kwang-Ho, eds. (2020). "Frontiers in Water-Energy-Nexus—Nature-Based Solutions, Advanced Technologies and Best Practices for Environmental Sustainability". Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-13068-8. ISBN 978-3-030-13067-1. ISSN 2522-8714. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  43. ↑ Hidalgo, Dolores; Martín-Marroquín, Jesús M. (2019), "Adding Sustainability to the Beverage Industry Through Nature-Based Wastewater Treatment", Processing and Sustainability of Beverages, Elsevier, pp. 1–36, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815259-1.00001-x, ISBN 9780128152591, retrieved 2021-09-10 Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  44. ↑ Ferdinandy-van Vlerken, Marijke M. A. (1998-03-01). "Chances for biological techniques in sediment remediation". Water Science and Technology. 37 (6–7): 345–353. doi:10.2166/wst.1998.0771. ISSN 0273-1223.
  45. ↑ Parawira, Wilson (2012). "Enzyme research and applications in biotechnological intensification of biogas production". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 32 (2): 172–186. doi:10.3109/07388551.2011.595384. ISSN 0738-8551. PMID 21851320. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Carmichael, Wayne W.; Boyer, Gregory L. (2016). "Health impacts from cyanobacteria harmful algae blooms: Implications for the North American Great Lakes". Harmful Algae. 54: 194–212. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2016.02.002. ISSN 1568-9883. PMID 28073476.
  47. ↑ Wynne, Timothy T.; Stumpf, Richard P. (2015). "Spatial and Temporal Patterns in the Seasonal Distribution of Toxic Cyanobacteria in Western Lake Erie from 2002–2014". Toxins. 7 (5): 1649–1663. doi:10.3390/toxins7051649. PMC 4448166. PMID 25985390.
  48. ↑ Cai, Ting; Park, Stephen Y.; Li, Yebo (2013-03-01). "Nutrient recovery from wastewater streams by microalgae: Status and prospects". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 19: 360–369. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.030. ISSN 1364-0321.
  49. ↑ Akpor, O. B.; Muchie, B. (2011). "Environmental and public health implications of wastewater quality". African Journal of Biotechnology. 10 (13): 2379–2387. ISSN 1684-5315.
  50. ↑ Mallin, Michael A.; McIver, Matthew R.; Wambach, Ellen J.; Robuck, Anna R. (2016-04-02). "Algal blooms, circulators, waterfowl, and eutrophic Greenfield Lake, North Carolina". Lake and Reservoir Management. 32 (2): 168–181. doi:10.1080/10402381.2016.1146374. ISSN 1040-2381. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  51. ↑ Grimshaw, H. J. (2002-02-27). "Nutrient release and detritus production by herbicide-treated freely floating aquatic vegetation in a large, shallow subtropical lake and river". Fundamental and Applied Limnology. 153 (3): 469–490. doi:10.1127/archiv-hydrobiol/153/2002/469. ISSN 1863-9135.
  52. ↑ Sommer, Ulrich; Stibor, Herwig; Katechakis, Alexis; Sommer, Frank; Hansen, Thomas (2002), "Pelagic food web configurations at different levels of nutrient richness and their implications for the ratio fish production:primary production", Sustainable Increase of Marine Harvesting: Fundamental Mechanisms and New Concepts, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 11–20, doi:10.1007/978-94-017-3190-4_2, ISBN 978-90-481-6217-8, retrieved 2021-09-10
  53. ↑ Nyenje, P.M.; Foppen, J.W.; Uhlenbrook, S.; Kulabako, R.; Muwanga, A. (2010-01-01). "Eutrophication and nutrient release in urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa — A review". Science of the Total Environment. 408 (3): 447–455. Bibcode:2010ScTEn.408..447N. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.10.020. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 19889445.
  54. ↑ Rebelo, Alanna J.; Morris, Courtney; Meire, Patrick; Esler, Karen J. (2019-06-01). "Ecosystem services provided by South African palmiet wetlands: A case for investment in strategic water source areas". Ecological Indicators. 101: 71–80. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.12.043. hdl:10019.1/121453. ISSN 1470-160X. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)


This article "Ecological Infrastructure" is from Wikipedia. The list of its authors can be seen in its historical and/or the page Edithistory:Ecological Infrastructure. Articles copied from Draft Namespace on Wikipedia could be seen on the Draft Namespace of Wikipedia and not main one.


Retrieved from "https://en.everybodywiki.com/index.php?title=Ecological_Infrastructure&oldid=5198526"
License CC BY-SA 3.0
Powered by MediaWiki