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Female human

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki

Human Female is a human who is a member of the female sex.[lower-alpha 1]

Oestrogen is the primary sex hormone in female humans.[1]

Typically, female humans inherit a pair of X chromosomes, one from each parent, and are capable of pregnancy and giving birth from puberty until menopause. More generally, sex differentiation of the female fetus is governed by the lack of a present, or functioning, SRY-gene on either one of the respective sex chromosomes.[2] Female human anatomy is distinguished from male anatomy by the female reproductive system, which includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and vulva. An adult female generally has a wider pelvis, broader hips, and larger breasts than an adult male. Female humans typically have less facial and other body hair, have a higher body fat composition, and are on average shorter and less muscular than males.

Most contemporary social scientists,[3][4][5] behavioral scientists and biologists,[6] many legal systems and government bodies,[7] and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO[8] make a distinction between gender and sex, and as such is distinct from the gender Woman (Girl when under 18 years old), which is the gender that Human Female is typically associated with.

Most female humans are assigned female at birth, however this is not always the case when the individual is transsexual, which are individuals whom have changed, intend to change, or are in the process of changing, their physical sex (due to it not matching one's internal identity) by undergoing medical treatment such as hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and optionally sex reassignment surgery (SRS), or rarely only SRS.[9]

Biology

Photograph of an adult female human, with an adult male for comparison. The pubic hair of both models is removed.
Photograph of an adult female human, with an adult male for comparison. The pubic hair of both models is removed.

Male and female bodies have some differences. Some differences, such as the external sex organs and breasts are visible, while other differences, such as internal anatomy and genetic characteristics, are not visible.

Genetic characteristics

Main article: Sexual differentiation in humans
File:Sky spectral karyotype.png
Spectral karyotype of a female human

Typically, the cells of female humans contain two X chromosomes, while the cells of male humans have an X and a Y chromosome.[10] During early fetal development, all embryos have phenotypically female genitalia up until week 6 or 7, when a male embryo's gonads differentiate into testes due to the action of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome.[11] Sex differentiation proceeds in female humans in a way that is independent of gonadal hormones.[11] Because humans inherit mitochondrial DNA only from the mother's ovum, genealogical researchers can trace maternal lineage far back in time.

Hormonal characteristics, menstruation and menopause

Main articles: Menstrual cycle and Menstruation

Female puberty triggers bodily changes that enable sexual reproduction via fertilization. In response to chemical signals from the pituitary gland, the ovaries secrete hormones that stimulate maturation of the body, including increased height and weight, body hair growth, breast development and menarche (the onset of menstruation).[12]

File:Pregnancy 26 weeks 1.jpg
A pregnant female human

Most female humans go through menarche between ages 12–13,[13][14] and are then capable of becoming pregnant and bearing children. Pregnancy generally requires internal fertilization of the eggs with sperm, via either sexual intercourse or artificial insemination, though in vitro fertilization allows fertilization to occur outside the human body.[15] Humans are similar to other large mammals in that they usually give birth to a single offspring per pregnancy, but are unusual in being altricial compared to most other large mammals, meaning young are undeveloped at time of birth and require the aid of their parents or guardians to fully mature.[16][17] Sometimes humans have multiple births, most commonly twins.[18]

Usually between ages 49–52, a female human reaches menopause, the time when menstrual periods stop permanently, and they are no longer able to bear children.[19][20][21] Unlike most other mammals, the human lifespan usually extends many years after menopause.[22] Many biologists believe that the extended human lifespan is evolutionarily driven by kin selection, though other theories have also been proposed.[23][24][25][26]

File:Scheme female reproductive system-en.svg
The female human reproductive system

Morphological and physiological characteristics

Main articles: Sex differences in human physiology and Female body shape

In terms of biology, the female sex organs are involved in the reproductive system, whereas the secondary sex characteristics are involved in breastfeeding children and attracting a mate.[27] Humans are placental mammals, which means the mother carries the fetus in the uterus and the placenta facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste between the mother and fetus.[28][29]

smiling mother holds baby to breastfeed
A mother nursing her baby

The ovaries, in addition to their regulatory function of producing hormones, produce female gametes called ova which, when fertilized by male gametes (sperm), form new genetic individuals. The uterus is an organ with tissue to protect and nurture the developing fetus and muscle to expel it when giving birth. The vagina is used in copulation and birthing, although the term vagina is often colloquially used in the English language for the vulva (or external female genitalia),[30][31] which consists of (in addition to the vaginal opening) the labia, the clitoris, and the female urethra. The mammary glands are hypothesized to have evolved from apocrine-like glands to produce milk, a nutritious secretion that is the most distinctive characteristic of mammals, along with live birth.[32] In mature female humans, the breast is generally more prominent than in most other mammals; this prominence, not necessary for milk production, is thought to be at least partially the result of sexual selection.[27][page needed]

Oestrogens, which are primary female sex hormones, have a significant impact on a female's body shape. They are produced in both males and females, but their levels are typically higher in females, especially in those of reproductive age. Besides other functions, Oestrogens promote the development of female secondary sexual characteristics, such as breasts and hips.[33][34][35] As a result of oestrogens, during puberty, female humans develop breasts and their hips widen. Working against Oestrogen, the presence of testosterone in a pubescent female inhibits breast development and promotes muscle and facial hair development.[36]

Circulatory system

Female humans have lower hematocrit (the volume percentage of red blood cells in blood) than males; this is due to lower testosterone, which stimulates the production of erythropoietin by the kidney. The normal hematocrit level for a female human is 36% to 48% (for males, 41% to 50%). The normal level of hemoglobin (an oxygen-transport protein found in red blood cells) for female humans is 12.0 to 15.5 g/dL (for males, 13.5 to 17.5 g/dL).[37][38][39]

Female humans's hearts have finer-grained textures in the muscle compared to males' hearts, and the heart muscle's overall shape and surface area also differs to males' when controlling for body size and age.[40][41] In addition, female humans' hearts age more slowly compared to men’s hearts.[42]

Intersex females

Intersex females are female humans whom have an intersex condition, the definition of which is disputed. Most individuals with ambiguous genitalia are assigned female at birth, and most intersex females are currently cisgender. The medical practices to assign binary female to intersex youth is often controversial.[43]

Certain types of intersex conditions such as XY complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS) show typical rates of feminine gender identity compared to the general population.[44] For intersex conditions such as those with 5α-Reductase 2 deficiency, individuals have substantially higher rates of identifying as LGBT.[45][46][47] Intersex females are occasionally the subject of controversy surrounding competitive sport.[48][49][50][43]

Puberty

File:Female breasts five Tanner stages.jpg
Tanner stages of puberty in females

Breast development

Main article: Breast development

The first physical sign of puberty in females is usually a firm, tender lump under the center of the areola of one or both breasts, occurring on average at about 10.5 years of age.[51] This is referred to as thelarche. By the widely used Tanner staging of puberty, this is stage 2 of breast development (stage 1 is a flat, prepubertal breast). Within 6–12 months, the swelling has clearly begun in both sides, softened, and can be felt and seen extending beyond the edges of the areolae. This is stage 3 of breast development. By another 12 months (stage 4), the breasts are approaching mature size and shape, with areolae and nipples forming a secondary mound. In most young women, this mound disappears into the contour of the mature breast (stage 5), although there is so much variation in sizes and shapes of adult breasts that stages 4 and 5 are not always separately identifiable.[52]

Pubic hair

Pubic hair is often the second noticeable change in puberty, usually within a few months of thelarche.[53] It is referred to as pubarche. The pubic hairs are usually visible first along the labia. The first few hairs are described as Tanner stage 2.[52] Stage 3 is usually reached within another 6–12 months, when the hairs are too numerous to count and appear on the pubic mound as well. By stage 4, the pubic hairs densely fill the "pubic triangle". Stage 5 refers to spread of pubic hair to the thighs and sometimes as abdominal hair upward towards the navel. In about 15% of females, the earliest pubic hair appears before breast development begins.[53]

Vagina, uterus, ovaries

Perineal skin keratinizes due to effect of Oestrogen increasing its resistance to infection. The mucosal surface of the vagina also changes in response to increasing levels of Oestrogen, becoming thicker and duller pink in colour (in contrast to the brighter red of the prepubertal vaginal mucosa).[54] Mucosa changes into a multilayered structure with superficial layer of squamous cells. Oestrogen increase glycogen content in vaginal epithelium, which in future plays important part in maintaining vaginal pH. Whitish secretions (physiologic leukorrhea) are a normal effect of Oestrogen as well.[51] In the two years following thelarche, the uterus, ovaries, and the follicles in the ovaries increase in size.[55] The ovaries usually contain small follicular cysts visible by ultrasound.[56][57] Before puberty, uterine body to cervix ratio is 1:1; which increases to 2:1 or 3:1 after completion of pubertal period.

Menstruation and fertility

The first menstrual bleeding is referred to as menarche, and typically occurs about two years after thelarche.[53] The average age of menarche is 12.5 in the United States.[14] Most American females experience their first period at 11, 12 or 13, but some experience it earlier than their 11th birthday and others after their 14th birthday. In fact, anytime between 8 and 16 is normal. In Canada, the average age of menarche is 12.72,[13] and in the United Kingdom it is 12.9.[58] The time between menstrual periods (menses) is not always regular in the first two years after menarche.[59] Ovulation is necessary for fertility, but may or may not accompany the earliest menses.[60] In postmenarchal females, about 80% of the cycles were anovulatory in the first year after menarche, 50% in the third year and 10% in the sixth year.[59] Initiation of ovulation after menarche is not inevitable. A high proportion of females with continued irregularity in the menstrual cycle several years from menarche will continue to have prolonged irregularity and anovulation, and are at higher risk for reduced fertility.[61]

Body shape, fat distribution, and body composition

File:Adolescent Period Average girl 4 to 16 yo.jpg
Development of a female from childhood to the end of puberty

During this period, also in response to rising levels of Oestrogen, the lower half of the pelvis and thus hips widen (providing a larger birth canal).[52][62] Fat tissue increases to a greater percentage of the body composition than in males, especially in the typical female distribution of breasts, hips, buttocks, thighs, upper arms, and pubis. Progressive differences in fat distribution as well as sex differences in local skeletal growth contribute to the typical female body shape by the end of puberty. On average, at 10 years, females have 6% more body fat than males.[63]

Body odor and acne

Rising levels of androgens can change the fatty acid composition of perspiration, resulting in a more "adult" body odor. This often precedes thelarche and pubarche by one or more years. Another androgen effect is increased secretion of oil (sebum) from the skin. This change increases the susceptibility to acne, a skin condition that is characteristic of puberty. Acne varies greatly in its severity.[64]

Visual and other effects of hormonal changes

In females, estradiol (the primary female sex hormone) causes thickening of lips and oral mucosa as well as further development of the vulva. In the vulva and vagina, estradiol causes thickening (stratification) of the skin and the growth of both the myoepithelial layer and the smooth muscle of the vagina. Typically estradiol will also cause pronounced growth of the labia minora and to a lesser degree of the labia majora.

Estradiol is also responsible for the increased production of pheomelanin, resulting in the characteristic red colour of the lips, labia minora and sometimes labia majora. Estradiol together with other ovarian steroids also cause the darker colouration of the areola.

Testosterone will cause an enlargement of the clitoris and possibly has important effects on the growth and maturation of the vestibular bulbs, corpus cavernosum of the clitoris and urethral sponge.[65]

Changes of the vulva initiated by estradiol as well as its direct effects also appear to influence the functioning of the lower urinary tract.[66][67]

Underarm hair

Hair growth develops under the arms, starting out sparse before thickening and darkening over time.[68]

Variations

File:Variations of the height of three boys from 12yo to the end of their growth spurt.jpg
Variations of the initial and final height of three males from 12 years old to the end of their growth spurt

In a general sense, the conclusion of puberty is reproductive maturity. Criteria for defining the conclusion may differ for different purposes: attainment of the ability to reproduce, achievement of maximal adult height, maximal gonadal size, or adult sex hormone levels. Maximal adult height is achieved at an average age of 15 years for an average female and 18 years for an average male. Potential fertility (sometimes termed nubility) usually precedes completion of growth by 1–2 years in females and 3–4 years in males. Stage 5 typically represents maximal gonadal growth and adult hormone levels.

Age of onset

The definition of the onset of puberty may depend on perspective (e.g., hormonal versus physical) and purpose (establishing population normal standards, clinical care of early or late pubescent individuals, etc.). A common definition for the onset of puberty is physical changes to a person's body. These physical changes are the first visible signs of neural, hormonal, and gonadal function changes.

The age at which puberty begins varies between individuals; usually, puberty begins between 10 and 13 years of age. The age at which puberty begins is affected by both genetic factors and by environmental factors such as nutritional state and social circumstances.[69] An example of social circumstances is the Vandenbergh effect; a juvenile female who has significant interaction with adult males will enter puberty earlier than juvenile females who are not socially overexposed to adult males.[70]

The average age at which puberty begins may be affected by race as well. For example, the average age of menarche in various populations surveyed has ranged from 12[14][13][58] to 18 years. The earliest average onset of puberty is for African-American females and the latest average onset for high altitude subsistence populations in Asia. However, much of the higher age averages reflect nutritional limitations more than genetic differences and can change within a few generations with a substantial change in diet. The median age of menarche for a population may be an index of the proportion of undernourished females in the population, and the width of the spread may reflect unevenness of wealth and food distribution in a population.

Researchers have identified an earlier age of the onset of puberty. However, they have based their conclusions on a comparison of data from 1999 with data from 1969. In the earlier example, the sample population was based on a small sample of white females (200, from Britain). The later study identified as puberty as occurring in 48% of African-American females by age nine, and 12% of white females by that age.[71]

One possible cause of a delay in the onset of puberty past the age 14 in females and 15 in males is Kallmann syndrome, a form of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (HH). Kallmann syndrome is also associated with a lack of sense of smell (anosmia). Kallmann syndrome and other forms of HH affect both males and women. It is caused by a failure in HPG axis at puberty which results in low or zero gonadotropin (LH and FSH) levels with the subsequent result of a failure to commence or complete puberty, secondary hypogonadism and infertility.[72][73]

Comparison of two individual with vast difference in the age of onset of puberty:
File:Early and late maturing boys 11.5 to 16.6.jpg
Two males from 11.5 to 16.6 years old
File:Early and late maturing girls 8.0 to 14.5 yo.png
Two females from 8.0 to 14.5 years old

Explanatory notes

  1. ↑ Sex is a bimodal spectrum, rather than binary. As such, individual's sexual characteristics may not entirely pertain to that of entirely male or female, in which case, they are intersex.

References

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  2. ↑ Passarge, Eberhard (2017). Color Atlas of Genetics. Thieme. p. 362. ISBN 978-3132414402. Search this book on
  3. ↑ Kimmel, Michael S. (2017). The gendered society (Sixth ed.). New York. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-026031-6. OCLC 949553050. Search this book on
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  61. ↑ Southam AL, Richart RM (1966). "The prognosis for adolescents with menstrual abnormalities". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 94 (5): 637–645. doi:10.1016/0002-9378(66)90398-X. PMID 5906589.
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  63. ↑ Gungor & Arslanian (2002), pp. 699-700.
  64. ↑ Rosenfield (2002), p. [page needed].
  65. ↑ Kalloo NB, Gearhart JP, Barrack ER (1993). "Sexually dimorphic expression of oestrogen receptors, but not of androgen receptors in human fetal external genitalia". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 77 (3): 692–698. doi:10.1210/jcem.77.3.8370691. PMID 8370691.
  66. ↑ Andersson KE, Wein AJ (2004). "Pharmacology of the Lower Urinary Tract: Basis for Current and Future Treatments of Urinary Incontinence". Pharmacological Reviews. 56 (4): 581–631. doi:10.1124/pr.56.4.4. PMID 15602011. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  67. ↑ Robinson D, Cardozo L (2011). "Estrogens and the lower urinary tract". Neurourology and Urodynamics. 30 (5): 754–757. doi:10.1002/nau.21106. PMID 21661025. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  68. ↑ "Everything You Wanted to Know About Puberty (for Teens) - KidsHealth". kidshealth.org. Retrieved 2019-08-23.
  69. ↑ Kaplowitz PB, Slora EJ, Wasserman RC, Pedlow SE, Herman-Giddens ME (2001). "Earlier onset of puberty in girls: relation to increased body mass index and race". Pediatrics. 108 (2): 347–53. doi:10.1542/peds.108.2.347. PMID 11483799.
  70. ↑ Nelson RJ. 2005. Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology. Sinauer Associates: Massachusetts. p357.
  71. ↑ Zuckerman, Diana (May 2009). "Early Puberty in Girls". National Research Center for Women and Families. Archived from the original on 2013-11-09. Retrieved 2010-07-13. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Based on a publication from The Ribbon, a newsletter of the Cornell University Program on Breast Cancer and Environmental Risk Factors in New York States ((BCERF), Vol 6, No. 1, Winter 2001.)
  72. ↑ Mitchell AL, Dwyer A, Pitteloud N, Quinton R (2011). "Genetic basis and variable phenotypic expression of Kallmann syndrome: towards a unifying theory". Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 22 (7): 249–58. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2011.03.002. PMID 21511493. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  73. ↑ Hugh Jones, ed. (2008). "Chapter 9. Puberty & Fertility". Testosterone Deficiency in Men. Oxford Endocrinology Library. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199545131. Search this book on [page needed]


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