Firman of Mir Muhammad
The Firman of Mir Muhammad was a, genocidal campaign by Muhammad Pasha of Rawanduz against the Yazidi religious minority from 1832 to 1834.[1] It is considered the bloodiest event in Yazidi history that is still remembered today.[2][3] Estimates suggest that between 70,000[4] to 135,000 Yazidis were killed.[5] Sadiq al Damaluji puts the number of survivors of the Firman at about 5% of the targetted population.[1]
| Conquest of the Dasini Principality | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Many Yazidis from Sheikhan, who had fled but could not cross the Tigris river, gathered on the mountain of Kouyunjik, where they pursued and massacred.[6] | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Soran Emirate |
 Dasini Principality | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
Ali Beg (POW)  | |||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| Unknown | Unknown | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Unknown |
| ||||||||
Background
Mohammed Pasha was given an opportunity to expand his territory. Mullah Yahya, a member of the Mizuri tribe from the Principality of Bahdinan, asked Mohammed Pasha for help in a feud. The Mizuri tribal leader Ali Agha was killed by the Yazidi tribal leader Mir Ali Beg. However, the Prince of Bahdinan. Said Pasha refused to allow the Mizuri to take revenge. Mullah Yahya turned to Mir Muhammad and asked him to take revenge on the Yazidis of Sinjar Mountains.[7]
The Campaign
Mohammed Pasha was given an opportunity to expand his territory. Mullah Yahya, a member of the Mzurî tribe from the Principality of Bahdinan, asked Mohammed Pasha for help in a feud. The Mzurî tribal leader Ali Agha was murdered by the Yazidi tribal leader Mir Ali Beg. However, the Prince of Bahdinan Said Pasha refused to allow the Mzuri to take revenge. So Mullah Yahya turned to Mohammed Pasha and asked him to take revenge on the Yazidis of Sinjar Mountains.[8] Mohammed Pasha was able to use this punitive expedition to conquer the principality of Badinan. He issued a fatwa against the "infidel" Yazidis by his own Mufti Mullah Mohammed Khalti and crossed the Great Zab in 1832.[9]In the year 1832, about 70,000 to 120,000 Yazidis were killed by the Sunni Kurdish princes Bedir Khan Beg and Muhammad Pasha of Rawanduz.[10] [11]Muhammad Pasha reportedly gave the Yazidis an ultimatum: convert to Islam or be killed. Those who refused were executed.[12]Ali Beg was captured and executed[13] Yazidi women and children were abducted and sold in markets.[14] on the orders of Mir Muhammad. Fearing the consequences, the inhabitants of Sheikhan fled to Mosul for refuge. In the spring, the Tigris River burst its banks and destroyed the pontoon bridge. While some Yazidis managed to swim to the other side, the elderly, women, and children sought shelter on the Mountain of Kouyunjik. The Mir of Rawanduz pursued them, resulting in a massacre in which an estimated 12,000 Yazidis were killed.[15] Some of the surviving Yazidis fled towards Tur Abdin and Mosul.[16]During his research trips in 1843, the Russian traveller and orientalist Ilya Berezin mentioned that 7,000 Yazidis were killed by Kurds of Rawandiz on the hills of Nineveh near Mosul, shortly before his arrival.[17] According to many historical reports, the massacres can today be classified as a genocide.[18] After most of the Yazidis in Sheikhan were killed, the survivors fled to Sinjar, Mohammed Pasha decided to attack Sinjar in 1833. Hundreds of Yazidis fell victim to the massacre.[19] Before occupying the town of Aqrah and expelling its leader.[20] In another attempt he and his troops occupied over 300 Yazidi villages. The emir kidnapped over 10,000 Yazidis and sent them to Rawandiz and gave them the ultimatum of converting to Islam or being killed. Most of them converted to Islam and those who refused to convert to Islam were killed.[21]
Aftermath
In 1843, the traveller Elyah Berezina wrote that several thousand Yazidis were killed by Muslims in the Nineveh area.[22] As a result of repeated persecution in the 1830s and 1840s, many Yazidis migrated toward the Caucasus within the Russian Empire.[23] Sinjar, Sheikhan, and the Caucasus remain major Yazidi population centers.[24]
See also
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Majid Hassan Ali (2019), "Genocidal Campaigns during the Ottoman Era: The Firmān of Mīr-i-Kura against the Yazidi Religious Minority in 1832–1834", Genocide Studies International (in German), 13 (1), p. 463, ISSN 2291-1847, JSTOR 26986111CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
- ↑ Sefik Tagay, Serhat Ortaç (2016), Die Eziden und das Ezidentum: Geschichte und Gegenwart einer vom Untergang bedrohten Religion (in German), Landeszentrale für Politische Bildung, p. 49, ISBN 978-3-946246-02-2, retrieved 2026-01-26CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
- ↑ Cecil John Edmonds (1967), A Pilgrimage to Lalish (in German), Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, p. 60, ISBN 90-04-04428-0, retrieved 2026-01-26CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
- ↑ Daniel Steinvorth (2016-12-18). "Jagd auf den Engel Pfau | NZZ" (in Deutsch).
- ↑ "التكييف القانوني للجرائم المرتكبة ضد الايزيدين".
- ↑ Layard, Austen Henry (1849). Niniveh and Its Remains: With an Account of a Visit to the Chaldaean Christians of Kurdistan, and the Yezidis, Or Devil-Worshippers: and an Enquiry Into the Manners and Arts of the Ancient Assyrians. Murray. p. 275. Search this book on
- ↑ Ates, Sabri (2021), Gunes, Cengiz; Bozarslan, Hamit; Yadirgi, Veli (eds.), "The End of Kurdish Autonomy: The Destruction of the Kurdish Emirates in the Ottoman Empire", The Cambridge History of the Kurds, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 76, ISBN 978-1-108-47335-4, retrieved 2021-12-15
- ↑ Ates, Sabri (2021), Gunes, Cengiz; Bozarslan, Hamit; Yadirgi, Veli (eds.), "The End of Kurdish Autonomy: The Destruction of the Kurdish Emirates in the Ottoman Empire", The Cambridge History of the Kurds, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 76, ISBN 978-1-108-47335-4, retrieved 2021-12-15
- ↑ Ates, Sabri (2021), Gunes, Cengiz; Bozarslan, Hamit; Yadirgi, Veli (eds.), "The End of Kurdish Autonomy: The Destruction of the Kurdish Emirates in the Ottoman Empire", The Cambridge History of the Kurds, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 76, ISBN 978-1-108-47335-4, retrieved 2021-12-15
- ↑ Steinvorth, Daniel (2016-12-22). "Jagd auf den Engel Pfau". Neue Zürcher Zeitung (in Deutsch). ISSN 0376-6829. Retrieved 2019-09-30.
- ↑ "الإيزيديين في كردستان يطالبون بإزالة تمثال السفاح (الراوندوزي)".
- ↑ Pal, Vijay Kumar (2021). Venomous Fangs of Cobra: Dangerous Poison to Society. pp. 103–104. Search this book on
- ↑ Understanding Religious Violence. 2018. p. 204. Search this book on
- ↑ Understanding Religious Violence. 2018. p. 204. Search this book on
- ↑ "Les Yézidiz; Épisodes De L'histoire Des Adorateurs Du Diable". p. 188.
- ↑ 275|title=Niniveh and Its Remains: With an Account of a Visit to the Chaldaean Christians of Kurdistan, and the Yezidis, Or Devil-Worshippers: and an Enquiry Into the Manners and Arts of the Ancient Assyrians|date=1849|publisher=Murray|language=en}}
- ↑ Field, Henry (1951). "Appendix A: A visit to the Yezidis in 1843 by Ilya Berezin, in The Anthropology of Iraq". iiif.lib.harvard.edu. p. 76. Retrieved 2019-09-30.
- ↑ King, Diane E. (2013-12-31). Kurdistan on the Global Stage: Kinship, Land, and Community in Iraq. Rutgers University Press. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-8135-6354-1. Search this book on
- ↑ "(PDF) History of Yazidi Genocides, Mass Atrocities, Forced Conversions and Persecutions in the Middle East". ResearchGate. p. 685. Retrieved 2026-02-18.
- ↑ Ateş, Sabri (2013-10-21). Ottoman-Iranian Borderlands: Making a Boundary, 1843-1914. Cambridge University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-107-03365-8. Search this book on
- ↑ Nebez, Jemal (2017-08-14). Der kurdische Fürst MĪR MUHAMMAD AL-RAWĀNDIZĪ genannt MĪR-Ī KŌRA: Ein Beitrag zur kurdischen Geschichte [The Kurdish Prince MĪR MUHAMMAD AL-RAWĀNDIZĪ called MĪR-Ī KŌRA: A Contribution to Kurdish History] (in Deutsch). epubli. ISBN 978-3-7450-1125-8. Search this book on
- ↑ Pal, Vijay Kumar (2021). Discriminated Hindus in Indian Sub-Continent. p. 96. Search this book on
- ↑ van Bruinessen, Martin (1992). Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan. Search this book on
- ↑ van Bruinessen, Martin (1992). Agha, Shaikh and State. Search this book on
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