Has Hlai grammar
This article is a description of the grammar of standardized Has Hlai, a Hlai language spoken on the island of Hainan, China.
Introduction[edit]
In June 1956, China's government implemented research on Hainan Island of the Hlai people's language. ("Hlai" is the name by which the people call themselves in their own language, while the China government refers to them as the "Li" people in the Chinese language.) A 1983 report, Liyu diaocha yanjiu (黎语调查研究)[1] claimed that the Hlai language is made up of five languages: Has 侾黎, Gheis 杞黎, Hyuuen 本地黎, Moeifou 美孚黎, and Deitou 加茂黎. For education, the Lauxhuet dialect of Has (Chinese: 侾方言罗活土语) in Ledong Baoyou Baoding (Chinese: 乐东抱由镇保定村) was chosen to be the Li's standardized language from which the "Li orthography" (Chinese: 黎文方案) was developed.
At the end of 2019, the Hlai dictionary was officially posted online (http://www.tunhlai.com).
Parts of speech[edit]
Different types of nouns[2][3][edit]
1. Common nouns[edit]
A. Related to mankind/persons[edit]
- 【baiskaux】: (1) woman; (2) wife, it is only used by a husband to call his own wife; it is an impolite word to use to call others’ wives.
- 【pasmaen】: (1) man; (2) husband, it is only used by a wife to call her own husband; it is an impolite word to use to call others’ husbands.
- 【baisdza】: mother, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own mother, he/she uses the word “bais”
- 【pasdza】: (1) father, it is used by a narrator. When a child calls his/her own father, he/she uses the word “pas”; (2) a respected way to call an elderly man.
B. Related to objects/things[edit]
- 【ghang】: hill, mountain
- 【noms/nams】: (1) water; (2) river
- 【laengs】: sea
- 【fei】: (1) n.: fire; (2) v.: walk
- 【ghei】: rice
C. Related to time or space[edit]
- 【hwanneix】: today;【uuhaux】: tomorrow
- 【paisdeuu】: up;【paisfou】: down; 【paiskueng】: right;【paishluums】: left
2. Proper nouns[edit]
A. That of persons[edit]
- Han (Chinese) name: All Li’s Chinese names are loan words, borrowed from the Hainanese spoken language in the region called Uislius (黄流), e.g., Maeus zek dhongx, (Mao Zedong (毛泽东), the founder of the People's Republic of China.
- Hlai name: The Li people usually call their children with names from their own language (Hlai).
B. That of a group/organization/party[edit]
- These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok Gong Caens Dhaengs (中国共产党), Chinese Communist Party.
C. That of places[edit]
- These are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Bhakgengs, “Beijing, 北京 (capital of the People's Republic of China)”; Haeisnaems dhaeus, “Hainan Island, 海海南岛”; Lokdhongs, “Ledong, 乐东 (the central city of the tribe of Has Hlai )”
D. That of nations[edit]
- Most are loan words from Hainanese, e.g., Dangx Gok, “China, 中国”;
- few are not loan words, e.g., Moei, “Han people, 汉族”; Hlai, “Li people, 黎族”
E. Others[edit]
3. Abstract Nouns[edit]
These nouns are mostly loan words. The Hlai language being both practical and concrete in nature, is not suitable for describing anything intangible.
The basic rules for Nouns in Hlai language[4][5][6][edit]
1. Nouns usually cannot be modified by number alone; the number needs a proper classifier following the number to modify the noun.[edit]
zuu lang dzax,
a/one classifier snake
“一条蛇，a snake”
But, nouns associated with dates (like year, month, day), are modified with numbers alone (no classifiers).
fus boux
three year
“三年，three years”
hlaus hwan
two day
“两天，two days”
ba nyaen
five month
“五月，May”
When the word “nyaen” refers to the name of a month (as May above), a number can modify “nyaen” without a classifier. However, when the word “nyaen” refers to the amount of months (as below), a classifier is required to modify the word “nyaen.”
ba hom nyaen
five classifier month
“五个月，five months”
2. Nouns cannot be modified by adverbs, nor can a noun be doubled (e.g., uxaeu uxaeu, “man man”; blongs blongs, “house house”) to express the meaning of “every” as is done in Chinese. The way to present the meaning of “every” is to use the word “ranx” plus a proper classifier as below:[edit]
ranx zuen uxaeu
every classifier man/one
“每一个人，everyone”
ranx hom blongs
every classifier house
“每一个房子，every house”
3. Although the Hlai language does not have declension of gender, it does have two prefixes to indicate the gender: “bais” for female and “pas” for male, e.g.,[edit]
pasdza, “爸爸，father”
baisdza, “妈妈，mother”
paskai, “公鸡，cock/rooster”（kai: chicken）
baiskai, “母鸡，hen”
pasdzuengsgong, “男销售员，salesman” （dzuengs: sale, gong: stuff）
baisdzuengsgong, “女销售员，saleswoman”
When the word “bais” exists alone, the meaning is mother; “pas” means father. “Pas”
could also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
Kun hluuekmuuen hauux zuu pas lax zuu hom.
Plural marker young man those one classifier eat one classifier
“那些年轻人每一个人吃一个，Each of those young men ate one.”
4.The Hlai language does not use suffixes or prefixes for nouns to denote plurality as in the English language. But, the Hlai language uses the word “kun” to indicate the plurality of nouns, e.g.,[edit]
Kun aeudza rien tun raeu dhuus fou cai.
Plural marker old man say/talk/speak word laugh in under tree
“老人们在树下说笑话，The old men were telling jokes under the tree.”
The word “kun” can also be used together with a number and a classifier to modify nouns, e.g.,
Kun hlaus zuen kauus fuuek riens paens.
Plural marker two classifier older sister weave skirt decorative pattern
“两位姐姐织花裙，The two older sisters were weaving skirts with a decorative pattern.”
5. A noun can be a subject, predicate, object, e.g.,[edit]
(“cai” as subject and “ceeng” as object)
cai tuuen ceeng
Tree out of flower
“树开花，trees bloom (flowers)”
(“veengs” as subject and “veengs” as predicate)
Veengs hauux veengs meuu.
shirt/top that shirt/top you (sg.)
“那件衣服是你的，That shirt/top is yours.”
6. A noun can be an attribute, and also can be modified by attributes e.g.,[edit]
Meuu kweis ojiep caqias Hlai da?
You be willing to/want to learn script Li a marker of a question
“你要学黎文吗？Do you want to learn Hlai’s script?”
7. A noun can also be an adverbial modifier, e.g.,[edit]
Tong neix cai vuek.
An apparatus for smoking, such as a hookah this tree/wood do/make
“这水烟筒是木做的，This hookah is made out of wood.”
8. A noun in relation to time can even be an adverbial modifier to modify a verb, e.g.,[edit]
Hwanneix fous dhat lo!
Today hot very accent
“今天真热啊！It's so hot today!”
Na uunyeuu hei zok das.
He/she the day after tomorrow go to to/toward mother’s mother
“他后天去外婆（家），He is going to grandma's house the day after tomorrow.”
Fa uupans beuuluueng.
We yesterday come back
“我们昨天回来，We came back yesterday.”
9. When the word “guu” is placed before a noun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.,[edit]
Vabheny neix guu Dongxgok.
Airplane this a possessive preposition China
“这飞机是中国的，This airplane belongs to China.”
Hlaus lang duis neix guu Laufus.
Two classifier water buffalo this a possessive preposition Mr. Fu
“这两头水牛是老符的，These two water buffaloes belong to Mr. Fu.”
Different kinds of Verbs in Hlai language[7][8][edit]
1. Action verbs 动作动词[edit]
• 【vuek，做】: to do, make…(it is used frequently)
• 【lax，吃】: (1) to eat, drink, smoke…; (2) to swallow up (it is used frequently)
• 【duuengx，给】: to give
• 【taeix，打】: to strike, hit
• 【bleuu，听】: (1) to hear; (2) to feel
• 【dzok，偷】: to steal
• 【zongs，坐】: to sit
• 【ghais，叫，请，派】: to tell someone(s) to do something; to invite…
• 【fei，走】: (1) v.: to walk; (2) n.: fire
• 【cuuek，休息】: to rest
• 【tuas，欺骗】: to cheat
• 【liengs，看守】: to watch, to guard
• others
2. Linking verbs 连系动词（判断动词）[edit]
• 【man，是】: am, is, are (be verbs, sometimes omitted in the sentence)
• 【ghwaix，不是】: am not, is not, are not
3. Verbs for expressing mental activities 表示心理活动[edit]
• 【dhas，怕】: to fear, to be afraid of
• 【ngop，想念】: to long to see again, to miss
• 【oep，爱】: to love, to like
• 【vuuengx，心里烦乱】: confusing, disorderly (used as a verb)
• 【luuemx，忘记】: to forget
• 【uuen，埋怨】: to complain
• 【tuuenngaen，生气】: to be angry (other similar word: kis, kisngaen)
• 【dhaix，忍受】: to endure, to bear
• others
4. Verbs for expressing existence, change, development 表示存在、变化、发展[edit]
• 【dhuus，在】:(1) v.: to exist; (2) prep.: in, on, at
• 【zaux，有】: to have, there is/are
• 【hlaeux，死】: (1) v.: to die; (2) n.: death
• 【hlou，生】: (1) v.: to give birth; (2) adj.: alive, living
• 【long，长大】: (1) v.: to grow up; (2) adj.: big, large
• 【dzauux，变】: to change
• others
5. Modal verbs 能愿动词[edit]
• 【gieu，能】: to be good at, to be able to, can
• 【gax，不能】: to be unable to, cannot
• 【kweis，愿意】: to be willing to
• 【ais，不愿】: to be not willing to
• 【dheeng-hwoek，同意，愿意】: to agree with, to be willing to
• 【kueng，会】: to know how to, to be able to
• 【boei，不会】: to not know how to, to be unable to
• 【loepp，可以，能够】: to be allowed to, to be able to
• 【guulax，必须，应该】: must, should
• 【kiemx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
• 【komx，必须，应该】: must, should (this is a loan word)
• 【auux，敢】: to dare to
• others
6. Verbs of motion 趋向动词[edit]
• 【buuen，来】: to come
• 【hei，去】: to go
• 【beuu，回】: to go back to, to return
• 【luueng，返】: to return
• 【dhuas，过】: to pass through
• 【kaen，上】: to go up
• 【luei，下】: to go down
• 【hluet，进】: to go into
• 【tuuen，出】: (1) v.: to go out, to leave, to exit; (2) prep.: from
• 【dhaens，到】: to arrive
The basic rules for Verbs in Hlai language[9][10][edit]
1. In Hlai language, verbs never change their form. The placement of an adverb or an auxiliary word after or before a verb determines the verb’s tense.[edit]
A. Progressive aspect:[edit]
The adverbial word “faets” or “fietla” can express the action in process, and is placed before a verb, e.g.,
Na faets lax tax.
he/she adverbial word of progressive aspect eat rice
“他正在吃饭，He is eating.”
Daty faets bheny.
bird adverbial word of progressive aspect fly
“鸟正在飞，The birds are flying.”
Hluuek na fietla laix dax.
child he/she adverbial word of progressive aspect plough field
“他的孩子正在犁田，His children/child are/is plowing the field.”
B. Perfect aspect:[edit]
The verbs with the word “bhaeis” expresses an action that has already happened. If “bhaeis” is placed before a verb, it is an adverbial,e.g.,
Hluuek na bhaeis hei ang he.
child he/she adverbial word of perfective aspect go field accent
“他的孩子已经去山栏地了，His children/child already went to the field.”
Pashlaus na bhaeis bleuu fan rien,
older brother he/she adverbial word of perfective aspect hear then say
“Eis, hluumsghweuu na guu. loms cas da?”
Accent don’t know he/she auxiliary of future aspect still/again or not
“他哥哥（已经）听了便说，“哎，不知道他还要这样不?”，
When his brother heard of it, he said, "Oh, I don't know that he would still do that(or) not?”
If the word “bhaeis” is placed after a verb, it acts as a complement and means “finished”, e.g.,
Hou lax tax bhaeis goms hei.
I eat rice finished then go
“我吃完饭就去，After I finish dinner, I'll go.”
The word “dhuas” can also denote the perfect aspect, (“(1) v.: pass through; (2) an auxiliary word that indicates that an action has already happened, and is placed after the verb; (3) an auxiliary word that expresses a comparison, and is placed after the adjective”) e.g.,
Meuu laeis zuu zuen aeu neix dhuas cas da?
you see one classifier person/people this auxiliary or not
“你见过这个人吗？Have you ever seen this man?”
Dhes da rien dhongneix dhuas.
I not say/speak like this auxiliary
“我没有说过这样的话，I didn't say anything like that.”
C. Future aspect:[edit]
The auxiliary word “kweis” or “guu” indicates that an action is in future by being placed before a verb, e.g.,
Na kweis hei Damxax.
he/she auxiliary word for future go Sanya city
“他要去三亚，He is going to Sanya.”
Meuu kweis vuek meshes?
you auxiliary word for future do/make what
“你要干什么？What will you do?”
The nuance between the two words “kweis” and “guu” is that: when two verbs are used together, if the first one is the method of the second one, or the second one is the purpose of the first one, only the word “guu” can be placed before the second verb, e.g.,
Bhoek noms guu roengx tax.
carry water for the purpose of cook rice
“打水煮饭，bring the water (used) for cooking”
D. Others:[edit]
If an action only lasts for a short while, the adverbial word “zuufanx” is placed after the verb, e.g.,
Gaux zuufanx.
lie down a short while
“躺一会儿，Liedown (for) a short while.”
Duuengx hou cat zuufanx.
to let/to allow I, wear a short while
“给我穿一下子，Let me wear it (for) a short while.”
2. Hlai verbs, including action verbs, verbs for expressing mental activities, and verbs for expressing existence, change, and development, can be predicates or predicate heads in a sentence. Most of these verbs can be followed by objects or by complements, and can be modified by adverbials, nouns of time, and auxiliary words, e.g.,[edit]
Dhes naeus buuen.
I just come
“我刚来，I just came here.”
Mieu gaenys diu.
cat bite mouse
“猫咬老鼠，A cat bites a mouse.”
Pasdza dhuus blongs.
father exist/in house
“父亲在家，Father is at home.”
Meuu uuhaux kweis hei da？
you tomorrow auxiliary word for future go not
“你明天去吗？Are you going tomorrow (or not)?”
3. Hlai verbs, except for linking verbs, can usually be made nominal by adding a prefix “uu-”; nominal verbs can be a subject, but cannot be a major part of the predicate, e.g.,[edit]
Uu- laix hauux dax hou.
prefix plow that field my
“那犁过的是我的田，The field that has been plowed is mine.”
Uu- buuen hauux ghueng dhes.
prefix come that young brother or sister my
“那个来的是我的弟弟（妹妹），The one who is coming is my brother/sister.”
Nominal verbs still can function as a verb with an object following it; the nominal verb and the object together can function as a subject, object or nominal predicate, e.g.,
Duis neix man uu- duuengx hlausghueng.
buffalo this is prefix give relatives
“这牛是给亲戚的，The buffalo is for (giving to) the relatives.”
Uu- oep hou man dhangjis hou.
prefix love me is comrade my
“爱我的是我的同志，The one who loves me is my comrade.”
4. Hlai verbs are rarely doubled as they are in Chinese; only monosyllabic action verbs and verbs for expressing mental activities can be doubled. Doubled monosyllabic verbs imply that the action is casually and carelessly done, e.g.,[edit]
Na bleuu bleuu fan beuu.
he/she hear hear then go back
“他听了听就回去了，He (only) heard about/of it and went back.”
Kun hluuekueng dzueis dzueis fan fei hluet blongs.
plural marker young girl look look then walk go into house
“姑娘们看了看就走进屋里去了，The girls (only) taking a quick look, then went into the house.”
A verb followed by “laeis” comes to mean “to try”; if a verb is followed by an object, the word “laeis” should be placed after the object, e.g.,
Hou qim laeis.
I taste try
“我尝尝看，I'll try (to taste) it.”
Meuu dzueis dhang na laeis.
You (s.) look face he/she try
“你看看他的脸，You try to look at his face.”
5. Modal verbs are usually placed before a verb forming the predicate of a sentence to express 1) the ability of the one performing the action, or 2) the possibility, obligation, or need of the action, e.g.,[edit]
Dhes kueng rien tun Moei.
I know how say/speak word Han/Chinese
“我会讲汉语，I can speak Chinese.”
Meuu kiemx hei geek guns.
You should/must go look for firewood
“你应该去砍柴，You should look for firewood.”
Meuu guulax dhongneix vuek naus dhiu.
you should/must like this do just right
“你必须这样做才对，You must do (it) like this, (for it) to be done just right.”
Meuu gieu vuek meshes?
You be good at do what
“你能干什么？What are you good at?”
Na boei taeis zuu hom qias neix.
he/she be not able to write one classifier script this
“他不会写这个字，He does not know how to write this one script.”
Hou dheeng’hwoek vuek.
I be willing to/agree do
“我愿意/同意做，I am willing to (do that) / I agree to (do that).”
Meuu kweis beuu na da?
You be willing to marry he/she not
“你愿意嫁他吗？Are you willing to marry him?”
Na ais vuek.
he/she be not willing to do
“他不愿意做，He is not willing to (do that).”
Na gax vuek gong neix.
he/she be not able do work this
“他无法做这个工作，He is not able to do this work.”
Na loepp buuen.
he/she be allowed to/be able to come
“他可以来，He is able to come. / He is allowed to come.”
Hou auux taeix hapaeu.
I dare to shoot
“我敢打枪，I dare to shoot.”
Modal verbs cannot be followed by noun-objects, nor can modal verbs be doubled, except in an interrogative sentence, that a positive and negative modal verb is used to ask yes or no,e.g.,
Meuu kueng da kueng?
You know how not know how
“你会不会？Do you know how to do it (or not)?”
Only in answering questions, can a modal verb act alone as a predicate, except for the modal verbs “kiemx”, “guulax” and the word “guu”, which cannot act as a predicate, e.g.,
Meuu gieu rien tun Hlai cas da? Dhes gieu.
You be able to say/speak word Li or not? I be able to
“你能说黎语吗？我能，Can you speak the Hlai/Li language? I can.”
Modal verbs sometimescan be followed by an object, e.g.,
Na bhaeis o kueng qias Hlai he.
he already learn (loan word) know how script Li accent
“他已经学会黎文了，He already learned the Hlai’s/Li’s script.”
The antonym of the modal verb “kweis” is “ais”; the antonym of “kueng” is “hluums”, and that of “gieu” is “gax”, which cannot be used in the imperative mood.
6. Verbs of motion can act alone as a predicate, e.g.,[edit]
Uengxtoengs buuen res!
everyone come accent
“大家来吧！Everyone, come!”
Also, verbs of motion can follow a main verb to express the direction of the action forming a predicate, e.g.,
Dhes fei hluet blongs.
I walk go into house
“我走进屋里，I walked into the house.”
Na tuuen blongs ghoux tuuen buuen.
he/she from house run go out come
“他从屋里跑出来，He ran out of the house.”
Zuufanx blei hei, zuufanx blei luueng.
a short while swim go to, a short while swim go back
“一会儿游去，一会儿游回，swim back and forth.”
Also, verbs of motion can combine together and become compound words as can be seen in the chart below:
| buuen (来, to come) | hei (去, to go to) | beuu (回, to go back) | |
| luueng (回返, back) | buuenluueng，回来 | heiluueng，回去 | beuuluueng，回去 |
| dhuas (过, pass) | buuendhuas，过来 | heidhuas，过去 | beuudhuas，回去，过去 |
| kaen (上, up) | buuenkaen，上来 | heikaen，上去 | beuukaen，回去，上去 |
| luei (下, down) | buuenluei，下来 | heiluei，下去 | beuuluei，回去，下去 |
| hluet (进, into) | buuenhluet，进来 | heihluet，进去 | beuuhluet，回去，进去 |
| tuuen (出, out) | buuentuuen，出来 | heituuen，出去 | beuutuuen，回去，出去 |
| beuu (回, back) | buuenbeuu，回来 | heibeuu，回去 |
The compound words above can be followed by objects, e.g.,
Hou hwanneix bhaeis duengx heikaen hwous.
I today already carry/bring go up mountain
“我今天已经送到山上去，I have already brought (it) to the mountain today.”
Pasdza ghuis na heihluet hwous hloek.
Father lead/direct he/she go into mountain deep
“父亲带他进入深山，Father took him into the remote mountains.”
Pasbhanghlauux fan beuuluueng blongs.
name of a man then come back home
“Pasbhanghlauux 便回家去，Then, Pasbhanghlauux went home.”
Except for the word “luueng”, the words found in the first column of the chart (“dhuas”, “kaen”, “luei”, “hluet”, “tuuen”, and “beuu”) and the words found along the top row (“buuen”, “hei”, and “beuu”) can exchange positions. After exchanging positions, the compound words cannot be followed by an object, and usually are used in imperative mood.
7. Linking verbs are placed before nouns, noun phrases or pronouns, combing two grammatical parts as a predicate, to provide information about the objects, e.g.,[edit]
Hou man Hlai, ghwaix Moei.
I am Li, am not Han/Chinese
“我是黎族，不是汉族，I am a Li, not a Han.”
Na man pashlaus hou.
He is older brother my
“他是我的哥哥，He is my older brother.”
The linking verbs can be omitted, e.g.,
Na pasghueng hou.
He younger brother my
“他是我的弟弟，He is my younger brother.”
But, when the subject or predicate is too long, or when the predicate includes numbers, the linking verbs cannot be omitted, e.g.,
Gha uengxtoengs bhaeisbhaeis ruus man uxaeu Dongxgok.
We everyone all all are people China
“咱们大家都是中国人，All of us are Chinese.”
Linking verbs cannot go with words that indicate the tense (like “faets” or “bhaeis” or “dhuas”), nor with directional verbs or with the complement, nor be modified by adverbials, or be doubled.
8. When the suffix “toengs” is added to some verbs, the compound words become reciprocal verbs, and cannot be followed by any objects, e.g.,[edit]
Duis tut’toengs.
Water buffalo collide with each other
“牛互相碰撞，The buffaloes collided with each other.”
Na hlaus zuen oeptoengs dhat.
He/she two classifier love each other truely
“他们两人很相爱，The two of them love each other very much.”
9. Some words in Hlai language are both nouns and verbs, e.g.,[edit]
fun
N.: fun long
rain big
“大雨，heavy rain”
V.: fun bhe!
rain, accent
“下雨了！It is raining!”
coem
N.: coem cai
fruit. tree
“果子，fruit”
V.: cai coem
tree bear fruit
“树结果，The tree bears fruit.”
dzuuem
N.: dzuuem kai
egg chicken
“鸡蛋，chicken egg”
V.: kai dzuuem
chicken lay egg
“鸡下蛋，The chicken is laying an egg.”
haeis
N.: haeis duis
excrement water buffalo
“牛屎，water buffalo’s excrement”
V.: duis haeis
water buffalo excrement
“牛拉屎，The water buffalo is defecating.”
In Chinese and English, the verb “wear” can apply to different actions, like wearing a necklace, wearing a hat, or wearing earrings. However, in Hlai language these different actions are distinguished by different verbs, e.g.,
“to wear”
kienx (for wearing a necklace);
mieng (for wearing earrings);
ngwaus (for wearing a hat);
pien (for wearing a skirt, pants, shoes);
cat (for wearing a top, a shirt)
“noise”
roeng (from an insect or bird);
vuns (from a dog);
hyoen (from a rooster);
ngwaety (from a human)
Different kinds of Adjectives in Hlai language[11][12][edit]
1. That are for describing the characterities of a person or thing[edit]
- 【hleny，好】: good
- 【reek，坏】: bad, not good
- 【kaeix，冷】: cold
- 【fous/faus，热】: hot
- 【dza，老】: old
- 【bluuek，年轻】: young
- 【hloek，深】: deep
- 【tuuens，浅】: shallow
- others
2. That are for describing the forms/attributes of thing[edit]
- 【long，大】: big, large
- 【enyx，小】: small
- 【peek，高】: tall, high
- 【tauus，矮】: short
- 【daeus，长】: long
- 【taty，短】: short
- others
3. That are for describing the state of actions or emotions[edit]
- 【dzuuns，快】: quick
- 【dais，慢】: slow
- 【hluengs，松】: loose
- 【guung，紧】: tight
- 【hlenyfaty，快乐】: happy
- 【heen，容易】: easy
- others
The basic rules for Adjectives in Hlai language[13][14][12][edit]
1. In Hlai language, adjectives cannot be a subject, nor an object, but can act as a predicate, attribute, adverbial, or complement.[edit]
A. As a predicate:[edit]
The adjective goes after the subject, e.g.,
Zuu hom coem hauux long baisias.
One classifier fruit that big/large very much
“那一个果子很大，That fruit (is) large!”
Zuu zuen aeu max reek.
One classifier man/person there bad
“那一个人坏，That man (is) bad/notorious.”
B. As an attribute:[edit]
The adjective goes after the noun that is modified, e.g.,
dhop kieu
cloth blue/green
“蓝布，(a) blue cloth”
veengs paens
shirt/top colorful
“花衣服，(a) loud (pronounced colors) shirt”
fun long
rain big
“大雨，heavy rain”
hwous enyx
mountain small
“小山，(a) small mountain / hill”
blongs peek
house tall
“高房子，(a) tall house”
ceeng hleny
flower good
“好花，(a) pretty flower”
C. As an adverbial:[edit]
The adjective is placed before the verb, e.g.,
Meuu dais dais lax as.
You slow slow eat an accent
“你慢慢地吃吧！(You) Eat slowly.”
Na kauuspaeis fei.
He/she swift in action walk
“他迅速地走，He walked quickly.”
D. As a complement:[edit]
The adjective usually comes after the verb in a sentence, e.g.,
Na vuek reek he.
He/she do/make bad an accent
“他弄坏了，He has broken (it).”
Meuu bhaeis laix hleny hyos?
You already plow well marker of question
“你已经犁好了吗？Have you finished plowing?”
2. An adjective also can be modified by adverbs, which can be placed either before or after the adjective, e.g.,[edit]
da hleny
not good
“不好，not good”
da peek
not tall
“不高，not tall”
vaeu reek
most bad
“最坏，worst”
duix hlenymuuen
most beautiful
“最美丽，most beautiful”
paens dhatdhat
colorful/floral truely/really
“很花，very colorful”
hlenyfaty baisias
happy very much
“很高兴，very happy”
3. In Hlai language, adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees.[edit]
A. comparative degree:[edit]
Either “dhuas” or “bhi”, denote comparative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If the word “dhuas” is used, it should be placed after the adjective, and the adjective and “dhuas” should be placed between the two objects being compared, e.g.,
Baisdza peek dhuas hluuekbaiskaux.
Mother tall more than daughter
“母亲高过女儿，The mother is taller than her daughter.”
Zuuhwuuep long dhuas zuu’ei.
Winter melon/white gourd big more than pumpkin
“冬瓜大过南瓜，The white gourd is bigger than her pumpkin.”
If the loan word “bhi” is used, it is placed between the two objects being compared, and the adjective is placed after the latter object, e.g.,
Meuu bhi dhes peek.
You compare I tall
“你比我高，You are taller than I (am).”
Blongs dhes bhi blongs na hleny.
House my compare house his good
“我的房子比他的房子好，My house is better than his.”
B. superlative degree:[edit]
Either “vaeu” or “duix”, denote superlative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If either “vaeu” or “duix” is used, it should be placed before the adjective, e.g.,
Pashlaus vaeu gieu.
Older brother most capable
“哥哥最能干，The older brother is most capable.”
Baiscuty duix hlenymuuen.
Youngest daughter most beautiful
“幺妹最漂亮，The youngest daughter is most beautiful.”
According to my Hlai language consultant, Mr. Liu, “The word ‘veau’ could possibly imply a derogatory, an exaggerated or overstated statement.” It depends on the context.
C. Others:[edit]
“Zuugit”, instead of indicating comparative or superlative degrees, denotes “(just) a little bit”, e.g.,
Zuu kuuengx cai neix peek zuugit.
One classifier tree this tall a little bit
“这棵树高一点，This three is just a little bit taller.”
Veengs neix baen zuugit.
shirt/top this new a little bit
“这衣服新一点，This dress is just a little bit newer.”
4. Except for adjectives that describe a mental/emotional status, adjectives can be made nominal by adding the prefix “uu-”. Adjectives that are nominal cannot be a predicate, but can act as a subject, an object, or an attribute, e.g.,[edit]
Uu-hleny neix man guu meuu.
The good one this is a maker of possession you
“这个好的是你的，This good one is yours.”
Na qieng dheuu uu-daeus.
He/she want to take the long one
“他想拿长的，He wants to take the long one.”
Kai uu-long hauux man guu dhes.
Chicken the big one that is a maker of possession me
“那只大的鸡是我的，That big chicken is mine.”
5. Adjectives for describing the forms/attributes of things, and those for describing the status of actions or emotions, can be doubled, but the adjective has to be monosyllabic.When the adjectives are doubled, the degree of the adjective increases, e.g.,[edit]
veengs kaeu kaeu
shirt/top white white
“白白的衣服，white clothes”
dzuuns dzuuns buuen
qiuck qiuck come
“快快来，come quickly”
dais dais fei
slow slow walk
“慢慢走，walk slowly” (When the Hlai people are saying farewell (bye), "dais dais fei" is the phrase they say to each other.)
Two different adjectives can be doubled like AABB, e.g.,
Blongs dhes baen baen hleny hleny.
House my new new good good.
“我的房子又新又好，My house is new and good.”
Zuu hom hwous neix peek peek long long.
One classifier mountain this high high big big
“这一座山又高又大，This mountain is tall and big.”
Two different adjectives also can be positioned in a ABAB pattern, e.g.,
Guen neix peek tauus peek tauus.
Road this high short high short
“这条路高高低低，This road is rough/bumpy.”
Na fei aus uty aus uty.
He/she walk swing swing swing swing
“他踉踉跄跄地走着，He is walking tipsy (unsteady like a drunk).”
Zuu dhaenx guen neix muety toei muety toei.
One classifier road this straight flat straight flat
“这一条路平平直直，This road is straight and smooth.”
Also, some monosyllabic adjectives express an increasing degree by the adding of a prefix, which combines the initial consonant of that adjective with a vowel like “i” or “u”; and the tone of the prefix is the first tone, e.g.,
li- loek
prefix dark
“黑漆漆，pitch-dark”
ri- raeux
prefix sparse
“稀疏，sparse”
gu- goeks
prefix concave
“黑漆漆，full of bumps and holes/uneven”
ghu- ghaeu
prefix clear
“清澈，clear”
6. Some adjectives can have a duplicated suffix tagged on to the ends, which cannot exist independently, to intensify the description, e.g.,[edit]
kaeu- laepplaepp
white something looks bright
“亮晶晶，something is so white as to be bright”
loek- tingting
black something looks dark
“黑漆漆，something is so black as to be dark”
tax fous-qiettqiett
rice hot something looks hot
“饭热乎乎，the hot rice”
7. The word “enyx” is used to describe something small, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the latter word, e.g.,[edit]
| “enyx” + noun | noun + “enyx” |
| enyx hla,
small fish “小鱼，small fish” |
hla enyx,
fish small “小的鱼，small fish” |
| enyx kai,
small chicken “小鸡，chick” |
kai enyx,
chicken small “小的鸡，chick” |
| enyx dziengx,
small finger “小指，small finger” |
dziengx enyx,
finger small “小的手指，small finger” |
The word “long” is used to describe something big or large, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the former word, e.g.,
| “long” + noun | noun + “long” |
| long duis,
big water buffalo “大的水牛，big buffalo” |
duis long,
water buffalo big “大水牛，big buffalo” |
| long hwoet,
big wind “大的风，big wind.” |
hwoet long,
wind big “大风，big wind” |
| long cai,
big tree “大的树，big tree” |
cai long,
tree big “大树，big tree” |
Another way to express something big or large is to add the prefix “bais-” to nouns related to objects/things; but, if the prefix “bais-” is added to nouns related to mankind/persons, it becomes an indicator of gender, e.g.,
| bais-fun,
big rain “大雨，heavy rain” |
bais-kuuengxcai,
big tree “大树，big tree” |
| bais-qien,
big stone “大石头，big stone” |
bais-coem,
big fruit “大果子，big fruit” |
| bais-duis,
big water buffalo “母水牛，female buffalo” |
bais-kai,
big chicken “母鸡，hen” |
Nouns that have the prefix “bais-” added on to them can be modified by the word “long” to increase the degree, e.g.,
bais-kuuengxcai long,
big tree big
“很大的树，large tree”
bais-qien long,
big stone big
“很大的石头，large stone”
If the speaker intends to increase the degree, the word “dhat” or “dhatdhat” can be added.
Different kinds of Numbers and their basic rules in Hlai language[15][16][edit]
Numbers in Hlai language, including cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and numbers of approximation, usually act as subjects, predicate, or objects in a sentence. When numbers are used with classifiers, together they become a phrase that can be an attribute to modify the noun phrase.
1. Cardinal numbers[edit]
A. Basic numbers units[edit]
• 【ceuus/zeuus/zuu，一】: one (in some case, the word “lax” also mean the digit—“one”)
• 【hlaus，二】: two
• 【fus，三】: three
• 【caus，四】: four
• 【ba，五】: five
• 【dom，六】: six
• 【tou，七】: seven
• 【ghou，八】: eight
• 【fauus，九】: nine
• 【fuet，十】: ten
• 【ghwaen，百】: hundred
• 【nguen，千】: thousand
• 【vaens，万】: ten thousand
B. Basic numbers unit combinations[edit]
• 【fuet ceuus，十一】: eleven
• 【fuet hlaus，十二】: twelve
• 【hlaus fuet，二十】: twenty
• 【fus fuet ba，三十五】: thirty five
• 【lax ghwaen hlaus fuet，一百二十】: one hundred twenty
• 【caus nguen uengx ceuus，四千零一】: four thousand zero one (4,001)
• 【zuu vaens，一万】: ten thousand
C. Cardinal numbers by themselves usually cannot modify nouns, but need to be placed before a classifier to modify the noun that goes after the classifier, e.g.,[edit]
zuu lang kai
one classifier chicken
“一只鸡，one chicken”
fuet zuen aeu
ten classifier person/man
“十个人，ten people”
hlaus nguen kuuengx cai
two thousand classifier tree
“两千棵树，two thousands tree”
However, in relation to dates (like year, month, day), numbers can modify these types of nouns without classifiers.
Meuuda doengs dhuus Bhakgengs zuu boux hei lo.
you live in Beijing one year pass accent
“你们住在北京一年了，You have lived in Beijing for a year.”
Na hlaus hwan da kaen hwous geek guns lo.
he two day not go up mountain search firewood accent
“他两天不上山砍柴了，These past two days he has not gone up to the mountain to look for firewood.”
D. Cardinal numbers cannot be doubled, except for with “nguen” and “vaens”; when their pattern is AABB, and the resulting phrase means a number of great amount, e.g.,[edit]
Zaux nguen nguen vaens vaens aeu buuen.
have thousand thousand ten thousand ten thousand man come
“有千千万万的人来，There are thousands of people coming.”
Nguen nguen vaens vaens aeu ngan qieng hei Bhakgengs.
thousand thousand ten thousand ten thousand man also/all desire go Beijing.
“千千万万的人都想去北京，Thousands of people want to go to Beijing.”
Sometimes, the words “nguen” and “vaens” combine with “jieng” or “zuu” to form an ABAC phrase to modify a noun, synonymous in meaning to the AABB pattern, e.g.,
Zaux jieng nguen jieng vaens aeu hei.
have form thousand form ten thousand man go
“有成千成万的人去，There are thousands of people going.”
Zuu nguen zuu vaens aeu ngan qieng fas fun.
one thousand one ten thousand man all desire sky rain
“千千万万的人都盼望天下雨，Thousands of people look forward to the rain.”
E. There are four words (“zuu”, “ceuus/zeuus”, and “lax”) that can represent the place value of “one”, but each word has its own usage.[edit]
First, when Hlai people count, they will say, “ceuus/zeuus, hlaus, fus, caus…(1, 2, 3, 4…)”, they won’t use “zuu” or “lax” for one.
The word “zuu” needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun.
zuu lang duis
one classifier water buffalo
“一只水牛，one water buffalo.”
The digit 1, when it is either in the 100’s, 1,000’s, 10,000’s, 100,000’s…. place of a number, the word “zuu” should be used for 1, e.g.,
zuu ghwaen
one hundred
“一百，one hundred”
zuu nguen
one thousand
“一千，one thousand”
zuu vaens
one ten thousand
“一万，ten thousand”
The digit 1, when it is either in the 10’s or 1’s place of a number, the word “ceuus/zeuus” should be used for 1, e.g.,
fuet ceuus/zeuus
ten one
“十一，eleven (11)”
zuu ghwaen ceuus/zeuus fuet
one hundred one ten
“一百一十，onehundred and ten (110)”
zuu vaens zuu nguen ceuus/zeuus fuet ceuus/zeuus
one ten hundred one thousand one ten one
“一万一千零一十一，Eleven thousand and eleven (11,011)”
zuu ghwaen uengx ceuus/zeuus
one hundred and one
“一百零一，one hundred and one (101)”
However, if the number is used with a classifier, then the word “zuu” should be used, e.g.,
zuu nguen uengx zuu hom
one thousand and one classifier
“一千零一个，one thousand and one (objects).”
The word “lax” cannot be used with a classifier. The word “lax” only can be used in the first digit when the number is bigger than ten. However, if the number is multiple of 10 like 100, 1000, 10000…etc., the word “zuu” should be used, instead of “lax”. e.g.,
lax fuet ceuus/zeuus(= fuet ceuus/zeuus)
one ten one = ten one
“一十一，eleven (11)”
lax ghwaen ceuus/zeuus fuet ceuus/zeuus
one hundred one ten one
“一百一十一，one hundred and eleven (111)”
lax nguen dom ghwaen (= zuu nguen dom ghwaen)
one thousand six hundred = one thousand six hundred
“一千六百，one thousand six hundred (1600)”
F. There are two words (“fuet” and “bun”) that are used for the place value of “ten,” but each word has its usage.[edit]
First, “fuet” is used for the number ten when counting.
“Bun” does not need to go with a classifier to modify a noun. However, if the word “bun” does go with a classifier to modify a noun, the only two classifiers that can be used are “hom” and “lang”; but when “lang” is used with people, “bun” cannot be used.
hlaus bun hom gan (= hlaus bun gan)
two ten classifier money = two ten money
“二十块钱，twenty dollars”
fus bun lang kai (= fus bun kai)
three ten classifier chicken = three ten chicken
“三十只鸡，thirty chickens”
“Fuet” needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun, e.g.,
fuet lang duis
ten classifier buffalo
“十只水牛，tenwater buffalo”
However, “fuet” can be placed in front of nouns, which are also classifiers, e.g.,
ba fuet boux
five ten classifier/year
“五十岁，fifty years”
fus fuet waeu
three ten classifier/bowl
“三十岁，thirty bowls”
G. In Hlai language, there is no word for the number “zero”; some areas adopted the loan word “lengs” (零，zero), e.g.,[edit]
zuu ghwaen lengs ba
one hundred zero five
“一百零五，one hundred and five (105)”
However, the number “zero” can be represented by the conjunction “uengx” or “loms”, e.g.,
zuu ghwaen uengx hlaus (hom)
one hundred and two (classifier)
“一百零二（个），one hundred and two (102)”
fus nguen loms hlaus fuet (hom)
three thousand again two ten (classifier)
“三千零二十（个），three thousand and twenty (3020)”
H. In Hlai language, there are two rules to construct numbers:[edit]
(1) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed after “fuet”, “ghwaen”, “nguen”, or “vaens”, the relation between the digit and the word is addition, e.g.,
fuet ceuus (= fuet + ceuus)
ten one
“十一，eleven (11)”
fuet hlaus (= fuet + hlaus)
ten two
“十二，twelve (12)”
(2) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed before “fuet”, “ghwaen”, “nguen”, or “vaens”, the relation between the digit and the word is multiplication, e.g.,
fus fuet (= fus X fuet)
three ten
“三十，thirty (30)”
hlaus ghwaen (= hlaus X ghwaen)
two hundred
“二百，two hundred (200)”
2. Ordinal numbers[edit]
A. In Hlai language, the word “ghwous” (头，head) or “ceuus” (一，one) means “first”, and the word “cuty” (尾，tail) means “last”; for all numbers in between first and last, the word “tom” (中间，middle) is used.[edit]
hluuek-ghwous-ghwa
child head to plant
“老大（长子），the first born child (usually, it means “son”)”
hluuek-tom
child middle
“老二，老三…，the child(ren) in the middle”
hluuek-cuty
child tail
“老幺，the youngest child”
When one’s gender is needed, the word “pasmaen” (男人，man) or “baiskaux” (女人，woman) can be added, e.g.,
hluuek-pasmaen-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-ghwous-ghwa
child man head to plant = child head to plant
“长子，the first born son”
hluuek-baiskaux-ghwous-ghwa = hluuek-baiskaux-long
child woman head to plant = child woman big
“大女儿，the first born daughter”
Usually “ghwous” indicates the oldest male; “long” the oldest female, like “kauuslong” (大姐, oldest sister), “zoulong” (大嫂，wife of oldest brother).
Moreover, the prefix “pas-” (男性，man) or “bais-” (女性，woman) can be added to the words “tom” and “cuty”, to indicate gender, e.g.,
pas- tom
male prefix middle
“次子，the son in the middle”
bais- cuty
female prefix tail
“幺女，the youngest daughter”
When ordinal numbers apply to things, usually the phrase is constructed by “ghwous” + “zuu” + a proper classifier to represent the first one, e.g.,
ghwous zuu kuuengx
head one classifier for tree
“头一棵，the first (tree)”
To present the last one, usually the phrase is constructed with the words “baiscuty” + “zuu” + a proper classifier, e.g.,
baiscuty zuu hom
last/tail one classifier
“最后一个，the last (one)”
To present the middle one(s), usually the phrase is constructed with the words “baistom” + “zuu” + a proper classifier, e.g.,
baistom zuu lang
middle one classifier
“第二，或第三…，the 2nd, or 3rd…”
B. Counting with ordinal numbers[edit]
Usually, any accuracy in communication is done with loan words from Chinese, e.g.,
• 【dhoeis-iet，第一】: first
• 【dhoeis-dzis，第二】: second
• 【dhoeis-das，第三】: third
• 【dhoeis-dis，第四】: fourth
• 【dhoeis-ngau，第五】: fifth
• 【dhoeis-laekk，第六】: sixth
• 【dhoeis-qiet，第七】: seventh
• 【dhoeis-bhoeix，第八】: eighth
• 【dhoeis-gaeus，第九】: ninth
• 【dhoeis-dapp，第十】: tenth
dhoeis-iet dus
first group
“第一组，the first group”
dhoeis-bhoeix dhuix
eighth team
“第八队，the eighth team”
dhoeis-dzis bhaenx
second class
“第二班，the second class”
C. For counting the passage of years, months, days, or time[edit]
In Hlai culture, people use a way similar to the Chinese Zodiac to count years, and even days, e.g.,
• 【boux-diu，鼠年】: the year of the mouse
• 【boux-duis，牛年】: the year of the buffalo
• 【boux-cauus，鱼年】: the year of the fish
• 【boux-bous，兔年】: the year of the rabbit
• 【boux-dang，龙年】: the year of the dragon
• 【boux-zan，虫年】: the year of the insect
• 【boux-ngas，马年】: the year of the horse
• 【boux-mat，人年】: the year of the man
• 【boux-nok，猴年】: the year of the monkey
• 【boux-kai，鸡年】: the year of the chicken
• 【boux-tety/hwanba，狗年】: the year of the dog
• 【boux-bou，猪年】: the year of the pig
• 【hwan-diu，鼠日】: the day of the mouse
• 【hwan-duis，牛日】: the day of the buffalo
• 【hwan-cauus，鱼日】: the day of the fish
• 【hwan-bous，兔日】: the day of the rabbit
• 【hwan-dang，龙日】: the day of the dragon
• 【hwan-zan，虫日】: the day of the insect
• 【hwan-ngas，马日】: the day of the horse
• 【hwan-mat，人日】: the day of the man
• 【hwan-nok，猴日】: the day of the monkey
• 【hwan-kai，鸡日】: the day of the chicken
• 【hwan-tety/hwanba，狗日】: the day of the dog
• 【hwan-bou，猪日】: the day of the pig
For counting months, in Hlai culture, there are two kinds of calendar: one is following the Han’s solar calendar, e.g.,
• 【zuu-nyaen-baen，一月、正月】: January
• 【hlaus-nyaen，二月】: February
• 【fus-nyaen，三月】: March
• 【caus-nyaen，四月】: April
• 【ba-nyaen，五月】: May
• 【dom-nyaen，六月】: June
• 【tou-nyaen，七月】: July
• 【ghou-nyaen，八月】: August
• 【fauus-nyaen，九月】: September
• 【fuet-nyaen，十月】: October
• 【fuetceuus-nyaen，十一月】: November
• 【fuethlaus-nyaen，十二月、腊月】: December
The other is following the Han’s lunar calendar, e.g.,
• 【zuu-hwan-nyaen，初一】: the first day of a lunar month
• 【hlaus-hwan-nyaen，初二】: the second day of a lunar month
• 【fus-hwan-nyaen，初三】: the third day of a lunar month
• 【caus-hwan-nyaen，初四】: the fourth day of a lunar month
• ……….
• 【fuetceuus-hwan，十一日】: the 11th day of a lunar month
• 【fuetceuus-hwan，十二日】: the 12th day of a lunar month
• ……….
• 【hlausfuetceuus-hwan，二十一日】: the 21st day of a lunar month
• 【fusfuet-hwan，三十日】: the 30th day of a lunar month
3. Number of Approximation[edit]
A. In Hlai language, one way to represent approximate numbers is to place two or three sequential numbers together, e.g.,[edit]
hlaus fus (hom)
two three (classifier)
“两三（个），two or three”
ba dom (hom)
five six. (classifier)
“五六（个），five or six”
hlaus fus caus (hom)
two three four (classifier)
“二三四（个），two, three, or four”
tou ghou fauus (hom)
seven eight nine (classifier)
“七八九（个），seven, eight, or nine”
Usually, the numbers one and two are not put together.
B. Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word “dzaengsloepp” (大约/大概，probably), e.g.,[edit]
dzaengsloepp zaux fuet dom hom
probably have ten six classifier
“大概有十六个，probably have sixteen (ones)”
dzaengsloepp zaux hlaus fuet boux he
probably have two ten year accent
“大概有二十岁，about twenty years old”
The word “dzaengsloepp” also can be shortened to “loepp”,e.g.,
loepp zaux tou fuet ceuus kuuengx
probably have seven ten one classifier for tree
“大约有七十一棵，probably have seventy-one (trees)”
C. Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word “dza” (余，a surplus/more than), e.g.,[edit]
hlaus dza hom
two surplus classifier
“两个多，more than two (less than three)”
fuet dza boux
ten surplus year
“十多年，more than ten years (less than twenty)”
The word “dza” can also be used with “loepp” to represent approximate numbers. The construction is “loepp” + zaux + number + “dza”, e.g.,
Na loepp zaux fuet dza boux da buuen he.
he probably have ten surplus year not come accent
“他大约有十余年没来了，He hasn't come (to this place) for more than ten years.”
The word “zaux” in this construction can be omitted, e.g.,
Zuu hom as neix loepp fuet dza gins.
one classifier watermelon this probably ten surplus classifier, about 500g
“这个西瓜大约有十多斤，This watermelon is a little more than 10 gins.”
D. There are some synonyms, like “zuugit”, “zuugitgit”, “zuugitlaei”, that can be used to represent approximate numbers. These words indicate the uncertainty of a small amount, e.g.,[edit]
Na naus lax zuugit vi!
he just/only eat a little bit accent
“他才吃一点点，He only ate a little bit.)”
Hou zaux zuugitgit.
I have a little bit
“我有一点点，I have a little bit.)”
bhinx zuugitlaei
lack a little bit
“缺了一点点，lacks a little bit.”
The word “zuutom” (一部分，a part/some) represents the uncertainty of a given amount, e.g.,
zuutom hei zuutom buuen
some go some come
“一部分（人）去，一部分（人）来，Some (people) go, some (people) come.”
paem na dhuus zuutom guen
meet he in part way
“在半路上碰见他，meet him part way”
Sometimes, the word “zuutom” means “half”,e.g.,
zuu pas zuutom
one classifier for man half
“一人一半，each one (gets) half”
Another word to represent the uncertainty of a given amount is “gei” (几, 若干, several), which implies the amount is less than ten, e.g.,
gei hwan neix
several day this
“这几天，these days”
Mansnyoengx zaux gei zuen aeu buuen.
only have several classifier man come
“只有几个人来，Only a few people come (less than ten)”
E. The word “hloei” (多, many/much) can represent the uncertainty of a great amount; if the amount is even greater, this word, “hloei” is repeated, “hloeihloei”, e.g., [edit]
Bhous na hauux hloei duis dhat.
villige he that many water buffalo very
“他那个村牛很多，There are a lot of buffalo in his village.”
Dhuix fa neix zaux uxaeu hloeihloei.
team we this have man so many
“我们这个队有许多人，We have so many people on this team.”
When a certain amount is requested, the word “hloeiras” (多少，how many/much) can be used in an interrogative sentence, e.g.,
Meuu boux neix hloeiras boux?
you year this how many year
“你今年多大岁数？How old are you this year?”
Meuu zaux hloeiras zuen hluuekghueng?
you have how many classifier younger sister or brother
“你有多少个弟弟妹妹？How many younger brothers and sisters do you have?”
Different kinds of Classifiers in Hlai language[17][18][19][edit]
1. Classifiers that modify nouns[edit]
A. Common classifiers[edit]
• 【hom，个、块、所、颗、粒、朵、元、座、盏、顶…】: most frequently used, and used with inanimate objects (including fruit, month, story, building, flower, money, mountain, light-stand, hat…), e.g.,
zuu hom waeu
one classifier bowl
“一个碗, a bowl.”
• 【zuen，位】: it is only used with humans, e.g.,
hlaus zuen bhiengs
two classifier soldier
“两个士兵, two soldiers”
• 【laus，个、位】: it is only used with males whether a baby, child, boy or young man, e.g.,
zuu laus hluuek
one classifier child
“一个男孩, a boy”
• 【hauus，个、位】: it is only used with females whether a baby, child, girl or young woman, e.g.,
hlaus hauus hluuek
two classifier child
“两个女孩, two girls”
• 【lang，只】: it can be used with humans, animate objects and spiritual beings, e.g.,
fus lang kai
three classifier chicken
“三只鸡, three chickens”
• 【kuuengx，棵】: it is used with larger plants (flowers use “hom”), e.g.,
caus kuuengx cai
four classifier tree
“四棵树, four trees”
• 【fans，件】: it is used with shirts or blouses, e.g.,
ba fans veengs
five classifier shirt/top
“五件衣裳, five shirts or blouses”
• 【hyax，条、件】: it is used with trousers/pants, e.g.,
hlaus hyax kous
two classifier pants
“两条裤子, two pairs of pants”
• 【ruet，条】: it is used with skirts, e.g.,
zuu ruet riens
one classifier the traditional Hlai skirt
“一条筒裙, a skirt”
• 【tos，套】: it is used with a suit of clothes or an outfit, e.g.,
zuu tos veengs kous
one classifier shirt/top pants
“一套衣服裤子, a suit or outfit having a matching top and bottom”
• 【tut，套】: it is used with a suit or outfit of clothes, e.g.,
zuu tut veengs
one classifier shirt/top
“一套衣服, a suit of clothes”
• 【dhanx，条、根】: it is used with linear objects, e.g.,
zuu dhanx dhoei
one classifier rope
“一根绳子, a rope”
dom dhanx noms
six classifier river
“六条河, six rivers”
• 【viens，块，张】: it is used with massive or planar objects, e.g.,
tou viens noeng duis
seven classifier skin water buffalo
“七张牛皮, seven pieces of cow hides”
• 【rueis，块、张】: it is usually used with flat surfaced planar objects, e.g.,
hlaus rueis aek bou
two classifier meat pig
“两块猪肉, two slabs of pork”
fus rueis noeng loei
three classifier skin muntjak
“三张麂子皮, three pieces of chamois (small antelope) hide”
• 【ban，头、只】: it is used with cows or horses, e.g.,
hlaus ban gas
two classifier horse
“两匹马, two horses”
• 【pous/paus，堆】: it is used with a relative smaller pile (pous/paus is also a verb), e.g.,
zuu pous van
one classifier earth
“一堆土, a pile of earth”
zuu pous guns
one classifier firewood
“一堆柴, a pile of firewood”
• 【kun，堆】: it is used with a relative bigger pile, e.g.,，
zuu kun muens
one classifier rice in the husk
“一大堆稻谷, a large pile of rice”
• 【baep，把】: it is usually used with seedling (There is no wheat on the Island of Hainan/Hlai people’s teritory.), e.g.,
zuu baep fan
one classifier seedling
“一把秧, a handful of rice seedlings”
• 【hax，把】: it is usually used with rice, e.g.,，
zuu hax muens
one classifier rice
“一把稻子, one handful of rice”
• 【bhaeng，间】: it is usually used with a room or building, e.g.,
zuu bhaeng blongs
one classifier house
“一间屋子, a building/house”
zuu bhaeng qiafei
one classifier train
“一节火车厢, a box car”
• 【bhaengs，梭/颗、封】: it is usually used with letters (a written communication as one sent through the mail) a bullet or a firecracker, e.g.,
zuu bhaengs veji
one classifier bullet
“一梭/颗子弹, a bullet”
zuu bhaengs dienx
one classifier letter
“一封信, a letter”
• 【bhak，块】: it is usually used with flat objects, e.g.,
zuu bhak gias
one classifier glass
“一块玻璃, a piece of glass”
zuu bhak qias
one classifier paper
“一块硬纸片, a piece of cardboard”
• 【bheek，幅】: it is usually used witha picture or painting, e.g.,
zuu bheek ueix
one classifier picture/painting
“一幅画, a picture/painting”
• 【bhuek，把】: it is usually used with straw, e.g.,
zuu bhueks ngwiengs
one classifier straw
“一把稻草, a handful of straw”
• 【bhui，本】: it is usually used with books, e.g.,
hlaus bhui qias
two classifier book
“两本书, two books”
• 【cax，座】: it is usually used with mountains, e.g.,
zuu cax hwous
one classifier mountain
“一座山, a mountain”
• 【ceuus，枝、秆】: it is usually used with a pen or stick, e.g.,
zuu ceuus bhit
one classifier pen
“一支笔, a pen”
• 【cueng，枚】: it is usually used with a needle, e.g.,
zuu cueng guty
one classifier needle
“一枚针, a needle”
• 【dhien，畦or 幅】: it is usually used with farmland (rectangular plots of land in a field, separated by ridges, usually for growing vegetables), also used with cloth, e.g.,
zuu dhien van bheuudaeis
one classifier land/earth vegetables
“一畦菜地, a bed of vegetables”
zuu dhien dhop
one classifier cloth
“一幅布, a piece of cloth”
• 【dhun，户、家】: it is usually used with households, e.g.,
bhous fa zaux hlaus fuet dhun blongs.
Village our have two ten classifier households
“我们村子有二十户人家, There are twenty households in our village.”
• 【gas，辆、架】: it is usually used with a car or a plane, e.g.,
zuu gas qia
one classifier car
“一辆车, a car”
zuu gas vabheny
one classifier airplane
“一架飞机, an airplane”
• 【ghoeix，行、排】: a row, a line, e.g.,
fus ghoeix cai
three classifier tree
“三行树, three rows of trees”
zuu ghoeix qias
one classifier word/letter
“一行字, one line of words”
• 【ha，缕】: it is usually used with light.
• 【hus，副】: it is usually used with playing cards, poker.
• 【hwoens，堆、块】: it is usually used with fields or objects that can be organized in a pile, e.g.,
zuu hwoens guns
one classifier firewood
“一堆柴火, a pile of firewood”
zuu hwoens dax
one classifier field
“一块水田, a field”
• 【hluut，层】: it means “layers” or “levels”, e.g.,
fus hluut laeus
three classifier the floor in building
“三层楼, three floors”
Van neix zaux fus hluut na.
Land this have three classifier thickness
“这土有三层厚, This soil has three layers.”
• 【ka，枝】: it is usually used with branches, e.g.,
zuu ka cai
one classifier tree
“一枝树枝, a branch”
• 【kok，棵】: it is usually used with mushrooms, e.g.,
zuu kok dhety
one classifier mushroom
“一棵菌子, a mushroom”
• 【koen，只】: it is usually used with one object in a pair, e.g.,
zuu kuen zuugoems
one classifier shoe
“一只鞋, a shoe”
zuu koen fiek
one classifier classifier
“半挑东西, a pole balanced on a shoulder by half a load being carried in the front and the other half being carried in the back (fiek: the action of carrying stuff on a shoulder becomes a classifier).”
• 【kou，张、顶】: it is usually used with mesh, e.g.,
zuu kou ghoeis hla
one classifier net fish
“一张鱼网, a fishing net”
• 【liemx，瓣】: it is usually used with a clove or segment of fruit, e.g.,
zuu liemx coembhem
one classifier grapefruit
“一瓣柚子, a piece of grapefruit”
• 【leep，叠】: it is usually used with thin objects like paper, e.g.,
hlaus leep qias
two classifier paper
“两层纸, two sheets of paper”
• 【leeps，瓣、片、层】: it is usually used withthe thin objects
• 【luuengs，把】: it is usually used with a saw (tool for sawing)
• 【moux，种、类】: it means a “kind, sort”, e.g.,
neix zuu moux hleny
This one classifier good
“这一种好, This is a good one.”
zaux hlenyhloei moux muens
have many classifier rice
“有好多种稻子, There are many kinds of rice.”
• 【paeng，串】: it is usually used with fruit, e.g.,
zuu paeng zuuloengs
one classifier betel nut
“一串槟榔, a cluster of betel nut”
• 【pienx，把】: it is usually used with knives e.g.,
zuu pienx gas
one classifier knife
“一把刀, a knife”
• 【puens，杆、根】: it is usually used with tree trunks or any bar-like or rod-like objects, e.g.,
zuu puens cai
one classifier tree
“一根树干, a stump (or tree trunk)”
zuu puens bhit
one classifier pen
“一支笔, a pen”
• 【raeis，块、片】: it is used with fields, e.g.,
zuu raeis dax
one classifier field
“一片田, a field”
• 【ras，棵，株】: it is usually used with grass or rice, e.g.,
zuu ras gans
one classifier grass
“一棵草, a blade of grass”
• 【rok，块】: it is usually used with hillside fields (fields far from a water source), e.g.,
zuu rok ang
one classifier field
“一块刀耕地, a field”
(ang: specifically, a burned up plot of land that is fertilized for future farming by the remaining ashes; an ancient farming way of Hlai people, but now forbidden by the CN government)
fus rok pos
three classifier hillside field
“三块旱地, three fields on the hillside”
• 【ruets，摞】: it is usually used with massive objects
• 【taeu，批、群】: it is usually used with a batch of goods or a group of animals, e.g.,
caty zuu taeu liem
buy one classifier sickle
“买一批镰刀, buy a bundle of sickles”
zuu taeu dzeeng
one classifier goat/sheep
“一群羊, a flock of goats”
• 【tuueng，把】: it is usually used with farm tools, e.g.,
zuu tuueng rik
one classifier rake
“一把耙, a rake”
• 【vaen，梳、下】: it is usually used with comb-like, comb-shaped objects, e.g.,
zuu vaen hweek
one classifier banana
“一梳芭蕉, a bunch of bananas”
or it is used for counting the number of times of pestling, e.g.,
ceek fuet vaen
pestle ten classifier
“舂十下, pestle ten times”
• 【vans，张、页、幅、块】: it is usually used with paper products, e.g.,
zuu vans qia
one classifier paper
“一张纸, a piece of paper”
zuu vans diets
one classifier picture
“一幅照片, a photograph”
• 【voei，桶】: it is usually used with something that can be carried in a bucket, e.g.,
zuu voei ghei
one classifier rice
“一桶米, a bucket of rice”
• 【vong，嘟噜】: it is usually used with something formed as a cluster (tropical fruit is usually in clusters, such as coconuts, betel nuts), e.g.,
zuu vong coemcai
one classifier fruit
“一嘟噜果子, a cluster of fruit”
B. Classifiers for measurement[edit]
• 【mous，亩】: (Chinese acre) an unit of area to measure a land or field, about 667 square meters, e.g.,
zuu mous dax
one classifier field
“一亩田, one mu of field”
• 【dho，丈】: an unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 dho is about 350 centimeters, e.g.
zuu dho dhop
one classifier cloth or textile
“一丈布, one zhang of cloth”
• 【qieux，尺】: an unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 qieux is about 35centimeters, 10 qieux = 1 dho.
hlaus qieux dhop
two classifier cloth or textile
“两尺布, two feet of cloth”
• 【cuns，寸】: an unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, about 3.5 cm, 10 cuns = 1 qieux.
fus cuns dhop
three classifier cloth or textile
“三寸布, three inches of cloth”
• 【hlaenx，庹】: the length of two arms, about the height of a person, about 5-6 feet.
• 【hwuup，拃】: the distance between the thumb and the middle finger pressed down on a surface in a straight line, about 15-20 centimeters, e.g.,
zuu hwuup daeus
one classifier length
“一拃长, one zuo length”
• 【tunx，节】: the length of a finger, about 6-9 centimeters.
• 【dhas，石】: an unit of weight, e.g., fuetdhas ghei, “十石米 (fuet: ten, ghei: uncooked rice).” 1 dhas is probably equal to 150 gins, about 75 kg.
• 【dhaeu，斗】: an unit of weight, e.g.,zuu dhaeu ghei，“一斗米 (zuu: one, ghei: uncooked rice).”10 dhaeu = 1 dhas; 1 dhaeu = 10 kax = 15 gins, about 7.5 kg.
• 【kax，升】: an unit of weight, e.g.,fus kax ghei, “三升米 (fus: three, ghei: uncooked rice).” 1 kax = 1.5 gins, about 0.75 kg.
• 【gins，斤】: an unit of weight, e.g.,zuu gins hla，“一斤鱼 (zuu: one, hla: fish).” 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 0.5 kg.
• 【luuengx，两】: an unit of weight, e.g., zuu luuengxnyaeus，“一两盐 (zuu: one, nyaeus: salt).” 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 500 g; so 1luuengx = 31.25 g
• 【dhun，吨】: a modern unit of weight, 1000 kg, e.g., fauus dhun ghoei，“九吨铁, a ton of iron (fauus: nine, ghoei: iron).”
C. Classifiers derived from nouns or verbs[edit]
• 【kop，捧 or 把】: the original action of holding or carrying something in both hands becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu kop ghei
one classifier rice
“一捧米, one scoop of rice”
• 【koens，捆】: the original action of tying, binding or bundling up becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu koens hya
one classifier thatch or couch grass
“一捆茅草, a sheaf of thatch”
• 【bhiek，捆】: it is usually used with a bundle of objects that is carried on one's shoulders, e.g.,
zuu bhiek guns
one classifier firewood/sticks
“一捆柴, a bundle of firewood/sticks”
• 【zeems，撮】: the original action of picking up (with all five fingers) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu zeems nyaeus
one classifier salt
“一撮盐, one pinch (using all five fingers) of salt.”
• 【jims，撮】: the original action of picking up (with the thumb and forefinger/index finger) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
jims zuugit nyaeus
pick up a little of salt
“拈一点盐, a pinch (using only two fingers) of salt”
hlaus jims nyaeus
two classifier salt
“两撮盐, two pinches of salt”
• 【fiek，担or 双】: the original action of carrying a pole (usually bamboo-made) on a shoulder that is used for measurements becomes a measurement for things that were carried on poles, e.g.,
zuu fiek guns
one classifier firewood
“一担柴a bundle of firewood”
zuu fiek zuugoems
one classifier shoe
“一双鞋, a pair of shoes”
• 【gok，杯、瓶】: a cup (or a bottle), originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu gok noms
one classifier water
“一杯水, a cup of water”
zuu gok ghweis
one classifier oil
“一瓶油, a bottle of oil”
• 【waeu，碗】: a bowl, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu waeu tax
one classifier cooked rice
“一碗饭, a bowl of rice”
• 【boux/baux，岁】: a year, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fuet ghou boux
one ten eight classifier
“十八岁, 18 years old”
• 【bhaem，围】: the original action of embracing something with two arms becomes a measurement, e.g.,
hlaus blaem cai
two classifier tree
“两围的树 tree size of two men's arms wrapped around it”
• 【comx，袋】: usually, objects that can be carried in bags that have become classifiers, e.g.,
zuu comx ghei
one classifier rice
“一袋米, a bag of rice”
• 【ding，升】: a barrel (made of coconut shells), originally a noun, becomes a measurement, e.g.,
zuu ding ghei
one classifier rice
“一升米, a barrel of rice”
• 【dhak，滴】: the original action is dripping; the meaning is “a drop”, used as a classifier , e.g.,
zuu dhak noms
one classifier water
“一滴水, a drop of water”
• 【dzuen，挂】: the stalk bananas grow on, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu dzuen hweek
one classifier banana
“一大挂芭蕉, a stalk of bananas”
• 【fas，阵】: as a noun it means sky, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fas fun
one classifier rain/shower
“一阵雨, a (rain) shower”
• 【fiens，把】: as a noun it is the handle of farm tools, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fiens gwaek
one classifier hoe
“一把锄头, a hoe”
• 【fok，块】: as a noun it is a place, area, or region, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu fok gom neix
one classifier region this
“这块地方, this region”
• 【gieps，夹】: the original action is sheaving the thatch, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
hlaus gieps hya
two. classifier thatch
“两夹茅草, two sheaves of thatch”
• 【guengs，篮、框】: a basket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu guengs ghei
one classifier hoe
“一筐米, a basket of rice”
• 【guety，串】: a stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu guety hla
one classifier fish
“一串鱼, a string of fish”
• 【neny，串】: a bamboo stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu neny hla
one classifier fish
“一串鱼, a string of fish”
• 【neny，枝】: as a noun it means a little branch, but it can also be used as a classifier with a branch or flower, e.g.,
zuu neny ceeng
one classifier flower
“一枝花, a flower”
• 【ghongs，丛】: as a noun it means a grove, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ghongs hweek
one classifier banana
“一丛芭蕉树, a grove of banana trees”
• 【hoep，盒】: as a noun it means a box, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu hoep cuax
one classifier matches
“一盒火柴, a box of matches”
• 【hwang，圈】: as a noun it means a ring, ferrule, or band, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu hwang zuu hwang noms
one classifier one classifier water
“一圈一圈的水, a ripple (of water)”
• 【hwaeng，垄】: as a noun it means a balk, that is to be heaped up with soil into ridges, e.g.,
zuu hwaeng man
one classifier a general term for potato
“一垄甘薯, a ridge of sweet potatoes”
• 【hwoens，丘、床】: as a noun it means something lined up forming a pattern, e.g.,
zuu hwoen dax
one classifier field
“一丘田, a field”;
zuu hyoen haeus
one classifier quilt
“一床被子, a quilt”
• 【op，抱】: the original action is holding a baby, e.g.,
zuu op guns
one classifier firewood
“一抱柴火, an armful of firewood”
• 【puuen，代】: as a noun it means seniority in respect to age, and as a classifier it means “generations,” e.g.,
fa buuen neix bhaeis zaux fus puuen bhe
We come here already have three classifier accent
“我们来这儿已有三代了, We've been here for three generations.”
• 【rei，枝】: as a noun it means sprouts, and as a classifier it is used with sprouts.
• 【ruek，窝、笼、盒】: as a noun it means nest, cage, or box, and it can be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ruek bou
one classifier pig/hug
“一窝猪, a litter of pigs”
zuu ruek kai
one classifier chicken
“一笼鸡, a cage of chickens”
zuu ruek aenx
one classifier cake
“一盒点心, a box of cakes”
Sometimes, it is also used with urine, e.g.,
zuu ruek dhou
one classifier urine
“一泡尿, a stream of urine”
• 【taen，场、趟】: as a noun it means altar (usually for worship of the demons or the ancestors), but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
bhaeis vuek zuu taen dings.
Already do one classifier demon
“已经祭了一趟鬼, (The priest) already sacrificed once to the demons.”
• 【taeng，桶】: a bucket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
zuu taeng noms
one classifier water
“一桶水, a bucket of water”
• 【tiep，夹】: the original action is picking up food up with chopsticks, but as a noun it means chopsticks, which can be used as a classifier referring to the food amount that is taken up with a pinch of the chopsticks, e.g.,
zuu tiep bheuucai
one classifier vegetable
“一夹菜, a chopstick-pinch of food”
• 【tuck，包】: the original action is to wrap up; bind up; enclose; pack, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu tuek dza
one classifier cigarettes
“一包烟, a pack of cigarettes”
• 【veeng，户】: as a noun it means lord or master, and as a classifier it can be used with households, e.g.,
zuu veeng
one classifier
“一户（人家), a household.”
• 【zaemx，步】: as a noun it means step, and the verb is stepping or walking, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
zuu ghwaen zaemx
one hundred classifier
“一百步, one hundred steps”
• 【zeeng，穗、粒】: as a noun it means kernels (husks) of rice, but it can also be a classifier to mean the husks from a stalk of rice or something with larger kernels, e.g.,
zuu zeeng muens
one classifier rice
“一穗稻子, a stalk of rice”
zuu zeeng nyaeus
one classifier salt
“一粒粗盐, a grain of coarse salt”
2. Classifiers for modifying verbs[edit]
• 【faei，下、次、回】: time, e.g.,
taeix zuu faei
hit/beat one classifier
“打一下, to hit/beat once”
• 【gaeis，回、次、遍】: time, e.g.,
na bhaeis rien hlaus gaeis
he/she already say/speak two classifier
“他已经说了两遍了, He already said (it) two times.”
• 【guen，趟、遍】: time, e.g.,
hei zuu guen
go one classifier
“去一次, go (there) one time”
• 【caety，阵、遍】: it is usually used by women, it means “time”, e.g.,
bhaeis fun zuu caety
Already rain one classifier
“下了一阵雨, It already showered."
kai bhaeis hyoen fus caety
Chicken already cock crow three classifier
“鸡已叫了三遍, The chicken has already crowed three times.”
• 【pienx，遍】: time, e.g.,
tak zuu pienx
study one classifier
“读一遍, read one time”
• 【caeu，阵】: it is usually used by the elderly, it means “time”, e.g.,
zuu caeu fun
one classifier rain
“一阵雨, a shower (describing rain)”
zuu caeu hwoet
one classifier wind
“一阵风, a gust of wind”
• 【caens，顿】: classifier for meal, e.g.,
zuu caens tax
one classifier rice
“一顿饭, a meal”
• 【kok，脚】: feet, e.g.,
teeks zuu kok
kick one classifier
“踢一脚, give (it) a kick”
• 【boms，口】: mouth, e.g.,
gaenys zuu boms
bite one classifier
“咬一口, to take a bite”
• 【feek，口or 句】: mouth, e.g.,
lax zuu feek tax
eat one classifier rice
“吃一口饭, to take a bite of food”
na zuu feek tun ruus da rien
he/she one classifier word even not say
“他一句话也不说, He did not even say a word.”
• 【pui，阵、遍】: it means “time” and is used to count sleep, e.g.,
gaux zuu pui
sleep one classifier
“睡一觉, time spent in rest/sleep”
The basic rules for Classifiers in Hlai language[20][19][edit]
1. Classifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in a AB+AB pattern, e.g.,[edit]
Daty zuu kun zuu kun bheny.
bird one clasifier one clasifier fly
“鸟成群成群地飞，Birds fly in groups.”
2. Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g.,[edit]
Zuu lang ba neix long dhat!
one clasifier dog this big really/truly
“这只狗真大！This dog is really big!”
3. Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g.,[edit]
Raux fus gaeis =Fus gaeis raux
read aloud three clasifier= three classifier read
“读三遍，read three times”
Taeix zuu guen = Zuu guen taeix
hit one clasifier = one clasifier hit
“打一次，to hit/punch one time”
4. In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g.,[edit]
Hou caty zuu hom, meuu ngan caty zuu hom.
I buy one classifier you also buy one classifier
“我买一个，你也买一个，I buy one, and you buy one.”
Different kinds of Pronouns and their basic rules in Hlai language[21][22][edit]
There are three kinds of pronouns: the personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, and interrogative pronoun.
1. Personal pronouns[edit]
| Singular 单数 | Plural 复数 | |
| 1st person pronouns
第一人称代名词 |
hou, “我, I” (谦称, polite)
dhes, “我, I” (通称, casual) |
fa, “我们, we” (排除式, exclusive)
gha, “咱们, we” (包括式, inclusive) |
| 2nd person pronouns
第二人称代名词 |
meuu, “你, you” | meuuda, “你们, you” |
| 3rd person pronouns
第三人称代名词 |
na, “他/她/它, he/she/it” | kun, “他们, they”
kunaeu, “他们, they” |
The different usage of “hou” and “dhes”[23]
(1) The women prefer to use “hou” when women talk to women, or women to men. They prefer to use “hou” in order to express themselves as a humble woman and to show respect to their listeners.
(2) When a senior member of the family (an elderly, parents, older brothers or sisters…etc.) is angry with a junior, he/she could choose to use “hou” or “dhes”; on the contrary, juniors are forbidden to use “dhes” when speaking with the seniors in conversation, or when they are angry at them.
(3) Among blood relatives, when men speak to women, they use “hou”; when men speak to men, either “hou” or “dhes” can be used; when juniors speak to a senior, they usually use “hou”.
(4) Among in-laws, no matter whether men, women, seniors, or juniors, when they speak to each other, the word “hou” is preferable to express politeness.
(5) Between hosts and guests, no matter the gender or age, the word “hou” must be used to express politeness and respect.
(6) When someone asks a who question, “Asras…?” If it is answered with the first personal pronoun, “hou” is preferable over “dhes”, e.g.,
Q: Asras dhuus hauux? A: Hou res!
Q: Who is there? A: I accent
“Q: 谁在那里？A: 我呀！Q: Who is there? A: (It’s) I.”
If someone answers with the word “dhes”, it expresses his impatient attitude. Usually, it occurs between family members’ conversations, e.g.,
Q: Asras dhuus hauux? A: Dhes vi! Asras?
Q: Who is there? A: Me accent! Who?
“Q: 谁在那里？A: 我嘛！还有谁？Q: Who is there? A: (it’s) I！Who else?”
(7) When a man sings to a woman to express his love to her, he will definitely use “hou”; if he uses “dhes”, she would think he is not sincere, e.g.,
Tuuen dhang duuengx hou nga; tuuen ca duuengx hou laeis
Go out face give me look go out eye give me see
“露脸给我瞧；露眼睛给我见，Let me see your face; let me look into your eyes.”
(8) When someone speaks rudely, he uses “dhes” instead of “hou”.
(9) In today’s Hlai society, the difference between “hou” and “dhes” is not so strict. Generally, women mostly use “hou”; men usually use “dhes”. The word “hou” expresses politeness and respect to the listener, and the word “dhes” is more casual.
P.S. My language consultant said: the word “kun" is a simplified form of “kunaeu”. Usually, in a conversation held between those of the same gender group, “kun” is used; in a conversation held between those of different gender groups, “kunaeu” would be used to show respect. Or, if a conversation were made up of those from both the older and younger generation, the younger generation would need to use “kunaeu” to show respect toward the elderly.
| Singular 单数 | Plural 复数 | |
| Reflexive pronouns
反身代名词 |
paszauus, “自己, self” (男性用, man/male use);
zuenzauus, “自己, self” (女性用, woman/female use); veengzauus, “自己, self” (通用, general use) goemzauus, “自己, self” (委婉, polite use) | |
| General pronouns
泛称代名词 |
uengxtoengs, “大家, everyone”; aeu, “人家, people”; himax, “某人, someone”; aeu uughwaix, “别人, others” | |
A. Personal pronouns can be both a subject and an object, e.g.,[edit]
Na taeix hluuek daty.
he hit child bird
“他打小鸟，He hit the little bird.”
dheuu toencai taeix na
take stick hit him
“拿木棍打他，take a stick to hit him”
Personal pronouns can also act as an attribute to indicate the possessive relation, e.g.,
Gha vou tun na hei vuek.
we follow words his to do
“咱们按照他的话去做，Let's follow his words to do (it).”
Reflexive pronouns can be an appositive to another pronoun to emphasize the pronoun, e.g.,
Neix man hou zuenzauus vuek.
this is I self do
“这是我自己做的，I made it myself.”
B. The auxiliary word “guu” can be placed before a personal pronoun to indicate the possessive relation. After placing the word “guu”, the pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,[edit]
Neix zuu lang kai man guu na.
this one classifier chicken is his
“这一只鸡是他的，This chicken is his.”
Blongs neix man guu dhes.
house this is mine
“这房子是我的，This house is mine.”
2. Demonstrative pronouns[edit]
• 【neix，这】: this; here; so; such
• 【hauux，那】: that; there; so; such
• 【max，那】: that; there
The word “neix” refers to someone, or something, at a close distance; the word “hauux” is farther away than the word “neix”; the word “max” is even farther. These three words also can be combined to the words “dhong” or “hi” and become compound words as below,
• 【dhongneix，这】: like this
• 【dhonghauux，那】: like that
• 【hineix，这】: such
• 【hihauux，那】: like that
Other demonstrative pronouns are:
• 【uughwaix，别的】: other
• 【ranx，每】: every
A. When a demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, it is placed before the head word, e.g.,[edit]
Neix veengs baen.
this shirt/top new
“这是新的衣服，This (is) a new dress.”
Hauux duis long.
that water buffalo big
“那是大水牛，That (is) a big buffalo.”
B. When a demonstrative pronoun combines with a number, a classifier, and a noun to form a noun phrase, the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, e.g.,[edit]
Hauux zuu kuuengx cai hleny baisias.
that one classifier tree good very
“那一棵树好得很，That tree is very good.”
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute in a noun phrase, it can be placed either in the beginning or at the end of the noun phrase, e.g.,
Neix zuu lang kai ghweis.
this one classifier chicken fat
“这一只鸡肥，This chicken is fat.”
Zuu lang kai neix ghweis.
one classifier chicken this fat
“这一只鸡肥，This chicken is fat.”
If the linking verb is placed between the demonstrative pronoun and the noun, the demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, e.g.,
Neix man hlaus lang kai enyx.
this are two classifier chicken little
“这是两只小鸡，These are two chicks.”
C. The words “neix”, “hauux”, and “max” can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and an object; the word “uughwaix” can be a subject, an attribute, and an object; the compound words “dhongneix”, “dhonghauux”, “hineix”, and “hihauux” can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and a predicate, e.g.,[edit]
Dhongneix vuek yos?
like this do a marker of question
“这样做吗？Is it done like this?”
Gong dhongneix hleny yos?
stuff like this good a marker of question
“这样的东西好吗？Is such a thing as this good?”
Yous rien dhonghauux.
don’t say like that
“别那样说，Don't say that.”
Meuu dhonghauux yos.
you like that a marker of question
“你是那样的吗？Are you like that?”
D. In Hlai language there is no declension in demonstrative pronouns to indicate singular or plural. So, the demonstrative pronouns need to go with the number and classifier, or the word “zuugit” to indicate singular or plural, e.g.,[edit]
Zuu kun daty hauux bheny he.
one classifier bird that fly accent
“那一群鸟飞了，The flock of birds (is) flying away.”
Zuugit ghei neix ghei uuras?
some rice this rice whose
“这些米是谁的？Whose rice is this?”
E. When the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, it is usually placed after the head word, e.g.,[edit]
Buuemx neix long.
shrimp this big
“这只虾大，This shrimp is big.”
Na qieus hloei neix.
he take many/much so/such
“他拿这么多，He took so much.”
Meuu dheuu raux hauux.
you take/want little/few so/such
“你要这么少，You took/want so little.”
F. When the demonstrative pronoun is placed after the personal pronoun, or the interrogative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun loses its meaning, and becomes an empty word that functions as an emphasis to make it sound fluent, e.g.,[edit]
Meuu neix kweis dheuu gong meshes?
you empty word want take stuff what
“你要拿什么东西？What are you going to take?”
Uuras hauux gongx hou?
who empty word look for me
“谁找我？Who is looking for me?”
G. The demonstrative pronoun “ranx” is only placed before the classifier, and can be doubled for emphasis, e.g.,[edit]
Ranx zuen lax zuu hom.
every classifier eat one classifier
“每个人吃一个，Everyone eats one.”
Ranx ranx zuen uuaeu ruus lax zuu hom.
every every classifier man all eat one classifier
“每一个人都吃一个，Everyone eats one.”
H. The demonstrative pronoun “uughwaix” can be an attribute and an object, e.g.,[edit]
gong uughwaix
stuff other
“别的东西，other stuff”
aeu uughwaix
man other
“别人（他人，不相干的人），other’s”
Zaux uughwaix cas da？
have other or not
“有别的没有？Do (you) have (any) other stuff?”
3. Interrogative pronouns[edit]
• 【ras，哪，如何】: Where? Which? How?
• 【uuras/asras，谁】: Who?
• 【dhongras，怎样】: How?
• 【qiras，何时】: When? What time?
• 【hloeiras，多少】: How much? How many?
• 【meshes，什么】: What?
• others
A. The interrogative word “uuras” (“asras”) can be a subject, an attribute, or an object, e.g.,[edit]
Uuras gongx hou?
who? look for me
“谁找我？Who is looking for me?”
Meuu laeis uuras?
you see who?
“你看见谁？Who do you see?”
Na buuen blongs uuras?
he come house who?
“他来谁的家？Whose house is he coming to?”
Just like personal pronouns, when the auxiliary word “guu” isplaced before an interrogative pronoun, it indicates a possessive relation, and the interrogative pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,
Nyiu max man guu uuras?
cow that is whose?
“那黄牛是谁的？Whose cow is that?”
Veengs neix man guu uuras?
shirt/top this is whose?
“这衣服是谁的？Whose shirt/top is this?”
B. The interrogative word “meshes” cannot be a subject, only an attribute or an object, e.g.,[edit]
Gong meshes vaeu hleny?
stuff what most good
“什么东西最好？What is the best stuff?”
Na kweis dheuu meshes?
he want take what
“他要拿什么？What does he want to take?”
C. The interrogative word “ras” cannot be a subject, only an attribute, an adverbial or an object., e.g.,[edit]
Na dhuus ras?
he exist where?
“他在哪里？Where is he?”
When the word “ras” acts as an attribute, it is usually used with a number and clasiifier, and is placed before a noun, e.g.,
Ras zuu hom blongs vaeu long?
which one classifier house most big
“哪一个房子最大？Which house is the biggest one?”
When the word “ras” acts as an adverb, it is usually placed after the adjective, e.g.,
Coem neix long ras?
fruit this big how
“这果子有多大？How big is this fruit?”
D. The interrogative word “dhongras” usually acts as an adverbial, and is most often is placed before a verb, but sometimes it can be placed after a verb, e.g.,[edit]
Dhongras lax ngan da bhaeis.
How eat also not finish
“怎么吃也吃不完，There is more food than we can eat.”
Ang neix ghwa dhongras?
hilly field this plant how?
“这山栏地怎样种？How is this hilly field to be planted?”
E. The interrogative word “qiras” most often acts as an adverbial, and must be placed before the verb, e.g.,[edit]
Meuu qiras hei qix?
you when go street
“你什么时候上街？When are you heading out for the streets (to buy something)?”
Na qiras beuubuuen ohyaeu?
he when go back school
“他什么时候返校？When is he going back to school?”
F. The interrogative word “hloeiras” most often acts as an object, e.g.,[edit]
Meuu zaux hloeiras, hou dheuu hloeiras.
you have how many I take how many
“你有多少，我要多少，However many you have, I will take them.”
Different kinds of Adverbs and their basic rules in Hlai language[24][25][edit]
1. Adverbs for expressing negation[edit]
• 【da，不】: not
• 【yous，不要，别】: Do not
• others
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verbs or adjectives, e.g.,
Hansneix na da hei.
now he/she not go
“今天他不去，Today he won’t go.”
Gong neix reek he, yous lax.
stuff this bad accent don’t eat
“这东西坏了，别吃！This stuff (is) bad, don't eat (it)!”
When the adverb “da” modifies verbs or adjectives, and “zo”, an accentuated emphatic particle, is placed at the end of the sentence, “da” means “not yet”, e.g.,
Na da buuen.
he/she not come
“他不来，He won’t come.”
Na da buuen zo.
he/she not come accent
“他还没来呢，He hasn't come yet!”
When the adverb “da” is placed at the end of a sentence, then the word “da” signals a question, e.g.,
Meuu zaux kius da?
you have ball signal a question
“你有球吗？Do you have a ball?”
2. Adverbs for expressing degree[edit]
• 【veau，最】: for expressing superlative degree
• 【duix，最】: for expressing superlative degree (this is a loan word)
• 【zangs，太】: too
• 【nguenxges，更加】: more, even more (this is a loan word)
• 【loeppvaix，恰恰，相当】: just right, just enough, exactly
• 【dhat，很】: very
• 【baisias，很，极，非常】: very much
• others
These adverbs are usually placed before the adjectives to modify them, e.g.,
vaeu reek
most bad
“最坏，worst”
duix hlenymuuen
most beautiful
“最美丽，most beautiful”
zangs fous
too hot
“太热，too hot”
nguenxges hleny
even good
“更好，even better”
loeppvaix hleny
exactly good
“恰恰好，just right”
But, the adverbs “dhat” and “baisias” are placed after the adjectives. These two words also can modify verbs, e.g.,
kaeix dhat
cold very
“很冷，very cold”
dzuuns baisias
quick very much
“非常快，very quick”
To increase the degree of something, two different adverbs can modify the same term, e.g.,
vaeu dzuuns baisias
most quick very much
“快极了，Very, very (extremely) quick”
Na vaeu vaet baisias
he/she most poor very much
“他非常穷，He is very, very (extremely) poor.”
The word “dhat” can be doubled to increase the degree, e.g.,
Veengs neix hleny dhatdhat.
shirt/top this good very much
“这件衣服非常好，This shirt/top is a very good one.”
3. Adverbs for expressing scope, extent, or range[edit]
• 【ruus，都】: all
• 【ngan，也，都】: also, all
• 【nyoengx，仅，只】: only
• 【mans，仅，只】: only
• others
These adverbs are usually placed before the verbs to modify them, e.g.,
Uengxtoengs ruus qim.
everyone all believe
“大家都相信，Everyone believes that.”
Hou ngan vuek.
I also do
“我也做，I also do (that).”
Na mans/nyoengx dheuu zuu hom coem.
he/she only take one classifier fruit
“他只要一个果子，He only took one fruit.”
These adverbs “mans” and “nyoengx” can be linked together to emphasize the voice, e.g.,
Na mans-nyoengx zaux zuu zuen hluuek.
he/she only have one classifier child
“他只有一个孩子，He has only one child.”
4. Adverbs for indicating timing[edit]
• 【bhaeis，已经】: already
• 【kuenx，先】: earlier, before, first, in advance
• 【naeus，刚】: just, a moment ago
• 【faets，正在】: in process
• 【dhom，还】: still, yet
• 【fan，就，便】: then (This word is usually used in a narrative when describing something.)
• 【goms，就】: then (This word is usually used in a quote.)
• others
These adverbs cannot be doubled for intensity, except for the adverb “naeus”, e.g.,
Na naeus naeus buuen.
he/she just come
“他刚刚来，He has just come.”
Adverbs for indicating timing usually modify verbs ,and are placed before the verbal phrase, e.g.,
Na naeus hei tuuen blongs.
he/she just go out from house
“他刚从家里出去，He's just gone out of the house.”
Na dhom da hei zo.
he/she still not go accent
“他还没去呢，He hasn't gone yet.”
Zuughanx hluet blongs hou fan laeis na.
right after enter house I then see he/she
“一进门我就看见他，As soon as I entered the house, I saw him.”
meuu buuen dhaens neix goms bhaeisyous hei beuu.
you come to here then never/not go back
“你来到这里了，就别再回去了，(Since) You came here, don't go back.”
Meuu kuenx rien.
you first say
“你先说，You speak first.”
However, the adverb “kuenx” can also be placed after the verbal phrase, e.g.,
Meuu rien kuenx.
you say first
“你先说，You speak first.”
5. Adverbs for describing duplication or continuation[edit]
• 【loms，又，再，还】: also, again,
• 【uuloms，又，再，还】: also, again,
• 【toengs，互相】: each other
• others
These adverbs modify verbs; the word “loms” or “uuloms” is placed before a verb, and the word “toengs” is placed after a verb, e.g.,
Meuu loms rien zuu gaeis.
you again say one classifier
“你再说一遍，Repeat that once more.”
Kun taeix toengs he.
they fight each other accent
“他们互相打架了，They fought each other.”
The verb being modified by the adverb “toengs” can be modified by other adverbs, which are placed before the verb, e.g.,
Meuuda yous taeix toengs as!
you (pl.) don’t fight each other accent
“你们别互相打架了！Don’t fight each other!”
6. Adverbs for expressing emphasis or transition[edit]
• 【oms，又，却】: but, a signal word for a transition
• 【naus，到底】: a signal word for emphasis
• 【cuuslax，原来】: so, a signal word for a transition
• others
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Baiscai long neix oms caeu.
big tree big such but break
“这样大的树却断了，Such a big tree, but (it) was broken!”
Aeu naus cas meuu vuek meshes？
others emphasis scold you do what=why?
“人家到底为什么骂你？Why do people scold you?”
A more unusual placement of these adverbs is at the beginning of a sentence, e.g.,
Cuuslax na dhuus max.
so he/she exist/in there
“原来他在那里，So, there he is!”
Different kinds of Conjunctions and their basic rules in Hlai language[26][27][edit]
1. Conjunctions that link nouns, pronouns, noun phrases, or verb-object phrases[edit]
• 【uengx，和，与】: and
• 【ku，跟，同，和】: and, to, with
• 【nyuek，同，和】: and, with
• others
A. That link nouns[edit]
Ba ku bou zestoengs kweis lax tax.
dog and pig fight each other want eat rice
“狗和猪争吃，A dog and a pig fight each other for food to eat.”
Toengsdhun nyuek toengsblongs uengxtoengs ojiep.
wife and husband together learn
“妻子和丈夫共同学习，A husband and (his) wife study together.”
B. That link pronouns[edit]
Hou uengx meuu uengxtoengs vuek gong.
I and you together do work
“我和你共同干活，I and you will work together.”
C. That link noun phrases[edit]
Hou duuengx meuu dheuu zuu hom coem long ku hlaus hom guengs.
I give you AUX one classifier fruit big and two classifier basket
“我给你一个大果子和两个大箩筐，I’ll give you the big fruit and two large baskets.”
D. That link verb-object phrases[edit]
Dhes hei qix lax tax ku lax bhiengx.
I go street eat riceand eat sticky rice wine
“我上街吃饭和喝酒，I hit the streets to eat rice and drink wine.”
E. These conjunctions can be added to more than two nouns, pronouns, or phrases; These conjunctions can even be placed before the first noun, pronoun, or phrase, e.g.,[edit]
Uengx hou uengx meuu uengx na hei caty gong.
and I and you and he go buy stuff
“我和你和他去买东西，I and you and he will go shopping.”
These conjunctions can also function as prepositions, as can be seen in the chart below:
| As a conjunction 连词 | As a preposition 介词 | |
| Ku | Hou ku na hei.
I and he go “我和他去，I and he go.” |
Hou rien ku na.
I say to. him “我跟他说，I said to him.” |
| Uengx | Meuu zaux bhit uengx qias hyos?
You have pen and paper question “你有纸和笔吗？Do you have pen and paper?” |
Meuu rien uengx na hyos?
You say to him question “你跟他说吗？Are you talking to him?” |
| Nyuek | Pasdza nyuek hluuek dhuus blongs.
Father and child(ren) in house “父亲和孩子在家，The father and the child(ren) are at home.” |
Baisdza gaux nyuek hluuek.
Mother lie down with child(ren) “母亲和孩子睡，The mother sleeps with her child(ren).” |
The word “nyuek” is used in Hlai’s folk song, and can be linked with a verb, e.g.,
Baisdza zok nyuek cas, pasdza cas nyuek taeix.
Mother rebuke and scold, father scold and beat
“母亲边数落边骂，父亲又骂又打，(The) mother rebuked and scolded, (the) father scolded and beat.”
F. Some adverbs, like “loms” (又，却，again) and “hloeis” (顺便，by the way, 而且 and), can also function as conjunctions, e.g.,[edit]
Duis hauux long hloeis ghweis.
water buffalo that big and fat
“那头水牛大而且肥，That buffalo is big and fat.”
Guen neix bheeng loms muety.
road this wide and straight
“这条路宽而且直，This road is wide and straight.”
2. Conjunctions that link verbs, adjectives, and phrases[edit]
• 【cuus，或者，还是】: or
• 【cas，或者，还是】: or
• 【cuusnaus，还是】: or
• others
Meuu gaux cuus zongs ngan loepp.
You lie down or sit also allow
“你躺或者坐着都可以，You are allowed to either lie down or sit down.”
Meuu hei cuus da？
You go or not
“你去还是不去？，Are you going or not?”
Veengs dhes neix hleny cas da？
shirt/top my this good or not
“我这件衣服好吗？Does my dress/top look good?”
naeusneix meuu hleny cas da？
Recently you good or not
“近来你好吗？How have you been recently?”
Generally, the word “cas” is a synonym of “cuus.” Both can be used in indicative and interrogative sentences. But, another synonym “cuusnaus” can only be used in interrogative sentences, e.g.,
Na hei cuusnaus hou hei？
He go or I go
“他去还是我去？，Is he going or should I go?”
Meuu kweis caty rasbluenx cuusnaus caty lauxmety？
You want buy pineapple or buy jackfruit
“你要买菠萝还是菠萝蜜？，Do you want pineapple or jackfruit?”
3. Conjunctionsthat link a single subordinate clause[edit]
• 【hans，因为】: because
• 【dosdzis，所以】: so
• 【laeis，如果】: if
• 【tom，但是】: but
• 【dagoms，不然】: otherwise
• others
Hans na da buuen, hou da hei bhe.
Because he not come, I not go accent
“因为他不来，所以我不去了，Because he didn't come, I didn't go.”
Na kueng caqias, dosdzis na kuengghweuu li.
He know script so he know principle
“因为他有知识，所以他懂道理，Because he knows the script, he understands the principle.”
Laeis meuu hei,hou goms dzoeng meuu.
If you go I then wait you
“如果你去，我就等你，If you go, then I'll wait for you.”
qimax gha vaet baisias, tom hansneix da dhong qihauux bhe.
Before we poor very much but now not like before accent
“以前我们很穷，但是现在和那个时候不同了，Before we were very poor, but now we are not like we were before.”
Meuu hei, dagoms na hei.
You go otherwise he go
“你去，不然他去，You go, otherwise he'll go.”
The word “dagoms” also means “not only” or “or”, e.g.,
Na dagoms gieu laix dax, uuloms gieu kieux muens.
He not only know how plow field but also know how reap rice
“他不但会犁田，而且会割稻，Not only does he know how to plow, but he also knows how to harvest.”
Meuu fei guen hei, dagoms zongs qia hei.
You walk road go otherwise sit car go
“你走路去，或者坐车去，You (can) walk (there), or take a bus (there).”
4. Conjunctions that link two or more clauses[edit]
| The first clause | The latter clause |
| Not only…
不但… |
but also/even…
而且… |
| dacaux…
danyoengx… dagoms… |
uengx…
koms… toep… |
Gas dacaux lax gans, lax uengx noms.
Horse not only eat grass eat also water
“马不但吃草，而且喝水，A horse not only eats grass, but also drinks water.”
Na dacaux taeix meuu, taeix koms hou.
He not only beat you beat even me
“他不但打你，而且打我，Not only did he beat you, he even beat me.”
Dhes dacaux zaux pasghueng, zaux toep baisghueng.
I not only have younger brother, have even younger sister
“我不但有弟弟，而且有妹妹，I not only have (a) younger brother(s), (but) I even have (a) younger sister(s).”
Generally, the word “danyoengx” or “dagoms” is the synonymof the word “dacaux”, e.g.,
Duis neix danyoengx long kaux, uuloms doengs gans.
buffalo this not only big strength but also live grass
“这头牛不但力气大，而且安静吃草，The cow is not only strong, but it also eats grass quietly.”
Na dagoms gieu laix dax, uuloms gieu kieux muens.
He not only know how plow field but also know how reap rice
“他不但会犁田，而且会割稻，He not only knows how to plow the field, but he also knows how to harvest the rice.”
| The first clause | The latter clause |
| Because…
因为… |
so/therefore…
所以… |
| hans…
ienxuis…(this is a loan word) |
dosdzis…(this is a loan word) |
Hans uupans fas fun, dosdzis hou gax buuen.
Because yesterday sky rain so I cannot come
“因为昨天下雨，所以我不能来，(Because) It was raining yesterday, so I couldn't come.”
5. Conjunctions indicating relationships between linked elements[edit]
A. The parallel relationship[edit]
The conjunction words that express a parallel relationship are “uengx” (和, and), “ku” (和, and), and “nyuek” (和, and), e.g.,
Hou uengx meuu hei.
I and you go
“我和你去，I’ll go with you.”
Uengx hou uengx meuu uengx na hei vuek gong.
And I and you and he go do work
“我和你和他去干工，I will go to work with you and him.”
Toengsdhun nyuek toengsblongs uengxtoengs ojiep.
Wife and husband together study/learn
“妻子和丈夫共同学习，The husband and wife study together.”
Hou hei qix caty veengs ku caty kous.
I go street buy shirt/top and buy pants
“我上街买上衣和买裤子，I went shopping to buy a coat and to buy pants.
Dhes duuengx na lax zuu lang kai ku zuu lang ba.
I give him auxiliary one classifier chicken and one classifier dog
“我给他一只鸡和一只狗，I gave him a chicken and a dog.”
B. The progressive relationship[edit]
The conjunctions that express a progressive relationship are “loms” (又, again), “hloeis”(并且, 而且, and), and similar phrases like “dacaux…koms…” (不但…而且…，not only… but also…), e.g.,
Na lax zuu feek loms zuu feek.
He eat one bite and one bite
“他吃一口又一口，He eats (one) bite by (one) bite.”
Gong neix fas hloeis ghety.
stuff this sour and hot
“这东西又酸又辣，This is sour and hot.”
Na dacaux cas hou, cas koms/uengx meuu.
He not only scold me scold even/and you
“他不但骂我，而且骂你，Not only did he scold me, but he even/also scolded you.”
In the construction of phrases like “dacaux…koms…” (“not only…but also…”), the conjunctions “but also” (“koms”, “uengx”, or “toep”) must be placed in the second clause, between the verb and the object.
C. The optional relationship[edit]
The conjunctions that express an optional relationship are “cuus” (或, or), “cas” (或, or), “cuusnaus” (或, or), “casnus” (或, or), and “dagoms” (或, or), e.g.,
Meuuda kweis hei geek hla cuus da?
You want go look for fish or not
“你要去捕鱼还是不去？Are you going to go fishing or not?”
Gha caem cuus bhiek les?
We carry by hand or carry by shoulder question marker
“咱们抬还是扛？Will we carry (it) with our hands or on our shoulders?”
Meuu kweis dheuu zuucoeis cuusnaus dheuu zuuyunx？
You want take litchi or take coconut
“你要拿荔枝还是椰子？，Do you want to choose litchi or coconut?”
D. The transitional relationship[edit]
The conjunctions that express a transitional relationship are “tom” (但是, but), “oms” (却, but), and “tus” (但是, but), e.g.,
Na ghwaix Hlai, tom kueng rien tun Hlai.
He is not Li but know say language Li
“他不是黎族，但会讲黎话，He is not a Li, but he speaks the Li dialect.”
Na kweis hei, oms wenysnaeis hwan.
He want go but no day
“他愿意去，但没有时间，He's willing to go, but there's no time.”
E. The conditional relationship[edit]
The conjunctions that express a conditional relationship are “laeis”, “dalunx”, e.g.,
Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei.
no matter what he say how I also go
“不管他怎样说，我都去，No matter what he says, I'll go.”
Laeis na da buuen, hou goms hei lo.
If he not come I then go accent
“如果他不来，我就去了，If he doesn't come, then I'll go.”
F. The causal relationship[edit]
The conjunctions that express a causal relationship are “hans” (因为, because), “dagoms” (不然, otherwise), e.g.,
Dhes da hei, hans zaux cok.
I not go because have sickness
“我不去，因为有病，I'm not going because I'm sick.”
Fas fun, yous hei, dagoms ia cok.
Sky rain don’t go otherwise gain sickness
“天下雨了，别去，不然要得病，It's raining. Don't go! Otherwise, you'll get sick.”
Different kinds of Prepositions and their basic rules in Hlai language[28][29][edit]
[edit]
A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.[edit]
• 【dhuus，在】: in, at, on
• 【tuuen，从】: from
• 【ueks，里】: inside
Meuu doengs dhuus max hyo！
You live in there accent
“你住在那里哟！You live there!”
Meuu buuen tuuen ras?
You come from where?
“你从哪里来？Where do you come from?”
However, as more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, they have gradually adopted Chinese grammar, and have placed the prepositional phrase before the verb, e.g.,
Meuu dhuus max doengs hyo！
You in there live accent
“你住在那里哟！You live there!”
Meuu tuuen ras buuen?
You from where come
“你从哪里来？Where do you come from?”
The word “ueks” can be placed after the preposition “dhuus”, e.g.,
zongs dhuus ueks hauux
Sit in inside there
“坐在那里面，Sit in (inside) there”
The prepositional phrase being constructed by the word “ueks” can also act as a subject, e.g.,
Ueks blongs neix mangshais baisias.
Inside house this dark very
“这屋子里面暗得很，Inside of the house is very dark.”
B. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after the verb, and acts as a complement.[edit]
• 【dhaens，到】: until
• 【zok，往，向】: toward, to
• 【dhuas，过】: through
• 【buu，在】: on, in
• 【beeng，沿】: along
Bhousaeu dzoeng meuu dhaens cop.
Guest wait you until night
“客人等你到晚上，The guest(s) waited for you until night.”
Fa hei zok ohyaeu.
We go to/toward school
“我们到学校去，We are going to the school.”
Aeu fei reuureuu dhuas ngaeix bhous.
People walk back and forth along edge village
“人们络绎不绝走过村边，People walk back and forth along the outskirts of the village.”
Ghais na pien buu huen.
Tell him wear on body
“叫他穿在身上，Tell him to wear it.”
Daty roeng buu peek goep maeis.
Bird chirping on east fence sugarcane
“鸟叫在甘蔗园篱笆东边，The bird is chirping on the eastern fence of the sugar cane garden.”
fei beeng ngaeix noms
walk along edge/bank river
“沿着河边走，walk along the river bank”
C. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.[edit]
• 【niens，沿】: along
Na niens guen hauux hei ohyaeu.
He along road that go school
“他沿着那条路去学校，He traveled along that road to school.”
However, the prepositional phrase of “niens” can also be placed after averb, e.g.,
fei niens hyoen dax
walk along ridge field
“沿着田埂走，walk along the ridge of the field”
[edit]
• 【aens，按】: by, according to (this is a loan word)
Kunaeu aens laeustaeng gieu ku gax buuen gauxtoengs.
They according to work strong and weak come distribute
“他们按劳动的强弱来分配，They distributed the work according to the capability of the laborers.”
[edit]
• 【guu ghais，为了】: for the purpose
• 【uis，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
• 【uislaeus，为了】: for (this is a loan word)
• 【cuuslax，由于】: because of
vuuengx hwoek cuuslax meuu
disturb heart because of you
“心烦由于你，upset because of you”
The word “cuuslax” is only used in poetry as above.
Veeng duis kweis beuu fan taeix duis,
Master water buffalo want go back then hit water buffalo
guu ghais duis dzuuns fei.
in order that water buffalo fast/quick walk
“牛主人要回家就打牛，为了叫牛快走，The buffalo's owner wanted to go home and so hit the buffalo, in order to get the buffalo to walk fast.”
Since more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, sometimes they express the purpose by using the loan word “uis” or “uisliaeus”.
[edit]
A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after verbs, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.[edit]
• 【toep，连】: even
• 【koms，连】: even
• 【goem，对，和，与】: to, with
• 【ku，对，和】: to
Na vaet toep/koms fok gaux ngan wenysnaeis.
He poor even place to sleep also no
“他穷得连睡的地方也没有，He is so poor that he even has no place to sleep.”
vuektun goem na.
sing with him
“和他对唱山歌，Sing a song with him.”
Baisdza rien ku na.
Mother say to him
“母亲对他说，(HIs) mother told him.”
However, because of the influence of Chinese grammar, the “ku” prepositional phrase can also be placed before the verb, e.g.,
Baisdza ku na rien.
Mother to him say
“母亲对他说，(HIs) mother told him.”
B. When a prepositional phrase, constructed by the preposition “dhuas,” modifies an adjective as a complement, it indicates a comparison.[edit]
• 【dhuas，过】: than
Ghueng baiscuty hlenymuuen dhuas kun hluuekkauus.
Younger sister youngest beautiful than plural older sister
“幺妹子比姐姐们漂亮，The youngest sister is more beautiful than her older sisters.”
C. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.[edit]
• 【uengx，和，跟】: with
Na uengx enyxlauux taeixtoengs.
He with kids fight
“他跟小孩打架，He fought with the child(ren).”
However, the prepositional phrase using “uengx” can also be placed after the verb, e.g.,
Na buuen doengs uengx hluuekpasghueng.
He come play with young brother
“他来跟小弟玩，He came to play with (his) little brother.”
[edit]
A. The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.[edit]
• 【ia，被】: by
• 【ghoems，被】: by
• 【dheuu，把】: by using
Na ia ba gaenys he!
He by dog bite accent
“他被狗咬了，He was bitten by a dog！”
Hou ghoems na taeix bhe.
I by him hit accent
“我被他打了，I was hit by him.”
Baisdza dheuu ghei roengx tax.
Mother use rice cook rice
“母亲把米煮成饭，Mother cooked rice from grains of rice.”
Different kinds of Auxiliary words and their basic rules in Hlai language[30][31][edit]
1. Structural auxiliary words[edit]
There are three words in this category: “guu”, “uu-”, and “dhaens”
A. When the word “guu” is placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.,[edit]
Gong neix guu meuu.
Stuff this belong to you
“这东西是你的，This is yours.”
Blongs hauux man guu dhes.
House that is belongto me
“那房子是我的，That house is mine.”
However, the word “guu” can be omitted, e.g.,
Veengs neix veengs na.
shirt/top this shirt/top he/she
“这件衣服是她的，This dressis hers.”
B. The auxiliary prefix “uu-” can be added to some verbs or adjectives. After adding this prefix, the nominalized verb or adjective can be a subject, object, or an attribute, but cannot be a predicate, e.g.,[edit]
Uu- ghaens hleny.
auxiliary prefix red good
“红的好，The red one is good.”
Hou lax uu-enyx.
I eat the small one
“我吃小的，I will eat the small one.”
Neix man gong uu- lax.
This is stuff auxiliary prefix eat
“这是吃的东西，This is something that can be eaten.”
C. Another structural auxiliary word is “dhaens”. It is usually placed after a verb or an adjective, and is followed by a complement that indicates the result or degree of the action/situation, e.g.,[edit]
Kaeix dhaens nyan.
Cold so as to shiver
“冷得发抖，It is so cold as to (make one) shiver.”
Fas dhaens maeu nomshloei.
Sour so as to drool saliva
“酸得流口水，It is so sour as to (make one) drool.”
Na ghweis dhaens gax fei guen.
He fat so as to cannot walk road
“他胖得难走路，He is so fat that it’s hard (for him) to walk.”
Na hei dhaens ngaeix noms fan beuuluung.
He go arrive edge/bank river then come back
“他去到河边就回来，He went to the riverside and later he will come back..”
2. Past tense auxiliary word—“dhuas”[edit]
The word “dhuas” is placed after a verb to indicate an action has already happened, e.g.,
Hou hei dhuas Bhakgengs.
I go auxiliary word Beijing
“我去过北京，I have been to Beijing.”
Meuu laeis dhuas na cuus da?
You see auxiliary word he or not?
“你见过他吗？Have you seen him?”
Hou qieng dhuas muixdhoeis neix.
I think auxiliary word question this
“我想过这个问题，I thought about this question.”
3. Acting-receiving auxiliary words[edit]
Both the auxiliary words “lax” and “dheuu” are often used to indicate the relationship of acting and receiving between an agent and a patient.
The original meaning of the word “lax” is “to eat”, however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word; the word “lax” is usually placed after the person-object in double-object sentences, even when the thing-object is absent.
Pashlaus hou duuengx na lax zuu lang ba.
Older brother my give him auxiliary word one classifier dog
“我哥哥给他一只狗，My brother gave him a dog.”
Meuu dun hou lax tun Hlai.
You teach me auxiliary word language Li
“你教我黎话，You teach me the Li’s language.”
Hou rien duuengx na lax.
I say to him auxiliary word
“我讲给他，I spoke to him.”
The original meaning of the word “dheuu” is “to take”, however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word, e.g.,
Na duuengx hou dheuu zuu hom coem.
He give me auxiliary word one classifer fruit
“他给我一个水果，He gave me one fruit.”
Zuu hom zuuyunx neix duuengx meuu dheuu.
One classifer coconut this give you auxiliary word
“这一个椰子给你，This coconut is for you.”
Generally, the word “lax” and “dheuu” are exchangeable.
Different kinds of Accent markers and their basic rules in Hlai language[32][33][edit]
1. Accent markers for the indicative mood[edit]
There are several words used in the indicative mood, like “lo”, “bhe”, “ve/vi”, “he”, “zu/zo”, and “rus”
A. 【lo, 了】：this word indicates that something is in the process, or is forth coming, and it expresses the feeling of hope or surprise, e.g.,[edit]
Fas fun lo.
sky rain accent
“天要下雨了，It's going to rain.”
Meuu dhongneix vuek goms da dhiu lo.
you like this do then not right accent
“你这样做就不对了，It is not right for you to do this.”
B. 【bhe, 啊】：this word indicates something has already happened, and it expresses the subjective feeling, e.g.,[edit]
Fas fun bhe.
sky rain accent
“天（已经）下雨了，It is raining (it rained).”
Aeu reek hauux hlaeux bhe.
person bad that die accent
“那个坏人死了，That bad man died.”
Man hauux hleny lax bhe.
potato that good eat accent
“那甘薯好吃啊，That sweet potato was delicious.”
C. 【ve/vi, 的, 了】：this word indicates that the speaker is explaining something, and the speaker’s tone is certain, e.g.,[edit]
Qias neix ghwaix hou taeis ve.
letter this is not I write accent
“这字不是我写的，This word is not what I wrote.”
Meuu duuengx hou goms bhaeis ve.
you give I then finish accent
“你给我就行了，Give (it to) me, then it's done.”
D. 【he，啦】：this word indicates something has already happened, and it expresses the subjective feeling, and the speaker’s tone is certain, e.g.,[edit]
Dhes vuek gong bhaeis he.
I do work finished accent
“我做完工了，I finished (my) job.”
E. 【zo/zu，还…呢】：this word indicates something is a fact or true, in which the speaker tries to persuade others, and the speaker’s tone is certain, e.g.,[edit]
Hla dhom hlou zo.
Fish still alive accent
“鱼还活着呢，The fish is still alive.”
Na dhom da vuek zo!
He still not do accent
“他还没做呢，He hasn't done it yet.”
Fas da fun zo!
Sky not rain accent
“天还没下雨呢，It hasn't rained yet.”
Sometimes the words “zo/zu” can have “ho” or “nex” added to them to put an emphasis on the mood , e.g.,
Aeu reek hauux da hlaeux zuho!
person bad that not die accent
“那个坏人怎么还没死呢！Why hasn't the bad man died yet?”
Hou da laeis meshes zunex!
I not see anything accent
“我什么都没看见呢，I haven't seen anything!”
F. 【rus，呢】：this word indicates that something is not sure, and the speaker’s tone is mild and indirect, tactful, e.g.,[edit]
Hwanneix na da buuen rus.
today he not come accent
“今天他不来呢，He won't come today.”
Fa neix zuu tienx zans zuu tienx luei, da laeis rus.
we this one fish’s name up. one fish’s name down not see accent
“我们这鲩鱼一下游上，一下游下，没看见呢，(A fish said:) We fish swam back and forth, (you) did not see.”
2. Accent markers for the interrogative mood[edit]
There are several words used in the interrogative mood, like “hos”, “yos”, “os”, “hyos”, “zuumos”, “huux”, “hauux”, “yax”, “nex/nix”, “zuurasve”, “bas/vixbas”, and “zuuras/cuusras”.
A. 【hos，yos，os，hyos, zuumos，吗】：these words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,[edit]
Meuu da hei vuek gong hos?
you not go do work question marker
“你不去干活吗？Don't you go to work?”
Hwanneix na da buuen yos.
today he not come question marker
“今天他不来吗？Isn't he coming today？”
Neix man guu meuu os?
this is yours question marker
“这是你的吗？Is this yours?”
Na man pasghueng meuu hyos?
he is younger brother your question marker
“他是你弟弟吗？Is he your younger brother?”
Meuu beuu ngop dhang hou vi zuumos?
You come back think face my accent question marker
“你回来是因为想我吗？You came back (because) you are thinking of me?”
B. 【huux，hauux，呢，呀】：these words are used in sentences with an interrogative pronoun, e.g.,[edit]
Meuu caty gong meshes huux?
you buy stuff what question marker
“你买什么东西呢？What do you buy?”
Meuu uuras hauux?
you who question marker
“你是谁？Who are you?”
C. 【nex/nix，yax，呢，呀】：these words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,[edit]
Gha uengxtoengs kweis caep cas caem nix?
we everyone auxiliary carry by hands or carry or shoulders question
“咱们大家要挑还是抬呢？Do we carry (it) with our hands or carry (it) on our shoulders?”
Neix guu asras yax?
this whose question marker
“这是谁的呀？Whose is this?”
D. 【zuuras/cuusras，吗】：these words are used in interrogative sentences where the speaker inquires by questioning closely, e.g.,[edit]
Hwanneix hou uengx na kweis hei Damxax, meuu loms da hei zuuras?
today I and he auxiliary go, Sanya you again not go question
“今天我和他要去三亚，难道你又不去吗？Today I'm going to Sanya with him, aren't you going?”
Kun uengxtoengs vuek gong, meuu oms da vuek cuusras?
they everyone do work you but not do question marker
“他们一起干活，难道你不干吗？Everyone is working, but why aren’t you?”
E. 【zuurasve，bas/vixbas，吧，了吧】：these words express a possibility, e.g.,[edit]
Na buuen zuurasve?
he come question marker
“他来了吧？Did he come?”
meuu bhaeis cuis ang vixbas?
you already burn field question marker
“你烧山栏地了吗？Did you already burn the field?”
meuu kweis hei bas?
you anxiliary word go question marker
“你要去吗？Are you going to go?”
3. Accent markers for the imperative mood[edit]
There are several words used in the imperative mood, like “as”, “bas”, “res”, “bhislo”.
A. 【as，吧，啊】：this word is used to enjoin or to exhort someone to join in to do something, and the tone is soft and gentle, e.g.,[edit]
Meuuda dzueis gas fa as?
you look horse we question marker
“你们看我们的马吧！Look at our horses!”
Goms dhonghauux as！
then like that imperative mood
“就那样吧！That's it!”
B. 【bas，啊，吧】：this word is used to command, to request, or to exhort someone to do something, e.g.,[edit]
Meuu dheuu bas!
you take imperative mood
“你拿吧！Take it!”
Meuu dzuuns hei bas!
you quickly go imperative mood
“你快去吧！Quickly go!”
Duuengx hou zuu hom ghaeix bas!
give me one classifier cucurbita gourd imperative mood
“给我一个葫芦瓜吧！Give me a gourd!”
C. 【bhislo，咯】：this word is used by one with a discontented mood to command, to request, or to hasten someone to do something, e.g.,[edit]
Zoen bhislo!
sleep imperative mood
“该睡了！Go to sleep!”
Vuek dzuuns bhislo!
do quickly imperative mood
“快做咯！Do it quickly!”
Hansneix bhaeis zaux caqias gha Hlai,
now already have script we Li,
uengxtoengs guulax tuuen kaux o bhislo!
everyone should out. strength learn imperative mood!
“现在已经有咱们黎族文字，大家应该要努力学习咯！
Now that we Li already have a script, we should do our best to learn it!”
Sometimes the word “bhislo” is also used to put an emphasis on the indicative mood, e.g.,
Meuu hluumsghweuu mos？
You not know question marker?
Neix man caqias Hlai bhislo!
This is script Li accent!
“你不知道吗？这就是黎族文字呀！Don’t you know? This is Li people’s script!”
D. 【res，吧】：the usage of this word is similar with the word “bas”, however, the tone of the word “res” is kind and warm, e.g.,[edit]
Meuuda dzuuns lax res!
you quickly eat imperative mood
“你们快吃吧！Come on, eat quickly!”
Hluet buuen res!
enter come imperative mood
“进来吧！Come on in!”
Hyaeu dhe res!
drink tea imperative mood
“喝茶吧！Drink (some) tea!”
4. Accent markers for the exclamatory mood[edit]
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like “ho”, “a”, “aei”, “aiho”, and “o”. These words strongly express the speaker’s feeling, e.g.,
Meuu rien dhiu dhat ho!
you say right very exclamatory mood
“你说对极了！You're right!”
Yous taeixtoengs a!
don’t fight each other exclamatory mood
“别打架了！Don't fight!”
Usually, these words are placed in the end of a sentence; however, sometimes these words act as one word sentences, e.g.,
O! Pasceuus hauux hleny dhat o!
exclamatory mood guy that good very exclamatory mood
“啊！那小伙子好极了！Ah! That young man is great!”
Aei! Bhaeis poens he.
exclamatory mood already break exclamatory mood
“唉！已经破了！Oh! It’s broken.”
Aiho! Cok baisias ho!
exclamatory mood pain very much exclamatory mood
“哎哟！痛极了！Oh! It’s painful!”
Different kinds of Onomatopoeic words and their basic rules in Hlai language[34][35][edit]
1. Onomatopoeic words for expressing the feeling of surprise, exclamation, or agreement. Usually, these words are independent/separated from a sentence or clause, e.g.,[edit]
Aidza! Cok raeis ha!
Ouch! Pain intestines accent
“哎呀！肚子疼啊！Oh dear! What stomach pains!”
Aiho! Cok baisias ho!
Ouch! Pain very much accent
“哎哟，痛极了！Oh, what great pain!”
Ihyos! Noms bhaeis long bhe!
Ah! River already big accent
“哟！水涨了！Yo! The water has gone up!”
Isdzos! Neix man meshes?
Mmm! This is what
“哟，这是什么？Oh, what is this?”
However, some onomatopoeic words can go with or within a sentence or clause, e.g.,
Euu, dhonghauux bhe!
Yes, that (is) accent
“唉，是那样！Yes, just like that!”
Na bhaeis euu cas da?
He already agree or not
“他唉（答应）了吗？Did he already agree or not?”
2. Onomatopoeic words for imitating human, animate, or nature sounds，e.g.,[edit]
Hluuek’ueng raeux hihi dhuus hauux.
Girl laugh onomatopoeic word in there
“姑娘在那里嘻嘻地笑，The girl laughed there.”
Fas fun fosfos bhe.
sky rain onomatopoeic word accent
“天哗哗地下雨了，It is raining.”
Gaet fan loms roeng, “Beets! Beets! Beets!”
Frog with long legs then again call onomatopoeic word
“长腿蛙又叫，“别！别！别” The frog called again, “Ribbit! Ribbit! Ribbit!”
More onomatopoeic words below:
| Birds | catcatscat, “鸟叫声; bird”; hwaxhwax, “鸟叫声”; jitjit, “喳喳（鸟叫声）”
aekk/aekaek, “乌鸦的叫声，crow”; guxguguxgus, “布谷鸟的叫声”; gaengxgoeng, “冈工（鸟叫声）”; zatzat, “麻雀叫声”; aepaep, “鸭叫声，duck” weepweep, “母鸡叫声”; gokgok, “母鸡叫小鸡的声音”; goksguudheek, “母鸡下蛋的叫声” jiepp, “小鸡叫声” |
| Four-legged animal | bhesbhes, “黄牛的叫声，cow”;
uungas, “（牛）叫；牛叫声”; hexhex, “羊叫声，goat”; ixhes, “马叫声，horse”; vuns, “狗叫，吠”; kuek, “（麂子）叫”; mieuxmieux, “咪咪（猫叫声）”; nyaeuxnyaeux, “猫叫声” |
| Insect | nongxniengx, “蝉叫声”;
hwexhwex, “蝉叫声” rixrix, “蟋蟀鸣叫声” guuroks, “一种青蛙”（guuroks 像它的叫声）” |
| Sounds of nature or action | bhoengs, “当当（打锣声）”;
bhopp, “东西落地声”; bloks, “小石头或青蛙落水声”; blongx, “扑通（重物落地或落水声）”; ceepp, “脚步声”; blus, “扑通（落水声）”; dongdong, “咚咚（打鼓声）”; fittfitt, “哭泣声”; gakgak, “笑声” |
Phrases in Hlai language[edit]
The Construction of Phrases and their basic rules in Hlai language[36][37][edit]
There are five kinds of phrases: the coordinative phrases, the attribute phrases, the verb-object phrases, the complement phrases, and the subject-predicate phrases.
1. Coordinative phrases[edit]
The method used to coordinate equivalent elements in a coordinative phrase is to use conjunctions, but another method is not to use conjunctions. The nouns and pronouns sometimes use the conjunctions, sometimes they do not, e.g.,
bais pas
mother father
“父母，parents”
meuu ku/uengx na
you and he/she
“你和他，you and he/she”
kai ku/uengx eps
chicken and duck
“鸡和鸭，chicken and duck”
gas ku/uengx duis
horse and water buffalo
“马和水牛，horse and water buffalo”
Usually, the verbs and adjectives need conjunctions,
taeix loms cas
beat and scold
“又打又骂，beat and scold”
fas hloeis ghety
sour and hot
“又酸又辣，sour and hot”
However, when the verbs and adjectives are doubled, there is no need for conjunctions, e.g.,
hei hei luueng luueng
go go go back go back
“往往返返，go back and forth”
Hluet hluet tuuen tuuen
come in come in go out go out
“进进出出，come in and out”
kiu kiu ghaens ghaens
Green green red red
“红红绿绿，green and red”
dhongneix dhonghauux
like this like that
“这样那样，like this way and that way”
2. Attribute phrases[edit]
The elements in the attribute phrases are not equivalent; one element is the head word, and the other element is the modifier that modifies the head word. Usually, the head word is a noun, a verb, or an adjective.
A. Noun as the head word[edit]
Usually, the modifier is placed after the noun head word.
a. Noun (the head word) + noun
aek bou
Meat pig
“猪肉，pork”
tun Hlai
words Li
“黎话，Li’s language”
hau duis
horn water buffalo
“牛角，buffalo’s horn”
coem cai
fruit tree
“水果，fruit”
b. Noun + adjective
noms ghan
water cold
“冷水，cold water”
veengs baen
shirt/top new
“新衣服，new shirt/top”
fun long
rain big
“大雨，heavy rain”
hwous peek
mountain tall
“高山，tall mountain”
The word “enyx” (小, small) is the exception where the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
enyx veengs
small shirt/top
“小上衣，kid’s shirt (it also means brassiere)”
enyx duis
small water buffalo
“小水牛，calf (young water buffalo)”
enyx kai
small chicken
“小鸡，chick”
enyx dziengx
small finger
“小指，little finger (pinkie)”
enyx lauux
small child
“小孩子，kid”
c. Noun+ verb
fok gaux
place sleep
“睡的地方，a place for sleeping”
fok hlau
place fight
“阵地，a place for fighting”
daty bheny
bird fly
“飞的鸟，(a) flying bird(s)”
blong kuishuix
house/room meet
“会议室，a room for meeting”
blong roengx tax
house/room cook rice
“厨房，a room for cooking (kitchen)”
d. Noun+ pronoun
pashlaus hou
older brother my
“我的哥哥，my older brother”
hwoek meuu
heart your
“你的心，your heart”
veengs na
shirt/blouse his/her
“他的衣服，his/her shirt/blouse”
caqias veengzauus
script self
“自己的文字，our (own) script”
veengs neix
shirt/top this
“这衣服，this shirt/top”
blongs hauux
house that
“那房子，that house”
bhous max
village that
“那村庄，that village”
e. Number + classifier + Noun (the head word)
The modifier, which is constructed with a number and classifier, must be placed before the head word, e.g.,
fus zuen aeudza
three classifier old man
“三位老人，three old men”
hlaus hom dzuuem
two classifier egg
“两个鸡蛋，two eggs”
ba kuuengx cai
five classifier tree
“五棵树，five trees”
caus fan veengs
four classifier shirt/blouse
“四件衣服，four shirts/blouses”
f. Attribute phrases influenced by Chinese
Like Chinese, these modifiers are placed after the head word, and most of these words are loan words, e.g.,
Noun + noun (the head word)
Dongxgoknaengsmiens
China people
“中国人民，Chinese people”
Adjective + noun (the head word)
hiuxdius odex
superior student
“优秀学生，superior student”
Verb + noun (the head word)
goeisgiet muixdhoeis
resolve problem
“解决问题，resolving (the) problem”
B. Verb as the head word[edit]
The modifiers that modify verbs are the adverbs, adjectives, pronouns, nouns, numbers, or verbs. Usually, the monosyllabic modifier is placed before the head word; the disyllabic/doubled adjective, the pronoun, or the number can be either placed before or after the head word, e.g.,
a. Adverb + verb[edit]
da oep
not love/like
“不喜欢，don’t like”
bhaeis lax
already eat
“已经吃了，already ate”
yous rien
Don’t say
“不要说，don’t say”
naeus buuen
just come
“刚来，just came”
ais lax
not willing to eat
“不肯吃，not willing to eat”
kueng vuek
know how to do
“会做，know how to do”
hluums-ghweuu
not recognize
“不知道，don’t know”
b. Adjective + verb[edit]
dzuuns rien
quick say
“快说，(be)quick (to) say(it)” (it means out with it)
hleny lax
good eat
“好吃，good (to) eat” (it means delicious)
uns fuuek
diligent make clothing
“勤纺织，diligent (to) make clothing”
gin lax
hurry eat
“忙吃，busy eating”
c. Noun + verb[edit]
cai vuek
wood make
“木做的，made of wood”
uuhaux hei
tomorrow go
“明天去，(will) go tomorrow”
hluuekueng cat
girl wear
“姑娘穿，(for) girl (to) wear”
d. Verb + verb (the head word)[edit]
oep lax
like eat
“喜欢吃，like to eat”
dzok dzueis
steal look
“偷看，take a peek”
hei dzok
go steal
“去偷，go (and) steal”
bleuu rien
listen say
“听说，heard (others) say”
qieng hei
desire/want go
“想去，want (to) go”
gaux dzueis
lie down look
“躺着看，reading lying down”
e. Disyllabic/doubled adjective + verb (the head word), or[edit]
Verb (the head word) + disyllabic/doubled adjective[edit]
dais dais fei= fei dais dais
slow slow walk
“慢慢走，walk slowly” (This is also used to say good bye.)
dzuuns dzuuns raux = raux dzuuns dzuuns
quick quick read
“快快读，read quickly”
hleny hleny rien = rien hleny hleny
good good say
“好好说，say (it) nicely”
liloek vuek= vuek liloek
dark do
“漆黑做，do (it in) darkness”
f. Pronoun + verb (the head word), or Verb (the head word) + Number[edit]
dhonghauux nyop = nyop dhonghauux
like that sew
“那样缝，sew like that”
dhongras vuek? = vuek dhongras?
how do
“怎么做？How is it to be done?”
qiras hei? = hei qiras?
When go
“何时走？When (is it time to) go?”
g. Number+ verb (the head word), or Verb (the head word) + Number[edit]
zuu gaeis hei = hei zuu gaeis
one classifier go
“去一趟，(make) a trip” (means to run an errand)
fus faei taeix= taeix fus faei
three classifier beat
“打三下，beat (something) three times”
zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx ghwa= ghwa zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx
one classifier one classifier plant
“一棵一棵地种，plant one by one”
zuu boms zuu boms lax= lax zuu bomszuu boms
one classifier one classifier eat
“一口一口地吃，eat one (bite) at a time”
C. Adjective as the head word[edit]
The modifiers that modify adjectives are adjectives, adverbs, or pronouns. Usually, when the modifier is an adjective or adverb, the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
a. Adjective+ adjective (the head word)[edit]
hleny hloei
good many
“好多，so many”
hleny baen
good new
“好新，so new”
hleny coem
good sharp
“好锋利，so sharp”
reek coem
bad sharp
“坏锋利，not sharp”
b. Adverb + adjective (the head word)[edit]
da hleny
not good
“不好，not good”
vaeu fous
most hot
“很热，very hot”
duix reek
most bad
“最坏，worst”
loeppvaix hleny
exactly good
“恰好，exactly/perfectly good”
bhaeis reek
alraedy bad
“已经坏了，already (gone) bad”
Only few adverbs, like “dhat” (真, 很, really, very) or “baisias” (非常, 极, very much, most), are placed after the head word, e.g.,
c. Adjective (the head word) + adverb[edit]
peek dhat
high very
“很高，very high”
dzuuns dhat
quick very
“很快，very quick”
kaeix baisias
cold very much
“很冷，very cold”
hleny baisias
good very much
“很好，very good”
Also, when the modifier is a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun or noun, the modifier is placed after the head word, e.g.,
d. Adjective (the head word) + demonstrative pronoun[edit]
gwaety hauux
orderly that
“那么整齐，that orderly”
vaet neix
poor this
“这么穷，this poor”
long dhongneix
big like this
“这么大，this big”
peek dhonghauux
high like that
“那么大，that high”
e. Adjective (the head word) + interrogative pronoun[edit]
bheeng ras?
wide How?
“多宽？How wide?"
daeus ras?
long How?
“多长？How long?"
peek ras?
high How?
“多高？How high?"
hloei ras?
many/much how?
“多少？How many/much?"
f. Adjective (the head word) + noun[edit]
long nyiu
big bull
“大如黄牛，big as a bull”
bheeng laengs
wide sea
“宽似海，wide as the sea”
peek blongs
tall house/building
“高得像房子一样，tall as a building”
The construction of the phrase above actually is: Adjective (the head word) + dhong/bhaen + noun, the word “dhong” (像, as, like) or “bhaen” (像, as, like) is omitted, e.g.,
long (dhong) nyiu
big as bull
“大如黄牛，big as a bull”
3. Verb-object phrases[edit]
The verb is the head word, and the object can be a noun, a pronoun, a number, or a verb. Usually, the verb is placed before the object, e.g.,
A. Verb (the head word) + noun (object)[edit]
lax tax
eat rice
“吃饭，eat rice (the meaning is to eat)”
vuek gong
do work
“做工，do work (the meaning is to work)”
taeix kius
beat ball
“打球，play ball (the meaning is playing a sport)”
dzueis qias
look book
“看书，read book (the meaning is to read)”
laix dax
plow field
“犁田，plow field (the meaning is to plow)”
B. Verb (the head word) + pronoun (object)[edit]
dheuu hauux
take that
“要那（个），take that one”
ngwaety meuu
call you
“喊你，(I'll) call you”
fiet na
whip him
“便打他，whip him”
bhiek meshes？
carry (something) on shoulder what?
“扛什么？carry what？”
C. Verb (the head word) + verb (object)[edit]
oep lax
love eat
“爱吃，loves to eat”
dhas rien
fear say
“怕说，fears to say”
dzueis laeis
look see
“看见，to see”
auux vuuek
dare do
“敢做，dare to do (something)”
D. Verb (the head word) + number (object)[edit]
caty zuu hom
buy one classifier
“买一个，buy one”
dheuu hlaus lang
take two classifier
“拿两个，take two”
lax fus waeu
eat three classifier
“吃三碗，eat three bowls (of food)”
E. Verbal adjective (the head word) + noun (object)[edit]
Some verbal adjectives can act as the head word with the noun as the object, e.g.,
leis aeu
thin people
“使人变瘦，(makes) people thin”
ghweis aeu
Fat people
“使人变肥，(makes) people fat”
4. Complement phrases[edit]
The Complement phrases include both a verb-complement phrase and an adjective-complement phrase.
A. Verb-complement phrase[edit]
The verb is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, ora number with a classifier. The verb is placed before the complement.
a. Verb (the head word) + verb (complement)
qieus tuuen
take go out
“拿出，take (it) out”
fei hluet
walk go into
“走进，walk in”
zuens luei
jump go down
“跳下，jump down”
dheuu buuen
take come
“要来，plan to come”
b. Verb (the head word) + adjective (complement)
lax kuuem
eat full
“吃饱，ate (until) full (stuffed)”
riemx hleny
fix good
“修好，fixed well”
vuek reek
do bad
“做坏，made (it) broken”
roengx fui
cook cooked
“煮熟，cooked thoroughly”
c. Verb (the head word) + number (complement)
raux zuu feek
read one classifier
“读一句，read one (sentence)”
dzueis zuu fanx
look one classifier
“看一会儿，look a while (glance)”
fei zuu guen
walk one classifier
“走一趟，(make) a trip” (means to run an errand)
fun ba hwan ba cop
run five day five night
“下雨五天五夜，(it) rained five days and five nights”
d. Verb (the head word) + noun (complement)
In this case, the verb must be an intransitive verb, and the phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
bhaeis hlaeux duis he.
already die water buffalo accent
“牛已经死了，The water buffalo already died.”
B. Adjective-complement phrase[edit]
The adjective is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The complement indicates the result of the head word, so usually the auxiliary word “dhaens” is placed between the complement and the head word.
a. Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + verb (complement)
kaeix dhaens nyan
cold as to shiver
“冷得发抖，(so) cold as to shiiver”
bhoks dhaens gax fei
tire as to not able to walk
“累到走不动，(so) tired as to not be able to walk”
reek haeis dhaens asras ruus ais dheuu
bad smell as to who all not willing to take
“难闻到谁都不想要，(so) foul smelling as to not one is willing to take (it)”
b. Adjective (the head word) + dhaens + adjective (complement)
gheuu dhaens ghau
thin as to transparency
“薄到透明，(so) thin as to be transparent”
fui dhaens ghaens
cooked as to red
“熟到发红，(so) cooked (hot) as to become red”
fas dhaens cokghutyfan
sour as to teeth sour
“酸得牙齿发酸，(so) sour as to (turn) the teeth sour”
ghweis dhaens reekmuuen
fat as to ugly
“胖到难看，(so) fat as to look not good”
c. Adjective(the head word) + number (complement)
long fus boux
big three classifier/year
“大三岁，three years older”
hloei zuu hom
many one classifier
“多一个，one more”
raux zuu hlaenx
lack one classifier/arm spread (about 5~6 feet)
“少一庹，one arm spread shorter”
peek zuutom ghwous
high half head
“高一半头，a half-head taller”
d. Adjective (the head word) + noun (complement)
In this case, the adjective acts not as an attribute to the noun, but functions as expository to the noun. The phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
Long hwoet bhe！
big wind accent
“风大啊！The wind (is) strong!”
Cok bok dhat lo！
hurt stomach very accent
“肚子痛得很厉害！A stomachache! (very painful)”
Lai guen dhat lo！
far road very accent
“路远极了！The road (is) so far! (the meaning is the destination is so far away)”
5. Subject-predicate phrases[edit]
This kind of phrase is constructed by the subject and the predicate; usually, the subject is a noun or a pronoun, and the predicate is a verb or an adjective.
Wenysnaeis aeu rien na reek.
no people say he bad
“没有人说他坏，No one said he (is) bad.”
Uengxtoengs ruus rien gong neix fas.
everyone all say stuff this sour
“大家都说这东西酸，Everyone (all) says this stuff (is) sour.”
Daty bheny lo.
bird fly accent
“鸟飞了，Birds have flown (away).”
Na buuen lo.
he come accent
“他来了，He has come.”
The construction of the subject-predicate phrase is the same as the attribute phrase.Usually, if there is an element, like an accent, an adverb, or a noun, that is either placed after or before the phrase, then it is a subject-predicate phrase. See the chart below:
| Subject-predicate phrases | Attribute phrases | ||
| Daty bheny bhe.
birds fly accent |
鸟飞了
The birds have flown away. |
daty bheny
birds fly |
飞的鸟
the flying birds |
| Aeu buuen he.
people come accent |
人家来了
People have come. |
aeu buuen
people come |
来的人
the people (who) have come |
| qi coem duuek
time fruit ripe |
果子成熟的时候
time to harvest fruit |
coem duuek
fruit ripens |
熟的果子
ripened fruit |
| cai peek baisias
tree tall very much |
树高得很
The tree (is) very tall. |
cai peek
tree tall |
高的树
tall tree |
Sentence Construction in Hlai language[edit]
The Construction of Hlai Sentences and their basic rules[38][39][edit]
blongs dhuus ngaeix noms hauux
house in/exist edge/bank river that
“在河边的房子，the house that (is) on the bank of the river”
pashlaus hou uengx pasghueng meuu
older brother my and younger brother your
“我的哥哥和你的弟弟，my older brother and your younger brother”
The statements above are incomplete sentences. But, when we add some critical words, they become complete sentences to communicate a complete thought that makes sense to the listeners or readers, e.g.,
Blongs hauux dhuus ngaeix noms hauux.
house that in/exist edge/bank river that
“那房子在那条河边，That house (is) on the bank of that river.”
Pashlaus hou uengx pasghueng meuu ngan gaengxnaengs.
older brother my and younger brother your also worker
“我的哥哥和你的弟弟都是工人，My older brother and your younger brother (are) both workers.”
The chart below presents the grammatical elements that construct a sentence.These elements are a subject, a predicate, an object, a complement, an attribute and an adverbial phrase.
| Subject
主语 |
Predicate
谓语 | |||||||
| Verb
述语 |
Object
宾语 | |||||||
| (Attribute)
（定语） |
Head word
中心语 |
Attribute
定语 |
Adverbial
状语 |
Head word
中心语 |
(Adverbial)
（状语） |
(Attribute)
（定语） |
Head word
中心语 |
Attribute
定语 |
| Complement
补语 | ||||||||
1. Subjects[edit]
The subject is placed before the predicate; and either the nouns, pronouns, numbers, or phrases can be the subject, e.g.,
A. Nouns as subject[edit]
Daty bheny bhe!
Bird fly accent
“鸟飞了，Birdsfly！”
Aeudza gieu vuek tun.
Old man be good at make song
“老人会唱歌，The old man is good at singing.”
Fas fun bhe!
Sky rain accent
“天下雨了！It is raining!”
B. Pronouns as subject[edit]
Meuu hei zok ras?
You go to/toward where?
“你去哪儿？Where are you going?”
Fa hei zok Damxax as.
We go to/toward Sanya accent
“我们要去三亚，We are going to Sanya.”
Neix meshes?
This what?
“这是什么？What (is) this?”
C. Numbers as subject[edit]
Zuu hom neix long baisias.
One classifier this big very much
“这一个很大，This one (is) so big.”
Zuu hom loepp bhe.
One classifier enough accent
“一个够了，One (is) enough.”
Zuu hom neix man guu meuu.
One classifier this is belong to you
“这一个是你的，This one is yours.”
D. Phrases as subject[edit]
Blongs dhuus ngaeix noms hauux man guu hou.
house on/at edge/bank river that is belong to me
“在河边的房子是我的，The house that (is) on the bank of the river is mine.”
Aeu bais gom bais bhous ruus dhas na lo!
People whole region whole village all fear him accent
“各地的人们都怕他呀！The people (of) all regions and all villages fear him!”
Hou ku na man uxaeu Bhous-dheengs.
I and he are men village name
“我和他是保定村人，He and I are from Baoding village.”
E. Passive voice[edit]
In the examples above, the subjects are the actors who act out the actions; however, the subjects can also receive the actions, which is called passive voice. Auxiliary words like “ia” or “ghoems” can be used to denote passive voice, e.g.,
Kai ghoems dauxmuty gaeny bhe.
Chicken by fox bite accent
“鸡被狐狸咬了，A chicken was bit by a fox.”
Bhous hauux ghoems fei cuis lo.
Village that by fire burn accent
“那村子被火烧了，That village was burned by fire.”
Na ia pasceuus hauux taeix bhe.
He by guy that hit accent
“他被那小伙子打了，He was hit by that guy.”
Na ia baisdza cas.
He by mother scold
“他被母亲骂，He was scolded by (his) mother.”
2. Predicates[edit]
The predicate is placed after the subject to provide information about the subject. Usually, verbs or adjectives are the predicate; however, nouns, pronouns, and phrases can also be the predicate.
A. Verbs as predicate[edit]
This kind of predicate tells the listener what action the subject does, e.g.,
Kai hyoen lo!
Chicken crow accent
“鸡叫了，(A) rooster crows!”
Na ghoux bhe!
He run/flee/escape accent
“他跑了，He escaped/fled!”
Meuu caty veengs hyos?
You buy shirt/blouse accent
“你买上衣吗？Did you buy (a) shirt?”
B. Adjectives as predicate[edit]
This kind of predicate tells the listener what the subject is like, e.g.,
Pascuus hauux uns bhe.
Guy that diligent accent
“那小伙子勤快啊，That guy (is) diligent!”
Zuu kuuengx cai neix peek dhat.
One classifier tree this tall really
“这一棵树真高，This tree (is) really tall.”
Gong neix hleny baisias.
Stuff this good very
“这东西非常好，This stuff (is) very good.”
C. Nouns as predicate[edit]
This kind of predicate tells the listener what the subject is, e.g.,
Gweis neix Lokdhongx.
County this Ledong
“这是乐东县，This (is) Ledong County.”
Na Wangs Aix-Engx hos?
She Wang Aiing (name) question accent?
“她是王爱英吗？Is she Wang Aiing?”
Na man Dhaens Duxgix.
He is Chen Secretary
“他是陈书记，He is Secretary Chen.”
Na ghwaix dhuixzang.
He isnot team leader
“他不是队长，He is not the team leader.”
D. Pronouns as predicate[edit]
Neix hou vi.
This me accent
“这是我呀，This (is) me.”
Meuu asras?
You who?
“你是谁？Who are you?”
Hauux meshes?
That what?
“那是什么？What (is) that?”
E. Phrases as predicate[edit]
Veengs hauux ais zangs hleny cat.
shirt/blouse that not too good wear
“那衣服不太好穿，That top is not very good (to) wear.”
Max duis hou.
That water buffalo mine
“那是我的水牛，That (is) my water buffalo.”
Bouxneix fas raenx.
This year sky drought
“今年天旱，This year (is) drought (season).”
3. Objects[edit]
An object follows a verb. However, if the sentence is passive voice, the object can be placed before the verb phrase. Usually, a noun, pronoun or phrase can act as an object; sometimes, a number or verb can also be a subject, e.g.,
A. Noun as an object[edit]
Na boek hla, hou bhoek noms.
He catch fish, I carry water
“他捕鱼，我挑水，He caught the fish, I carried the water.”
Meuu lax tax, hou hyaeu noms.
You eat rice, I drink water
“你吃饭，我喝水，You eat the rice, I drink the water.”
Ba gaeny mieux.
dog bite cat
“狗咬猫，The dog bit the cat.”
Mieux ia ba gaeny he.
Cat by dog bite accent
“猫被狗咬了，The cat was bitten by a dog.”
B. Pronoun as an object[edit]
Asras ngwaety meuu?
Who call you?
“谁叫你？Who called you?”
Meuu dheuu neix, hou dheuu hauux.
You take this, I take that
“你要这个，我要那个，You take this (one), I take that (one).”
Meuu dzueis asras he?
You look at who accent
“你看谁呀？Who are you looking at?”
Meuu kweis dheuu meshes?
You want take what
“你想要什么？What do you want to take?”
C. Phrase as an object[edit]
Hou caty zuu fan veengs kaeu kaeu.
I buy one classifier shirt/blouse white white
“我买一件白白的衣服，I bought a very white shirt.”
Na caty nyaeus ku nomstaengs.
He buy salt and sugar
“他买盐和糖，He bought salt and sugar.”
Pashlaus na oep taaeix kius.
Older brother his love hit ball
“他哥哥喜欢打球，His older brother loves to play ball.”
D. Number as an object[edit]
Hou dheuu fuet hom.
I take ten classifier
“我要十个，I want ten.”
Na zaux zuu lang.
He have one classifier
“他有一只，He has one.”
Zuu lang hla neix zaux fus gins.
One classifier fish this has three classifier
“这条鱼有三斤，This fish is three jin (3 and 1/3 lbs.).”
E. Verb as an object[edit]
Hluueklauux neix oep ngais.
Child this love cry
“这个孩子爱哭，This child is a crybaby. (=is always crying).”
Na dhas rien.
He fear say
“他怕说，He fears/is afraid (to) say (tell).”
Bou oep lax.
Pig love eat
“猪爱吃，A pig loves eating.”
Some verbs, like “duuengx” (给, to give) or “dun” (教, to teach) , can take two objects, usually one is a person and the other is a thing. In the double-object sentence, the auxiliary word “lax” or “dheuu” which indicates the relation of receiving can be added before the thing-object.
F. Double objects (with giving-receiving relation)[edit]
The construction is Verb + person-object + lax/dheuu + thing-object, e.g.,
Baisdza duuengx na lax zuu ruet riens.
Mother give her auxiliary word one classifier skirt
“母亲给她一条裙子，Mother gave her a skirt.”
Hou dun meuu lax tun Hlai.
I teach you auxiliary word language Li
“我教你黎话，I teach you the Li lauguage.”
Pashlaus duuengx pasghueng dheuu zuu hom zuucoeis.
older brother give younger brother auxiliary one classifier litchi
“哥哥给弟弟一个荔枝，The older brother gave (his) younger brother a litchi (a kind of fruit).”
The auxiliary word “lax” can be replaced by the verb “duuengx” (给, give), then the construction becomes Verb + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, and the objects generally cannot be omitted, e.g.,
Hou caty coembhans duuengx meuu.
I buy longan (fruit) give you
“我买龙眼给你，I bought longan (to) give to you.”
Baisdza caep noms duuengx pasghueng.
Mother carry water give younger brother
“母亲挑水给弟弟，The mother carried water (to) give to the younger brother.”
Hluuekkauus roengx tax duuengx baisghueng.
Older sister cook rice give younger sister
“姐姐煮饭给妹妹，The older sister cooked rice (to) give to the younger sister.”
Sometimes, the verb “duuengx” (给, for) can be placed both before the thing-object and the person-object, then the sentence construction becomes Verb + duuengx + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, e.g.,
Na duuengx veengs duuengx hou.
He give shirt/top give me
“他给我衣服，He gave a shirt to me.”
Pasdza da duuengx nomstaengs duuengx dhes.
Father not give sugar give me
“父亲不给我糖，(My) Father did not give me sugar.”
When both speaker and listener are clear what the thing-object is, or the subject itself is the given thing, the thing-object can be omitted, but the auxiliary needs to be kept, e.g.,
Meuu duuengx na dheuu.
You give him auxiliary word
“你给他，You give it to him.”
Zuu pienx enyx gas neix duuengx meuu lax.
One classifier small knife this give you auxiliary word
“这把小刀给你，This small knife (was) given (to) you.”
Zuu lang kai neix duuengx meuu lax.
One classifier chicken this give you auxiliary word
“这只鸡给你，This chicken (was) given (to) you.”
G. Double objects (without giving-receiving relation)[edit]
Although some verbs in double-object sentences do not imply the giving-receiving relation, the auxiliary word “lax”, which indicates that the subject is “helping” the person-object, is still needed. e.g.,
Hou reengs meuu lax.
I move you auxiliary word (help)
“我帮你搬，I will help you (to) move.”
Meuu laix na lax.
You plow him auxiliary word (help)
“你帮他犁田，You help him (to) plow.”
Baisdza caep hluuekbaiskaux lax.
Mother carry daughter auxiliary word (help)
“母亲帮女儿挑，A mother helps her daughter carry (the stuff).”
The auxiliary word “lax” can be followed by another object, e.g.,
Taeix dhes lax tax.
Put me auxiliary word (help) rice
“帮我打饭，Please help get me (some) rice.”
Hou caty meuu lax bheuucai.
I buy you auxiliary word (help) vegetable
“我帮你买菜，I’ll help you buy (some) vegetables.”
Na rien na kueng poengs meuu lax ceengcai.
He say he would water you auxiliary word (help) flower
“他说他会帮你给花浇水，He said he would help you water the flowers.”
4. Complement[edit]
There are three kinds of complements: sequential, directional, and quantitative complements. A complement goes after the verb or the adjective, in order to explain the sequence, degree, direction, or amount of the action. Usually, the verb, adjective, number, or phrase acts as a complement. Generally, a complement is placed after a verb, but if an object follows that verb, then the sequential complement and quantitative complement have to be placed after that object; the directional complement can either be placed after or before that object, e.g.,
A. Sequential complement[edit]
Dzax ghoems taeix hlaeux bhe.
Snake by hit die accent
“蛇被打死了，The snake was beaten to death by (someone).”
Hou bhaeis lax kuuem he.
I already eat full accent
“我已经吃饱了，I have already eaten (rice) and am full.”
Na lax tax kuuem he.
He eat rice full accent
“他吃饱饭了，He ate and is full.”
If the sequential complement is a phrase, the prepositional word “dhaens” is needed to be placed before the phrase, e.g.,
Na gwaeng dhaens tuuen nomswoms.
He pull preposition go out sweat
“他拉到出汗，He pulled until he sweat.”
Duis ghoux dhaens ngaeix noms hauux.
Water buffalo run preposition edge/bank river that
“水牛跑到那河边，The water buffalo ran to the bank of that river.”
Veengs neix baen dhaens asras ruus qieng cat.
shirt/top this new preposition whoever also want wear
“这衣服新到谁都想穿，This shirt is so new that everyone wants to wear it.”
B. Directional complement[edit]
The directional complement is constructed by a verb + a directional verb, e.g.,
| fei buuen
walk come 走来, walk and come |
fei beuu
walk come back 走回去, walk back |
fei dhaens
walk arrive 走到, walk to |
fei kaen
walk go up 走上, walk up |
fei hluet
walk go into 走进, walk into |
| fei hei
walk go 走去, walk and go |
fei luueng
walk go back 走回来, walk back |
fei dhuas
walk pass 走过, walk through |
fei luei
walk go down 走下, walk down |
fei tuuen
walk go out 走出, walk out |
a. Directional complement without an object
Most directional complements can act as a complement after alone verb, e.g.,
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
“他拿来了，He brought something here.”
Duis ghoux hei lo!
Water buffalo run go accent
“水牛跑去了，The water buffalo ran (away).”
Aeudza buuen luueng bhe
Old man come go back accent
“老人回来了，The old man came back.”
Uengxtoengs caep hei beuu bhe
Everyone carry go come back accent
“大家挑回去了，Everyone carried (something) back (home).”
Na ais caus. luei ba.
He is not willing to come down down accent
“他不愿意走下来吧，He is not willing to come down.”
Na ghoux tuuen hos?
He run go out accent of question
“他跑出来了吗？Did he run out (from there)?”
b. Directional complement with an object
These three directional verbs, “dhuas”, “kaen”, and “hluet”, need an object to go after them, e.g.,
Tuas zuens dhuas zuu dhanx dhaeix.
Rabbit jump over one classifier stream
“兔子跳过一条小沟，The rabbit jumped over a stream.”
Uengxtoengs caem kaen hwous max.
Everyone carry on shoulders go up mountain that
“大家抬到那山上，Everyone shouldered (something) up that mountain.”
Diu bhaeis ghoux hluet cuengs he.
Mouse already run go into hole accent
“老鼠已经跑进洞，The mouse already ran into the hole.”
C. Quantitative complement[edit]
The quantitative complement, which is constructed by either (number + verbal classifier), or (number + time classifier), usually goes after a verb, sometimes goes after an adjective, e.g.,
a. Verb + (number + verbal classifier)
Hou uengx meuu hei zuu gaeis.
I and you go one classifier
“我和你去一趟，I and you (can) go (there).”
Kai bhaeis hyoen fus dzax bhe.
Chicken already crow three classifier accent
“鸡已经啼三遍了，The rooster has already crowed three times.”
b. Verb + (number + time classifier)
Fa bhaeis o zuu bhoux he.
We already learn one year/classifier accent
“我们已经学一年了，We (have) already studied for one year.”
Na bhaeis doengs fus hwan he.
He already stay three day accent
“他已经住三天了，He (has) already stayed (for) three days.”
Na beuu blongs zaux hlaus nyaen bhe.
He go back home have two month accent
“他回家有两个月了，He has been home for two months now.”
c. Adjective + (number + classifier)
Blongs neix peek dhuas blongs hauux zuugit.
House this high/tall than house that a little bit
“这房子比那房子高一点，This house (is just) a little bit taller than that house.”
Waeu neix hloei fus hom.
Bowl this more three classifier
“这碗多三个，This bowl (has) three extra (ones).”
5. Attribute[edit]
The attribute is to modify or to define the subject or object, in order to indicate the characteristics, amount, or possession. Usually, the attribute, which can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a number, a verb, or different kinds of phrases, is placed after the head word, except when a number acts as an attribute, the number must be placed before the head word, e.g.,
A. Noun (head word) + noun (attribute)[edit]
aek duis
meat water buffalo
“牛肉，beef”
feekx hweek
skin banana
“香蕉皮，banana peel”
coem coeis
fruit litchi
“荔枝果，litchi (fruit)”
dzuuem kai
egg chicken
“鸡蛋，chicken egg”
Na kueng rien tun Hlai.
He know say/speak language/word Li
“他会说黎话，He knows(how to) speak the Li’s language.”
Neix man bheuu cai.
This is leaf tree
“这是树叶，This is a tree’s leaf.”
B. Noun (head word) + adjective (attribute)[edit]
tau loek
pot black
“黑锅，black pot”
zuu fans veengs kaeu
one classifier shirt/top white
“一件白上衣，one white shirt”
noms neix noms ghan.
water this water cold
“这水是冷水，This water (is) cold water.”
C. Noun (head word) + pronoun (attribute)[edit]
Gha Hlai zaux caqias veengzauus bhe.
We Li people have script self accent
“咱们黎族有自己的文字了，We, Li people, have our own script.”
Hluuek na kweis hei zok Damxax.
Older sister his/her is going to go to/toward Sanya
“他姐姐要去三亚，His older sister is going to go to Sanya.”
D. Number (attribute) + noun (head word)[edit]
Zuu zuen aeu dhuus blongs max.
One classifier man in house that
“一个人在那边房子，A man (is) in that house.”
Hlaus lang duis neix ghweis dhat dhat.
Two classifier water buffalo this fat very very
“这两头牛肥极了，These two water buffalos (are) very, very fat.”
E. Noun (head word) + verb (attribute)[edit]
Dhuus max wenysnaeis fok gaux.
In/at there no place lie down
“在那里没有地方睡，At that place, (there is) no place to sleep.”
Toep laty ghoux ruus zeuu loem.
Even wild boar run also shoot right
“连跑的野猪也射中，He shot even a running wild boar right on.”
Neix gong lax fa.
This stuff eat our
“这是我们吃的东西，This (is) our food .”
F. Noun (head word) + phrase (attribute)[edit]
veengs dhuus blongs hauux
shirt/top in house that
“在那房子的衣服，the shirt (that is) in that house”
hluuekueng naeus buuen hauux
girl just come that
“那位刚来的姑娘，that girl (who) just came”
zuu lang duis lax gans kuuem
one classifier water buffalo eat grass full
“一只吃饱草的水牛，a water buffalo (that) eats grass (until it’s) full”
qi meuu buuen hauux
time you come that
“你来的那个时候，that time (when) you came”
6. Adverbial[edit]
The adverbial modifies or defines verbs or adjectives, in order to indicate the why, how, when, and where of the verb, or the degree of the adjective. Most often it is an adverb, an adjective, or a verb that acts as an adverbial; sometimes, a noun, a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun, a number, and various phrases can also be adverbials. Adverbials can either be placed before or after the verb or adjective. e.g.,
A. Adverbs as Adverbials[edit]
Most adverbs are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na oms da buuen zo.
He still not come accent
“他还没来呢，He has not come (yet).”
Hwanneix fas vaeu fous hos.
Today sky mosthot accent
“今天天气很热啊，Today the weather (is) very hot.”
Qi lax tax yous rien tun!
Time eat rice don’t say/speak word
“吃饭时别说话！It is eating time, don’t talk!”
Zuu lang aeu neix da hlenymuuen.
One classifier man this not beautiful
“这个人不漂亮！This person (is) not beautiful.”
Only fewadverbs, like “dhat”, “luueng”, “baisias” and “dhatdhat”, are placed after the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na buuen dhat.
He come really
“他真的来了，He really came.”
Na vuek luueng.
He do back
“他重新做，He (is) re-doing (it).”
Gong neix hleny dhatdhat.
Stuff this good really
“这东西真好，This is really good stuff.”
Maeis neix dheeng baisias.
Sugarcane this sweet very
“这甘蔗非常甜，This sugarcane (is) very sweet.”
B. Adjectives as Adverbials[edit]
Most adjectives are placed before verb or adjective head words. Only a few adjectives, like “hleny” (好, good/so), and “reek” (坏, bad/not so), can be adverbials to modify adjective head words, e.g.,
reek coem
bad/not so sharp
“不锋利，not so sharp”
Gas neix hleny coem hos！
Long knife this good/so sharp accent!
“这把刀好快啊！This knife is (so) sharp!”
Dais fei as, baisdza！
Slow walk accent, old lady!
“慢走啊，老大娘，Slow(ly) walk, (lady/old woman).”
Meuu dzuuns buuen bhe！
You quick come accent
“你快来吧，(You) quick(ly) come.”
If an adjective is doubled, it can be placed after the verb, e.g.,
Meuu buuen dzuunsdzuuns bhe！
You come quick quick accent
“你快快来吧，(You) come double quick.”
C. Verbs as Adverbials[edit]
When verbs act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial verbs are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Na ngais rien.
He/she cry say
“她哭着说，She said (it while) crying.”
Meuu dzok dzueis meshes?
You steal/secretly look what
“你偷看什么？What are you secretly looking at?”
Na oep lax zuuyunx.
He like eat coconut
“他爱吃椰子，He likes to eat coconuts.”
D. Nouns as Adverbials[edit]
When nouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial nouns are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Neix man cai vuek
This is tree make
“这是木制的，This is made of wood.”
Meuu ashaux hei hyos?
You tomorrow go question accent
“你明天去吗？Are you going tomorrow?”
E. Pronouns as Adverbials[edit]
When pronouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial pronouns can either be placed before or after that head word, e.g.,
Na dhongneix rien. = Na rien dhongneix.
He like this say = He say like this
“他这样说，He said (it )like this.”
Gong neix dhongras vuek = Gong neix vuek dhongras
work this how do = work this do how
“这活儿怎样做？How (is) this work done?”
Qiras dhaens = dhaens qiras
When arrive = arrive when
“何时到？When (will he) arrive?”
However, when pronouns act as adverbials to modify a head word that is an adjective, the adverbial pronouns are only placed after that head word, e.g.,
Gom neix bheeng dhonghauux.
Region this wide/vast like that/so
“这地方那么宽，This region (is) so vast.”
Zuu zuen aeu neix hleny dhonghauux.
One classififer man this good/kind like that/so
“这个人那么好，This man (is) so good.”
Zuu dhanx dhoei neix daeus ras?
One classififer rope this long how?
“这一条绳子有多长？How long (is) this rope?”
F. Prepositional phrases as Adverbial[edit]
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions “ia” (被, by) or “dheuu” (被, by), act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies a head word that is a verb, and must be placed before that head word, e.g.,
Ia ba gaenys
by dog bite
“被狗咬，bit by a dog”
dheuu na taeix
by him hit
“被他打，hit by him”
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions “tuuen” (从, by), “dhuus” (在, in/at), “ku” (对, to), “uengx” (和, and),or “nyuek” (和, and) act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies the head word that is a verb, and must be placed either before or after that head word, e.g.,
tuuen max zuu dhanx guen kaen hwous
From that one classifier road go up mountain
“从这一条路上山，by that road (one can) go up the mountain”
toek tuuen deuu cai
drop from on tree
“从树上掉下来，drop from the tree”
dhuus blongs dzoeng meuu = dzoeng meuu dhuus blongs
at house/home wait you = wait you at house/home
“在家等你，(I’ll) wait for you at home.”
ku na rien = rien ku na
to him say = say to him
“对他说，say to him”
uengx meuu hei= hei uengx meuu
With you go = go with you
“同你去，(I’ll) go with you.”
meuu doengs nyuek na. = meuu nyuek na doengs.
You play with/and him = You with/and him play
“你和他玩，You play with him.”
Some prepositions, like “bhi” (比, than/compare), “dhuas” (过, than), “dhong” (同/像/如, same/be like), or “bhaen” (像, be like), have nouns as adverbials to modify the adjective head word, of which some are placed before that head word, others after, and still others either before or after, e.g.,
Before the adjective head word:
Meuu bhi dhes peek.
You than/compare me tall
“你比我高，You (are) taller than me.”
After the adjective head word:
Meuu peek dhuas na.
You tall than him
“你高过他，You (are) taller than him.”
Ba long dhuas mieux.
Dog big than cat
“狗大过猫，A dog (is) bigger than a cat.”
Before or after the adjective head word:
hloek bhaen laengs
deep like/as sea
“像海一样深，as deep as the sea.”
enyx dhong guty
small like/as needle
“像针一样小，as small as a needle.”
Kai neix bhaen eps ghweis. = Kai neix ghweis bhaen eps.
Chicken this like/as duck fat = Chicken this fat as duck
“这只鸡像鸭一样肥，This chicken (is) as fat as (a) duck.”
Sentence patterns and types[40][41][edit]
Sentence patterns and their basic rules[edit]
1. Simple sentence[edit]
The simple sentence includes subject-predicate sentence, no subject sentence, one word sentence, e.g.,
A. Subject-predicate sentences[edit]
Fas fun lo.
sky rain accent
“天要下雨了，It's going to rain.”
Na hei bhe.
He go accent
“他去了，He went.”
Enyxlauux raeu he.
Child laugh accent
“小孩笑了，(The) child(ren) laughed.”
The simple sentences above include two elements: subjects and predicates, however, other elements like objects, complements, or adverbials can be included, e.g.,
(subject + predicate + object)
Hou lax tax.
I eat rice
“我吃饭，I eat rice.”
(subject + predicate + complement)
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
“他拿来了，He brought (it with him).”
(subject + adverbial + predicate + complement)
Enyxlauux bhaeis fei hluet blongs.
Child already walk into house
“小孩走进屋子，(The) child(ren) walked into the house.”
B. No subject sentences[edit]
This simple sentences look like inverted sentences, e.g.,
Tuut dhoei bhe.
Break rope accent
“断绳了，The rope (is) broken.”
Hloei aeu dhat.
Many people really/very
“人真多，(There are) so many people.”
Hlaeux hlai bhe.
Die fish accent
“鱼死了，The fish died.”
C. One word sentence[edit]
Asras？
Who？
“谁？Who?”
Ahyo!
Oh my!
“哎哟！Oh my!”
A: “Meuu kweis da kweis？” B: “Kweis.”
You be willing to NEG be willing to be willing to
A: ‘Are you willing (or) not willing?’ B: ‘(Yes, I am) willing.’
A: 你愿意不愿意？B:愿意
2. Compound sentences[edit]
There are two kinds of compound sentences; one is a coordinate compound sentence, the other is a subordinate compound sentence, e.g.,
A. Coordinate compound sentences[edit]
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: parallel, progressive, and optional.
a. The parallel relationship
Usually, there is no need of conjunctions between clauses.
Hou kweis hei kuishuix, na kweis hei ang.
I will go have a meeting he will go field
“我要去开会，他要去山栏地，I'm going to a meeting, he's going to the field.”
Coem hweek hou ngan lax dhuas,
Fruit banana I also eat auxiliary past tense
zuuyunx hou ngan lax dhuas.
coconut I also eat auxiliary past tense
“香蕉我吃过，椰子我也吃过，I've eaten bananas, and I have also eaten coconuts.”
Na hoen vuek veengs vuek riens,
He/she know how to do shirt do skirt
hoen vuek ang vuek dax.
know how to do hilly field do plain field
“她能做衣服做裙子，能耕田种地，She can make shirts and skirts, (she also) can work (in) hilly (and) plain fields.”
b. The progressive relationship
The conjunction words that express a progressive relationship between clauses are “loms” (又, still),“oms” (还, 却, yet),“ruus” (都, all), “koms” (连, even/also), and their similar phrases such as “dacaux…koms/uuloms…”(不但…而且…，not only… but also…), e.g.,
Fas bhaeis cop, na loms da beuu.
Sky already late he still not come back
“天已经晚了，他还不回来，It was late, and he still (had) not come back.”
Fas oms da dhenys, na bhaeis hei ang he.
Sky yet not bright, he already go field accent
“天尚未亮，他已经去田里了，It was not yet the break of dawn, and he had already gone to the field.”
Meuuda man Moei, fa man Hlai, gha ruus man uxaeu Dongxgok.
You are Han, we are Li, we all are people China
“你们是汉族，我们是黎族，咱们都是中国人，You are Han, we are Li, we are all Chinese.”
Na kueng rien tun Hlai,
He know how to speak language/word Li
kueng rien koms tun Moei.
know how to speak also/even language/word Han
“他会说黎话，也会说汉话，He knows how to speak the Li language, also knows how to speak the Han language.”
hou dacaux dzueis bhaeis, uuloms taeis bhaeis.
I not only read finished, but also write finished
“我不仅看完了，而且写完了，Not only did I finish reading, but I also finished writing.”
c. The optional relationship
The conjunction words that express an optional relationship between clauses are “cuus” (或, or), “cas” (或, or), “casnus” (或, or), “cuusnaus” (或, or), and “dagoms” (或, or), e.g.,
Pashlaus meuu buuen, cas pasghueng meuu buuen.
Old brother your come, or younger brother your come
“你哥哥来，还是你弟弟来，(Either) your older brother (will) come, or your younger brother (will) come.”
Lax man cuusnaus lax tax？
Eat potato or eat rice
“吃白薯还是米饭？Do you eat potatoes or rice?”
Meuu rien ku na, dagoms rien ku hou.
You say/tell to him, or say/tell to me
“你对他说，或者告诉我，You tell him, or tell me.”
B. Subordinate compound sentences[edit]
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are not equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: transitional, conditional, and causal.
a. The transitional relationship
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause, and the latter one is the major clause. The conjunction words that express a transitional relationship are “tom” (但是, but), “oms” (却, but), and “dagoms” (不然, otherwise), “tus” (但是, but), e.g.,
Uupans hou hei zok na, tom na hei qix.
Yesterday I go to him, but he go street
“昨天我到他家去，但是他已经上街去了，Yesterday I went to (find) him (at his house), but he had already hit the streets.”
Na kweis vuek tun, oms dhas zuugheidhang.
She want sing a song, but fear shame
“她想唱歌，又怕害羞，She wants to sing, but fears embarrassment.”
Kweis o goms o dhat, dagoms beuu blongs.
Want learn then learn well, otherwise go back home
“要学就真正地学，不然就回家去，(If you) want to learn, then learn (it) well, otherwise, go back home.”
b. The conditional relationship
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause indicating the condition, and the latter one is the major clause expressing the consequence. The conjunction words that express a conditional relationship are “laeis” (如果, if), “dalunx” (无论, no matter what), e.g.,
Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei.
no matter what he say how, I also go
“不管他怎样说，我都去，No matter what he says, I'll also go.”
Laeis na da buuen, dhes fan hei gongx na.
If he not come, I then go find him
“如果他不来，我就去找他，If he doesn't come, then I'll go find him.”
Laeis zaux tax, hou goms lax.
If have/there is rice, I then eat
“如果有饭，我就吃，If there is rice, then I (will) eat.”
Laeis na euu, meuu goms waeix ku hou bas.
If he agree, you then tell to me accent
“如果他答应，你就告诉我吧，If he agrees, then (you) tell me.”
Sometimes, the conditional sentence does not need a conjunction word, e.g.,
Tuuen kaux vuek gong, nge zaux gan zaux jien.
Out strength do work, must have money have money
“努力工作，一定会有金钱，(If you) use strength to work, (you) will have money.”
c. The causal relationship
Usually, the first clause is the major clause indicating the result, and the latter one is the subordinate clause expressing the cause. The conjunction words that express a causal relationship are “hans” (因为, because), “dagoms” (不然, otherwise), e.g.,
Fas fun yous hei,dagoms ia cok.
Sky rain don’t go otherwise gain/get sickness
“天下雨了，别去，不然要得病，It's raining, don't go, otherwise (you’ll) get sick.”
Dhes da hei, hans dhes cok bhe.
I not go because I sick accent
“我不去，因为我病了，I'm not going because I'm sick.”
Hou beuu bat dhoei, hans tuut bhaeis.
I come back take rope, because break totally
“我回来拿绳子，因为全断了，I came back to take a rope, because (my rope is) totally broken.”
Sometimes, the word “hans” also can be used in a conditional clause, e.g.,
Jieng, hans hloei ges fa ngan duuengx.
Sucess, no matter what much price/cost we also give
“能成功的话，那么多少钱我们都给，(Achieve) sucess, no matter how much it costs.”
When the loan words “ienxuis…dosdzis”are used to present the cause-result relationship, the causal clause is placed before the result clause, e.g.,
Ienxuis boux neix fas raenx, dosdzis daenslieng aiszangs peek.
Because year this sky dry, so produce not so high
“因为今年天旱，所以产量不太高，Because this year it (is) dry, (so) the produce (is) not so much.”
C. Compressed compound sentences[edit]
In view of idea expressed, the compressed sentence is a compound sentence; in view of construction, it is a simple sentence.
Dhes ghais meuu vuek meshes goms vuek meshes.
I tell you do what then do what
“我叫你做什么就做什么，Whatever I tell you to do, do (it).”
Hou kweis rien oms dhas.
I want say but fear
“我想说又害怕，I want to speak but (I) fear (to say it).”
Na faets ngop faets hlenyvis.
He more… think more… happy
“他越想越高兴，The more he thinks the more happy he is.”
Bou neix luuengx bhoux luuengx ghweis.
Pig this more… feed more… fat
“这只猪越喂越肥，The more this pig is fed the fatter it is.”
Na lax vuek lax dzuuns.
He more… do more… fast
“他越做越快，The more he works the faster he gets/becomes.”
Aeu ceeng buuen ceeng hloei.
He more… come more… many
“人越来越多，The people coming (are) more and more.”
Hlai Sentence Types and their basic rules[42][43][edit]
According to the function and mood, Hlai sentences can be classified as declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, and exclamatory sentences.
1. Declarative sentence[edit]
A. Affirmative sentence[edit]
Hou kweis hei ang.
I will go hilly field
“我要去山栏地，I will go to the hilly field.”
Neix man veengs na.
This is shirt/top her/his
“这是他/她的衣服，This is her/his shirt/top.”
Sometimes, the linking verb is omitted, e.g.,
Neix veengs na.
This shirt/top her/his
“这是他/她的衣服，This (is) her/his shirt/top.”
B. Negative sentence[edit]
Neix ghwaix veengs na.
This is not shirt/top her/his
“这不是他/她的衣服，This is not her/his shirt.”
Na da buuen zo.
He not come accent
“他还没来呢，He has not come yet.”
2. Interrogative sentence[edit]
A. Using interrogative pronouns[edit]
There are several interrogative pronouns that are used: “uuras/asras” (谁, who?), “meshes” (什么, what?), “dhongras” (怎样, how?), “ras” (哪，如何, where? which? how?), “qiras” (何时, when?), and “hloeiras” (多少, How much/many?), e.g.,
Neix veengs asras?
This shirt/top who?
“这是谁的衣服，Whose shirt is this?”
Uuras uengx hou hei?
Who with me go?
“谁跟我去？Who(will) go with me?”
Neix man meshes?
This is what?
“这是什么？What is this?”
Vuek dhongras naus dhiu?
Do how just right?
“怎么样做才好？How should it be done, so that it will be done right?”
Meuu hei zok ras?
You go to/toward where?
“你去哪儿？Where are you heading?”
Na qiras buuen?
He when come?
“他何时来？When (will) he come?”
zaux hloeiras zuen uucok?
Have how many classifier sick
“有几个病号？How many (people) are sick?”
B. Using interrogative accent words[edit]
These questions require an answer: “Yes or no”.
Ghwaix na bas?
Is not him accent
“不是他吧？It is not him, right?”
Neix guu meuu hos?
This belong to you accent
“这是你的吗？Does this belong to you?”
Meuu bhaeis lax tax hixhos?
You already eat rice accent
“你已经吃过饭了吗？Did you already eat (rice)?”
(There are several more words used in the interrogative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
C. Using negation words (“da”)
Meuu kweis hei da?
You will go NEG?
“你要去吗？Won’t you go?”
Meuu kweis da?
You be willing to NEG?
“你愿意吗？Aren’t you willing?”
Meuu kweis laeis hisdhop da?
You want see movie NEG?
“你要看电影吗？Don’t you want to see a movie?”
Gong neix hleny da?
Stuff this good NEG?
“这东西好吗？Isn’t this stuff good?”
The conjunction word “cuus/cas” can be added before the negative words “da” to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu qieng dheuu cuus da?
You want take or not?
“你想拿吗？Do you want to take (it) or not?”
Meuu bhaeis lax cuus da?
You already eat or not?
“你已经吃了吗？Have you already eaten or not?”
Veengs neix hleny cas da?
shirt/top this good or not?
“这件衣服好吗？Is this shirt/top good or not?”
D. Using conjunction words (“cuus/cas”)[edit]
The conjunction word “cuus/cas” can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu dheuu cuus ais?
You want or don’t want?
“你要不要？Do you want (it) or not?”
Fa caem cuus bhiek?
We carry with hands or carry on shoulders?
“我们抬还是扛？Should we carry (it) with (our) hands or on (our) shoulders?”
Dhat cas tuas?
Genuine/real/true or false/fake?
“真的还是假的？Are you telling the truth, or did you make it up?”
Another related conjunction word “cuusnaus/casnus” can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Na hei cuusnaus hou hei？
He go or I go?
“他去还是我去？Will he go or should I go?”
3. Imperative sentence[edit]
When a speaker demonstrates a request or a command, usually he will express it with an accent. When the subject is omitted, it can become a one word sentence, e.g.,
Buuen!
Come
“来！Come！”
Uuhaux laus zuucoeis bas.
tomorrow pick litchi (fruit) accent
“明天摘荔枝吧！Tomorrow let’s (finish) pick(ing) litchi (=a kind of fruit)!”
Uengxtoengs dzuuns buuen res!
Everyone quickly come accent
“大家快来吧！Everyone, come quickly!”
(There are several more words used in the imperative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
When a speaker expresses a prohibition, usually the adverbial word “yous” (别, don’t) is used.
Yous vuek!
Don’t do
“别做！Quit doing that!”
4. Exclamatory sentence[edit]
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like “ho”, “a”, “aei”, “aidzo”, “aiho”, “euu”, and “o”. These words strongly express the speaker’s feelings.
A. An accented word in one word sentence[edit]
Euu! Hauux bhe!
Yes! That is (it)!
“嗯！是！Yes! That’s it!”
Aei! Dhongras vuek naus hleny?
Oh my! How do just/then good
“哎哟！怎么做才好？Oh my! What’s a good way to do this?”
B. An accented word follows one word or one phrase[edit]
Cok ho!
Pain accent
“疼啊！Ouch!”
Hleny hloei ho!
good/so many accent
“好多啊！So many!”
C. An accented word at the end of a sentence[edit]
Aidzo! Keuuhwoek ho!
Oh my! Poor accent
“哎哟！可惜啊！Oh (my)! Poor (guy)!”
Tau bhaeis poens a!
Pot already break accent
“锅已经破了！The pot broke!”
Bheuucai neix hleny lax ho!
Vegetable this good eat accent
“这菜好吃啊！This vegetable (=dish) (is) good to eat (=delicious)!”
Noms neix ghan a!
Water this cold accent
“这水凉啊！This water is cold!”
(There are several more words used in the exclamatory mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
Influence of Chinese grammar[44][45][edit]
Due to the frequent contacts made between the Li (黎族) and the Han (汉族) over a relatively lengthy stretch of time, the Hlai language has been influenced by the Chinese language and its grammar. As previously mentioned, the Hlai counting system for dates, ordinal numbers, and measurements have been influenced by Chinese. In this chapter, the Chinese influence in Hlai's word order of attribute phrases, verb-object-complement phrases, and interrogative sentences is discussed.
Attribute phrases[edit]
Nouns act as head words, and the attribute word is a number. Natively, the number should be placed before the head word. But, due to the Chinese influence, the number can be placed after the head word, e.g.,
| Original order | Influenced order |
| fus lang laty
three CLF boar “三只野猪，three boars” |
laty fus lang
boar three CLF “野猪三只，three boars” |
| zuu hom coem
one CLF fruit “一个果子，one fruit” |
coem zuu hom
fruit one CLF “果子一个，one fruit” |
| hlaus dhanx roenx
two CLF bamboo “两条竹子，two bamboo” |
roenx hlaus dhanx
bamboo two CLF “竹子两条，two bamboo” |
When nouns act as head words, and the attribute words are demonstrative pronouns and numbers, the number is placed before the head word and the demonstrative pronoun after the head word. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order has become more like the word order in Chinese, e.g.,
| Original order | Influenced order |
| zuu hom ngaen neix
one CLF pillow DEM “这一个枕头，this pillow” |
neix zuu hom ngaen
DEM one CLF pillow “这一个枕头，this pillow” |
| dom fans veengs hauux
six CLF shirt DEM “那六件衣服，these six shirts” |
hauux dom fans veengs
DEM six CLF shirt “那六件衣服，these six shirts” |
| tou kuuengx zuuyunx max
seven CLF coconut DEM “那七棵椰子树，those seven coconut tree” |
max tou kuuengx zuuyunx
DEM seven CLF coconut “那七棵椰子树，those seven coconut tree” |
When two nouns are placed together as an attribute phrase, the front noun is the head word, and the back one the attribute word. However, due to Chinese influence, the word order can be changed, but only when applied to loan word attribute phrases, e.g.,
| Original order | Influenced order |
| dengs Haeisnaems
province Hainan “海南省，Hainan province” |
Haeisnaems dengs
Hainan province “海南省，Hainan province” |
| gwaeis Lokdhongs
county Ledong “乐东县，Ledong county” |
Lokdhongs gwaeis
Ledong county “乐东县，Ledong county” |
| dhiens Bhausdzius
township Baoyou “抱由镇，Baoyou township” |
Bhausdzius dhiens
Baoyou township “抱由镇，Baoyou township” |
Another kind of attribute phrase is where the noun is the head word and the adjective is the attribute word. When the words in the phrase are all loan words, the word order follows the Chinese one, e.g., dienx Dongxgok
new China
“新中国，new China”
dienx gun
new skirt
“新裙子，new skirt”
dhuax giuscex
big savior
“大救星，great savior”
kuis dhuaxhuix
open conference
“开会，to hold a conference”
However, when the words in the phrase are not all loanwords, the adjective is placed after the noun, e.g.,
Dongxgok baen
China new
“新中国，new China”
neix man gun baen.
DEM.this is skirt new
“这是新裙子，This is a new skirt.”
giuscex long
savior big
“大救星，great savior”
Verb-object-complement phrases[edit]
When verbs act as head words, the word order is verb-object-complement. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order, verb-complement-object has also been adopted, e.g.,
| Original order | Influenced order |
| lax tax bhaeis
eat rice finished “吃完饭，finished eating” |
lax bhaeis tax
eat finished rice “吃完饭，finished eating” |
| vuek gong bhaeis
do work finished “做完工，finished working” |
vuek bhaeis gong
do finished work “做完工，finished working” |
| lax bhiengx bhaeis
eat rice wine finished “吃完酒，finished drinking” |
lax bhaeis bhiengx
eat finished rice wine “吃完酒，finished drinking” |
Interrogative sentences[edit]
The native ways to denote a question in the Hlai language are using interrogative pronouns, interrogative accents, or placing the negation word da at the end of a sentence. However, due to Chinese influence, a new word order has appeared, which is, verb (head word) + negation + verb, e.g.,
Meuu hei da hei?
You go NEG go
“你去不去？Are you going?”
The possessive auxiliary word gaeis[edit]
The native possessive auxiliary word in Hlai is guu. In the Chinese language, the possessive auxiliary word is gaeis, and both its usage and function have been imputed into the Hlai language, e.g.,
Bhakgengs gaeis Ihwashueis
Beijing AUX.POSS the name of emperor’s Summer Palace
“北京的颐和园，Beijing’s Summer Palace”
Haeisnaems gaeis Lokdhongs gwaeis
Hainan AUX.POSS Ledong township
“海南的乐东县，Hainan’s Ledong township”
gaeusdhom gaeis cahwan
morning AUX.POSS sun
“早晨的太阳，the morning’s sun”
References[edit]
- ↑ Ouyang Jueya 欧阳觉亚 & Zheng Yiqing 郑贻青 (1983). Liyu diaocha yanjiu 黎语调查研究. Beijing: Zhongguo Shehui Kexue Chubanshe 中国社会科学出版社. p. 4. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 56–57. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 91–92. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 58–61. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2009). LIYU CHANGPIAN HUAYU CAILIAOJI 黎语长篇话语材料集. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. p. 20. ISBN 9787811086980. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 91–92. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 61–62. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 96–99. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 62–77. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 96–99. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 70–71. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. p. 103. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 71–77. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2009). LIYU CHANGPIAN HUAYU CAILIAOJI 黎语长篇话语材料集. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. p. 20. ISBN 9787811086980. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 77–87. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 107–09. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 87–90. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Ouyang Jueya 欧阳觉亚 Zheng Yiqing 郑贻青 (1992). Hlai Han Dictionary 黎汉词典. Chengdu, Sichuan: Sichuan Ethnic Publishing Press. ISBN 7540903023. Search this book on
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 114–15. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 88–90. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 90–97. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 120–22. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 Wenjing 文京 (2006). Liyu JIchu Jiaocheng 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 252–54. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 97–101. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 129–31. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 101–08. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 144–45. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 108–10. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 137–39. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 110–13. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 151–52. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 113–19. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 158–60. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. p. 120. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2006). LIYU JICHU JIAOCHENG 黎语基础教程. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 165–66. ISBN 9787811080018. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 121–130. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2009). LIYU CHANGPIAN HUAYU CAILIAOJI 黎语长篇话语材料集. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 22–30. ISBN 9787811086980. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 132–151. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2009). LIYU CHANGPIAN HUAYU CAILIAOJI 黎语长篇话语材料集. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 31–40. ISBN 9787811086980. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 152–57. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2009). LIYU CHANGPIAN HUAYU CAILIAOJI 黎语长篇话语材料集. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 41–44. ISBN 9787811086980. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 158–61. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2009). LIYU CHANGPIAN HUAYU CAILIAOJI 黎语长篇话语材料集. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 44–47. ISBN 9787811086980. Search this book on
- ↑ Yuanzhongshu 苑中树 (1994). Outline of Hlai language Grammar 黎语语法纲要. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 180–185. ISBN 7810018922. Search this book on
- ↑ Wenmingying 文明英 & Wenjing 文京 (2009). LIYU CHANGPIAN HUAYU CAILIAOJI 黎语长篇话语材料集. Beijing 北京: Central University for Nationalities Press 中央民族大学出版社. pp. 47–51. ISBN 9787811086980. Search this book on
This article "Has Hlai grammar" is from Wikipedia. The list of its authors can be seen in its historical and/or the page Edithistory:Has Hlai grammar. Articles copied from Draft Namespace on Wikipedia could be seen on the Draft Namespace of Wikipedia and not main one.
|
This page exists already on Wikipedia. |
