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Kept on Wikipedia:Protocol Wars

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki


The Protocol Wars occurred from the 1970s to 1990s when when engineers, organizations and nations became polarized over the issue of which protocol would result in the best and most robust computer networks. This culminated in the Internet-OSI Standard War in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Early computer networking

Pioneers vs PTTs

In the 1960s, Paul Baran in the United States and Donald Davies in the United Kingdom found it hard to convince incumbent PTTs of the merits of their ideas. Larry Roberts approached AT&T, the dominant carrier in the U.S., in the 1970s about taking over ARPANET to offer a public packet switched service but AT&T declined.[1] Louis Pouzin faced opposition in France.

PTTs were operating on the basis of circuit switching, the alternatives to which are message switching or packet switching.[2]

Datagram vs virtual circuit

Packet switching can be based on either a connectionless or connection-oriented mode. A datagram service transports packets independently of other packs whereas a virtual circuit transports packets between terminals in sequence.[2]

TCP vs X.25

On the ARPANET, the starting point for host-to-host communication in 1969 was the 1822 protocol, which defined the transmission of messages to an IMP.[3] The Network Control Program for the ARPANET was first implemented in 1970.[4] The NCP interface allowed application software to connect across the ARPANET by implementing higher-level communication protocols, an early example of the protocol layering concept.[5]

Networking research in the early 1970s by Robert E. Kahn and Vint Cerf led to the formulation of the Transmission Control Program (TCP).[6] Its RFC 675 specification was written by Cerf with Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine in December 1974, still a monolithic design at this time.

The connectionless approach to packet switching was also being pursued by the International Networking Working Group, consisting of American researchers, members of the French CYCLADES project and the British team working on the NPL network and subsequently the European Informatics Network. They agreed a conectionless datagram standard which was presented to the CCITT in 1975 but was not adopted by the ITU or by the ARPANET.[7]

After leaving ARPA, Larry Roberts joined the international effort to standardized a protocol for packet switching based on virtual circuits shortly before it was finalized. French and British research, particularly that of Rémi Després, contributed to the development of this standard, X.25 which was agreed by the CCITT in 1976.[8] It was adopted in by PTTs in Europe and North America for several public data networks in the late 1970s. Roberts promoted this approach over the ARPANET model which he described as "oversold" in 1978.[1][9]

Common host protocol vs translating between protocols

NPL internetworking research considered the "basic dilemma" involved in connecting networks; that is, a common host protocol would require restructuring the existing networks. NPL connected with the European Informatics Network (Barber directed the project and Scantlebury led the UK technical contribution)[10][11][12] by translating between two different host protocols. While the NPL connection to the UK Experimental Packet Switched Service used a common host protocol in both networks. NPL research confirmed establishing a common host protocol would be more reliable and efficient.[13] The UK Coloured Book protocols gained some acceptance internationally as the first complete X.25 standard.[14][15] The EIN protocol helped to launch the ISO standard.[16]

DoD model vs X.25/PTTs/Europe/proprietary standards

The Transmission Control Program that incorporated both connection-oriented links and datagram services between hosts. In version 3 of TCP, written in 1978, the Transmission Control Program was split into two distinct protocols, the Internet Protocol as connectionless layer and the Transmission Control Protocol as a reliable connection-oriented service.[17] Originally referred to as IP/TCP, version 4 was installed in the ARPANET for production use in January 1983. This resulted in a networking model that became known informally as TCP/IP. It was also referred to as the Department of Defense (DOD) model, or DARPA model.[18]

Vendor-developed proprietary standards emerged, such as the System network architecture (SNA) of IBM, DECnet of Digital Equipment Corporation and Xerox Network Systems.[19]

Adoption of X.25 became commonplace in Europe, with North American PTTs,[20][21] and gained political support in European countries and from the European Economic Community, for example, EIN based on datagrams was replaced with Euronet based on X.25.[22][23] The European networks tended to be short-term projects with smaller numbers of computers and users. As a result, the European networking activities did not lead to any strong standards—except at Level 2, where they led to the X.25 protocols, which became the main European data protocol for the next fifteen to twenty years. Peter Kirstein's group at UCL was widely involved in the formulation of these standards, partly because they were one of the most expert, and partly to try to ensure that the British activities, such as the JANET NRS, did not diverge too far from the U.S.[24]

In the U.S., NSF, NASA, and the DoE built networks based on the DoD model, proprietary standards, and IP over X.25.

OSI Reference Model

The Experimental Packet Switched System in the UK identified the need for defining higher level protocols.[14] The UK National Computing Centre publication 'Why Distributed Computing' which came from considerable research into future configurations for computer systems,[25] resulted in the UK presenting the case for an international standards committee to cover this area at the ISO meeting in Sydney in March 1977.[26]

International work led to the OSI model in 1984, which allowed for both the datagram and the virtual circuit approach.

Internet protocol suite

Until NSF took over in the 1980s, TCP/IP was not even a candidate for universal adoption.[27] The development of a complete protocol suite by 1989, as outlined in RFC 1122and RFC 1123, laid the foundation for growth of TCP/IP as a comprehensive protocol suite, which became known as the Internet protocol suite.[28] ARPANET was shut down in 1990 and responsibilities for governance shifted away from the DoD.

Internet-OSI Standard War

The early research and development of standards for data networks and protocols culminated in the Internet-OSI Standard War in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Engineers, organizations and nations became polarized over the issue of which standard would result in the best and most robust computer networks.[29][30][31][32][33][34][35]

ARPA began to pursue commercial partnerships with the telecommunication industry which drove the adoption of TCP/IP. CERN purchased UNIX machines with TCP/IP between 1984 and 1989.[33][36][37]

The U.S. Department of Commerce mandated compliance with the OSI standard. European countries and the EEC restricted funding for non-OSI compliant protocols.

JANET, the UK national research and education network, resulted in the standardisation known as the Coloured Book protocols, which provided the first complete X.25 standard. The naming scheme used on Janet (JANET NRS) had similarities to the Internet's Domain Name System, but with domains specified in big-endian format rather than the little-endian style used by DNS. In January 1991 the JANET IP Service (JIPS) was set up as a pilot project to host IP traffic on the existing network.[36] Within ten months the IP traffic had exceeded the levels of X.25 traffic, and the IP support became official in November. There was some talk of moving Janet to OSI protocols in the 1990s, but changes in the networking world meant this never happened. Today Janet is primarily a high-speed IP network.[38]

In the same year, Dai Davies introduced Internet technology into the pan-European backbone, EuropaNet, which was built on the X.25 protocol.[39][40]

NSFNET was shut down in 1995, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "The Evolution of Packet Switching" (PDF). Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Davies, Donald Watts (1979). Computer networks and their protocols. Internet Archive. Chichester, [Eng.] ; New York : Wiley. pp. 456–477. Search this book on
  3. ↑ Interface Message Processor: Specifications for the Interconnection of a Host and an IMP, Report No. 1822, Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. (BBN)
  4. ↑ BOOKS, HIGH DEFINITION. UGC -NET/JRF/SET PTP & Guide Teaching and Research Aptitude: UGC -NET By HD. High Definition Books. Search this book on
  5. ↑ "NCP – Network Control Program", Living Internet
  6. ↑ Cerf, V.; Kahn, R. (1974). "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Communications. 22 (5): 637–648. doi:10.1109/TCOM.1974.1092259. ISSN 1558-0857. The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.
  7. ↑ McKenzie, Alexander (2011). "INWG and the Conception of the Internet: An Eyewitness Account". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 33 (1): 66–71. doi:10.1109/MAHC.2011.9. ISSN 1934-1547.
  8. ↑ Schwartz, Mischa (2010). "X.25 Virtual Circuits - TRANSPAC IN France - Pre-Internet Data Networking [History of communications]". IEEE Communications Magazine. 48 (11): 40–46. doi:10.1109/MCOM.2010.5621965. ISSN 1558-1896.
  9. ↑ Mathison, Stuart L.; Roberts, Lawrence G.; Walker, Philip M. (2012). "The history of telenet and the commercialization of packet switching in the U.S." IEEE Communications Magazine. 50 (5): 28–45. doi:10.1109/MCOM.2012.6194380. ISSN 1558-1896.
  10. ↑ A, BarberD L. (1975-07-01). "Cost project 11". ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review. doi:10.1145/1015667.1015669.
  11. ↑ Communications Standards: State of the Art Report 14:3
  12. ↑ "EIN (European Informatics Network) - CHM Revolution". www.computerhistory.org. Retrieved 2020-02-05.
  13. ↑ Abbate, Janet (2000). Inventing the Internet. MIT Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-262-51115-5. Search this book on
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Davies, Howard; Bressan, Beatrice (2010-04-26). A History of International Research Networking: The People who Made it Happen. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-3-527-32710-2. Search this book on
  15. ↑ Earnshaw, Rae; Vince, John (2007-09-20). Digital Convergence - Libraries of the Future. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-84628-903-3. Search this book on
  16. ↑ Hardy, Daniel; Malleus, Guy (2002). Networks: Internet, Telephony, Multimedia: Convergences and Complementarities. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 505. ISBN 978-3-540-00559-9. Search this book on
  17. ↑ "The TCP/IP Guide - TCP/IP Overview and History". www.tcpipguide.com. Retrieved 2020-02-11.
  18. ↑ "The TCP/IP Guide - TCP/IP Architecture and the TCP/IP Model". www.tcpipguide.com. Retrieved 2020-02-11.
  19. ↑ The “Hidden” Prehistory of European Research Networking. Trafford Publishing. p. 354. ISBN 978-1-4669-3935-6. Search this book on
  20. ↑ Rybczynski, Tony (2009). "Commercialization of packet switching (1975-1985): A Canadian perspective [History of Communications]". IEEE Communications Magazine. 47 (12): 26–31. doi:10.1109/MCOM.2009.5350364. ISSN 1558-1896.
  21. ↑ Mathison, Stuart L.; Roberts, Lawrence G.; Walker, Philip M. (2012). "The history of telenet and the commercialization of packet switching in the U.S." IEEE Communications Magazine. 50 (5): 28–45. doi:10.1109/MCOM.2012.6194380. ISSN 1558-1896.
  22. ↑ The "Hidden" Prehistory of European Research Networking. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4669-3935-6. Search this book on
  23. ↑ Beauchamp, K. G. (2012-12-06). Interlinking of Computer Networks: Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute held at Bonas, France, August 28 – September 8, 1978. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 55. ISBN 978-94-009-9431-7. Search this book on
  24. ↑ Kirstein, P.T. (1999). "Early experiences with the Arpanet and Internet in the United Kingdom" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 21 (1): 38–44. doi:10.1109/85.759368. ISSN 1934-1547. 7.3 Standards
  25. ↑ Down, Peter John; Taylor, Frank Edward (1976). Why distributed computing?: An NCC review of potential and experience in the UK. NCC Publications. Search this book on
  26. ↑ Andrew L. Russell (30 July 2013). "OSI: The Internet That Wasn't". IEEE Spectrum. Vol. 50 no. 8.
  27. ↑ "The Adoption of TCP/IP". clivemabey.me.uk. Retrieved 2020-02-11.
  28. ↑ "TCP/IP Internet Protocol", Living Internet
  29. ↑ Russell, Andrew L. (2014-04-28). Open Standards and the Digital Age: History, Ideology, and Networks. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-91661-5. Search this book on
  30. ↑ Russell, Andrew L. "Rough Consensus and Running Code' and the Internet-OSI Standards War" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  31. ↑ "12.13 Interop (TCP/IP) Trade Show - September". www.historyofcomputercommunications.info. Retrieved 2020-02-05.
  32. ↑ Andrew L. Russell (30 July 2013). "OSI: The Internet That Wasn't". IEEE Spectrum. Vol. 50 no. 8.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Abbate, Janet (2000-07-24). Inventing the Internet. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-26133-3. Search this book on
  34. ↑ Holenstein, Bruce; Highleyman, Bill; Holenstein, Paul J. (2007-04-30). Breaking the Availability Barrier II: Achieving Century Uptimes with Active/Active Systems. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4343-1603-5. Search this book on
  35. ↑ Davies, Howard; Bressan, Beatrice (2010-04-26). A History of International Research Networking: The People who Made it Happen. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-32710-2. Search this book on
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 "The Adoption of TCP/IP". clivemabey.me.uk. Retrieved 2019-02-12.
  37. ↑ "6.1  Commercializing Arpanet 1972 - 1975". www.historyofcomputercommunications.info. Retrieved 2020-02-06.
  38. ↑ Reid, Jim (3 April 2007). "The Good Old Days: Networking in UK Academia ~25 Years Ago" (PDF). UKNOF7. Manchester. Retrieved 16 April 2008.
  39. ↑ "Dai Davies | Internet Hall of Fame". www.internethalloffame.org. Retrieved 2020-01-23.
  40. ↑ "Protocol Wars | Internet Hall of Fame". www.internethalloffame.org. Retrieved 2020-02-05.

External links


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