Kyiv-Polotsk conflicts
| Rus-Polotsk conflicts | |||||||||
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 The Principality of Polotsk on the map of Europe | |||||||||
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| Template:Country data Kievan Rus' Kyivan Rus | Principality of Polotsk | ||||||||
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Template:Country data Kievan Rus' Askold Template:Country data Kievan Rus' Dir Template:Country data Kievan Rus'Vladimir the Great Template:Country data Kievan Rus' Yaroslav the Wise Template:Country data Kievan Rus' Izyaslav Yaroslavich Template:Country data Kievan Rus'Svyatoslav Yaroslavich Template:Country data Kievan Rus'Vsevolod Yaroslavich Template:Country data Kievan Rus'Yaropolk Izyaslavich |
Rovgolod † Bryachislav Izyaslavich Vseslav the Sorcerer (POW) Gleb of Minsk (POW) Davyd Vseslavich (POW) Rostislav Vseslavich (POW) Sviatoslav Vseslavich (POW) | ||||||||
The Kyiv-Polotsk conflicts were a series of political and military struggles between the princes of Kievan Rus' and the rulers of the Principality of Polotsk from the late 9th to the 12th centuries. These conflicts were primarily driven by dynastic rivalry, territorial expansion, and competition for control over key trade routes linking the Baltic region with the Dnieper basin. Polotsk, located on important river networks, played a strategic role in regional commerce and power politics, making it a frequent target of campaigns launched by Kyiv.
Background
The Kyiv-Polotsk conflicts emerged in the context of the political consolidation and subsequent fragmentation of Kievan Rus' between the 9th and 12th centuries. During this period, the ruling Rurik dynasty sought to expand its authority over various East Slavic tribal territories and key economic centres. The Principality of Polotsk developed as one of the earliest and most influential regional principalities, controlling lands along the Western Dvina River and occupying a strategic position between the Baltic region and the interior of Rus'.
Askold and Dir's Polotsk Campaign
The campaign of Askold and his brother Dir against Polotsk is traditionally dated to around 872 and is considered one of the earliest recorded confrontations between the emerging rulers of Kievan Rus' and the northern East Slavic principalities. The event is primarily known from later chronicles and remains debated among historians due to the scarcity and retrospective nature of the sources.According to the chronicle tradition, Askold, who ruled in Kyiv before the establishment of the Riurikid dynasty there, led a military expedition toward the Polotsk region as part of broader efforts to expand political influence and secure control over key trade routes in Eastern Europe. In the Nikon Chronicle of the 16th century, the campaign of Askold and Dir against the Polotsk people in the year 865 is mentioned: "... Askold and Dir fought against the Polotsk people and did much evil"[1]At this time, Polotsk was an important regional centre situated along the Western Dvina River, which connected the Baltic Sea with inland territories. Control over this area was strategically valuable for regulating commerce, tribute, and communication between northern and southern lands.
Askold and Dir's campaign against Polotsk is an episode from the early, semi-legendary victory for Rus'.
Vladimir the Great's Polotsk campaign
Another conflict between the ruling houses of Polotsk and Kyiv occurred in the last quarter of the 10th century. According to the Primary Chronicle the cause of the conflict was the rejection by the Polotsk side (Rogvolod and Rogneda) of a marriage and, consequently, a political alliance with Vladimir. This refusal was expressed in the form of a verbal insult, pointing to Vladimir's lowly origins ("I don't want to take Rogvolod, but I want Yaropolk"), which implied his inadequacy for princely status from the Polotsk side's perspective. The conflict escalated with Vladimir's military campaign against Polotsk and the murder of Rogvolod and his two sons. Vladimir's symbolic response to this insult was the violence against Rogneda and her public humiliation. The conflict ended with the conquest of Polotsk and its incorporation into Vladimir the Great's sphere of power. Rogneda became one of Vladimir's wives.[1]The peculiarity of this confrontation and its difference from subsequent ones the conflicts between the Polotsk and Kyiv princes were characterized by the deliberate assassination of the ruler to achieve political goals. This is explained by the process of establishing the Rurik dynasty's monopoly of power in the lands of Eastern Europe, which was impossible without the physical elimination of local princes who might actively resist the spread of the Kievan princely house's power. After the Rurik dynasty's adoption of Christianity, this practice virtually disappeared. In total the campaign resulted in campaign in a decisive victory for Rus
By the 11th century, a single Rurik dynasty ruled in Ancient Rus', with all princes related by family ties. From this period onward, Old Russian narratives justified the inadmissibility of murder within the princely.[2]
Battle of the Sudom River(1021)
The Battle of the Sudom River was the battle of the period of the power struggle between the descendants of Vladimir the Great. It took place in 1021 on the Sudom River between the army of Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise and the army of his nephew Bryachislav Izyaslavich of Polotsk . Chronicle accounts of the confrontation differ from the account of the same events in the Scandinavian source, Eymund's Saga .[2]
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In 1019, Yaroslav, having won the Battle of the Alta River , finally established his reign over Kyiv. In 1021, Bryachislav launched a plundering raid on Novgorod . Yaroslav, who was in Kiev at the time, gathered an army, covered a distance of approximately 800 km in seven days, and intercepted his nephew's army, which was returning with many captives to Polotsk . According to one version, Yaroslav was victorious and freed the Novgorodian prisoners. Bryachislav allegedly fled to Polotsk, but Yaroslav did not pursue him ( Tale of Bygone Years[3] ). A more plausible version derives from the Scandinavian Eymund's Saga: the armies met, but no battle took place. Norman mercenaries from Bryachislav's detachment infiltrated the enemy camp and managed to kidnap the Kievan prince's wife , Ingigerda (Irina) , as she and her guards rode along a forest road. Upon learning of this, Yaroslav was forced to negotiate and agree to Bryachislav's terms, despite having superior military strength.
The Polotsk prince freed the Novgorodian prisoners and returned Ingigerda, achieving peace in exchange, retaining all his possessions and gaining two important cities on the trade route— Vitebsk and Usvyat . The outcome of this confrontation was not in Yaroslav's favor.
Rebellion of Vseslav of Polotsk
Initially Vseslav of Polotsk was loyal to Kyiv. In 1060, he and the Yaroslavichs participated in a successful campaign against the Torks. However, Vseslav later began raiding neighboring principalities.
Siege of Pskov
In 1065, Vseslav of Polotsk laid siege to Pskov but was thrown back.[4]
Battle of the Cherekha River
In 1067, on the banks of the Cherekha River , he defeated the army of the Novgorod Prince Mstislav Izyaslavich and occupied Novgorod.Novgorod was partially burned, some of the townspeople were taken prisoner, and the bells were removed from Novgorod's St. Sophia Cathedral . The bells, icons, and utensils of the Novgorod churches were taken to Polotsk.Battle resulted in Vseslavs victory
The capture of Novgorod
At the beginning of 1067 Vseslav went to Novogrudok and occupied it.[3]I .
Vseslav came to Novgorod. Upon learning that the city would not surrender, he, according to a miniature in the Radziwill Chronicle , ordered his soldiers to set fire to the walls. The Tale of Igor's Campaign states that Vseslav Bryachislavich's army broke through the city gates and captured it:"утръже вазни с трикусы: отбратьи вората Нову-граду, разбире славу Ярославу , скочим вол до Немига съ Дудутки."Novgorod was partially burned, and some of the townspeople were taken prisoner.With particular zeal, Vseslav plundered the local Church of Saint Sophia - all the church utensils were taken away, the chandeliers and bells were removed, and the holy icons were taken away.With particular zeal, Vseslav plundered the local Church of Saint Sophia - all the church utensils were taken away, the chandeliers and bells were removed, and the holy icons were taken away.
Sack of Minsk
That same year, the three Yaroslavichi (the "triumvirate"), who ruled jointly— Izyaslav of Kiev , Svyatoslav of Chernigov , and Vsevolod of Pereyaslavl —came against him . They marched on Mensk ( Minsk , probably the Mensk settlement at that time ) and destroyed it.
Battle of Nemiga River
The armies of the Yaroslavichi and Vseslav met on the Nemiga River . According to V.N. Tatishchev , the armies stood facing each other in deep snow for a week, and Vseslav eventually attacked. In the Battle of the Nemiga on March 3, 1067, Vseslav was defeated and fled, managing to break through the Yaroslavichi forces to Polotsk. V. Tatishchev notes that the Yaroslavichi did not send a pursuit after him, but began plundering the southern part of the Polotsk land.The Yaroslavichi army came upon Vseslav's army in the deep snow on the Niamiha River on March 3 and defeated him. The precise course of battle is unknown, though it has become legendary as a bloodbath; The Tale of Igor's Campaign referred to "the bloody banks of the Nemiga" being sown not with blessings but with bones.
Capture and later imprisoment of Vseslav
According to a Kyivan chronicler, Vseslav was defeated and fled, but the Yaroslavichi did not pursue him. Four months after the battle, the Yaroslavichi invited him to parley, kissed the cross, and promised him safety. However, they broke their oath—seizing him and his two sons, taking him to Kyiv, and imprisoning him in an underground prison. As a result of the Kyivan uprising of 1068, Vseslav was released from prison and briefly assumed the Kyivan throne. In 1071, he managed to recapture the Principality of Polotsk.
Battle of Golotichesk
The Battle of Golotichesk was a battle between the Polotsk prince Vseslav Bryachislavich and the Volyn and Turov prince Yaropolk Izyaslavich , which took place in 1071 near the city of Golotichesk .The armies of Vseslav and Yaropolk met at Golotichesk (the location of this town mentioned in the chronicle is unknown). Vseslav was defeated and fled, but he managed to retain the Principality of Polotsk.
Rus-Polotsk War (1077-1081)
In December 1076, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich of Kiev died, and in the spring of 1077, the Polotsk prince Vseslav Bryachislavich once again attacked the Novgorod lands , where Gleb Svyatoslavich was governor. Vladimir Vsevolodovich (the future Monomakh), the son of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, who had temporarily occupied the Kievan throne, was sent to Novgorod's aid . Vseslav failed to take Novgorod and was forced to retreat to the Principality of Polotsk.
In July, the legitimate ruler of Kiev, Izyaslav Yaroslavich , returned from Poland , concluded a treaty with Vsevolod, and Vsevolod moved to Chernigov. Already in the summer of 1077, Chernigov troops led by Vsevolod Yaroslavich and Vladimir Vsevolodovich, as well as Kyivan troops led by Svyatopolk Izyaslavich , marched against Vseslav . The Kiev-Chernigov army approached Polotsk and began an assault on the city. The " Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh " reports that Vladimir and Svyatopolk burned Polotsk: perhaps the attackers managed to push Vseslav's troops back into the detinets . Soon, the military leaders decided to withdraw the army back to Kiev and Chernigov.
By the winter of 1078, new troops had been assembled, which Vladimir Vsevolodovich and Svyatopolk Izyaslavich led against Vseslav, along with the Polovtsians. Vladimir and Svyatopolk's troops reached Polotsk, but again failed to take the city. After this, Svyatopolk withdrew to Novgorod, while Monomakh, with hired Polovtsians (for the first time in the history of Rus'[5]), began plundering the Polotsk lands and devastated the lands as far as Odreska, and then returned to Chernigov.[6]
On October 3, 1078, the southern princes fought with Oleg Svyatoslavich and the outcast Boris Vyacheslavich; Izyaslav of Kiev and Boris were killed in the Battle of Nezhatina Niva . Almost simultaneously, Vseslav attacked Smolensk, burned the Smolensk suburbs, and returned to his principality with spoils. Vladimir Monomakh's attempt to catch him in Smolensk was unsuccessful, despite the campaign without a baggage train, with bridle horses . In a retaliatory campaign, Vladimir ravaged the Polotsk land as far as Lukoml and Logozhsk, then conducted another campaign near Drutsk. In the autumn of 1081, Vladimir Monomakh and the Etebichi Polovtsians ravaged Minsk , killing all the inhabitants and even their livestock. However, even as a result of this war, Vseslav managed to retain his principality.[4]
Battle of Nezhatina Niva
According to the Laurentian Chronicle , upon seeing the enemy army, Oleg said to Boris : " We will not go against them, we cannot resist four princes, but we will send them humbly to our uncles ." However, Boris rejected Oleg's peace overtures, replying: " Look, I am ready and will stand against everyone ." After this, both armies went towards each other. The chronicles characterize the battle as fierce. The first of the princes to die was Boris Vyacheslavich, killed at the very beginning of the battle . After this, Izyaslav Yaroslavich also fell - while he was standing in the ranks of foot soldiers, a horseman who rode up from behind struck him with a spear . According to one version, he was killed by one of his warriors. According to another version, Oleg Svyatoslavich's cavalry advanced behind Izyaslav and Vsevolod's infantry, disrupting their battle formation and leaving Izyaslav defenseless against the enemy warriors . Despite the death of the senior prince, the battle continued, and soon Oleg and Boris's forces were routed. Oleg and the remnants of his army fled to Tmutarakan.
Vladimir Monomakh’s campaigns against Gleb of Minsk.
In 1104, the voivode Putyata , Oleg Svyatoslavich , and Yaropolk Vladimirovich , the son of Vladimir Monomakh , attempted to besiege Gleb in Minsk, but to no avail . In 1106, Gleb took part in a campaign against the Baltic Semigallians ; the Polotsk army, led by Prince Rogvolod Vseslavich, was defeated. Old Russian chronicles claim that 9,000 Russian warriors were killed.
In 1116, he waged war against Monomakh and burned Slutsk . In response, Monomakh and his sons, along with David Svyatoslavich and the sons of Oleg Svyatoslavich, marched on Minsk. The Monomakhovichs captured Orsha and Drutsk and laid siege to Minsk. Gleb began negotiations, and Vladimir Monomakh, unwilling to shed Christian blood during Lent, agreed to peace and returned Minsk to Gleb.
Despite the peace terms, Gleb began a new war in 1119. Mstislav Vladimirovich , Monomakh's son, captured Gleb and brought him to Kiev , where he died later that year.
Polotsk campaign of Mstislav the Great
The Polotsk campaign of Mstislav the Great (1127) was a violent change of power by the troops of the Grand Prince of Kiev, Mstislav the Great, in the Principality of Polotsk . David Vseslavich was deposed, and Rogvolod Vseslavich was installed as Prince of Polotsk.
After his father's death (1125), Mstislav the Great received only the environs of Kiev. His son Vsevolod reigned in Novgorod. The remaining Russian lands were ruled by their own dynasties or by younger Monomakh dynasties. When Vsevolod Olgovich expelled his uncle, Yaroslav Svyatoslavich, from Chernigov, he gave Kursk to Mstislav for non-intervention , and Mstislav installed his son, Izyaslav, there. Rostislav Mstislavich is first mentioned as Prince of Smolensk in connection with the 1127 campaign, while during the campaigns against Gleb of Minsk (1117–1119) (until the death of the Svyatopolk dynasty in Turov), Vyacheslav Vladimirovich was Prince of Smolensk.
The chronicle does not indicate the reasons for the Polotsk campaign, but describes it in detail.
- The Turov, Volyn, Gorodets and Kletsk detachments laid siege ob Izyaslavl .
- Chernigov-Seversk detachments were sent to Strezhev .
- Kiev voivode Ivan Vyshatich with black hoods to Borisov .
- Smolensk detachment near Drutsk .
The invasion was planned simultaneously from all directions in August. Izyaslav Mstislavich of Kursk arrived near Logoisk a day ahead of schedule, captured Bryachislav Davydovich, and joined the group besieging Izyaslavl.
Then the Novgorod army, led by Vsevolod Mstislavich, entered the Polotsk land, and then the Polotsk veche decided to expel David and accept Rogvolod.
Expulsion of the Polotsk princes to Byzantium
After the death of Grand Prince Vseslav the Sorcerer, the Polotsk land was divided into appanages, ruled by his sons and grandsons. The most significant figure in that generation of the Polotsk dynasty was Prince Gleb of Mensk. He, like Vseslav, was forced to wage war against Vladimir Monomakh. This time, the struggle ended in defeat for Polotsk. In 1119, Gleb was imprisoned in the Kiev blockhouse, where he had once been imprisoned with his father.
History didn't quite repeat itself: the uprising didn't free the prisoner, and he never returned to his homeland. Gleb once built a refectory in the Kyiv Pechersk Monastery and donated 600 hryvnias of silver and 50 hryvnias of gold to the monks. The monks prayed for the Prince of Polotsk, but he departed suspiciously quickly, after less than a year in prison.
Zhavu. The Kievans and their allies attacked from four directions—Zaslavl, Logoisk, Borisov, and Drutsk. According to the plan of the Kievan Prince Mstislav, a simultaneous assault on the Polotsk cities was scheduled for August 4, but Logoisk was captured a day earlier.
The chronicles provide no definitive information about subsequent military actions. It is only known that the enemy did not reach the capital city of Polotsk. This was the result of diplomacy: the Polotsk people expelled their prince, David Vseslavich, from the city and invited his brother, Boris, another son of Vseslav the Sorcerer, who apparently pleased Kyiv more.
Boris's reign was short-lived: he died in 1128, leaving his memory in the name of the city he founded, Borisov, and in the so-called Borisov stones, valuable monuments of epigraphy—the science that studies ancient inscriptions.
One of these stones can be seen today in Polotsk next to St. Sophia Cathedral. On both sides of the six-pointed cross is carved: "ХС. Ника. ГИ (Lord) help your servant Boris."
Historians' views on the origin of the Boris stones differ significantly.
It is believed that before the adoption of Christianity, these boulders were pagan shrines. By carving the crosses, the Prince of Polotsk was supposedly fighting the old faith and, at the same time, immortalizing his name.
Academician B. Rybakov connects the emergence of princely requests for God's help to the terrible famine of 1127–1128, when frost destroyed winter crops, people ate moss and straw, and in Novgorod, neighboring Polotsk, parents sold their children into slavery without payment to save them from starvation. Mykola Yermalovich believes the stones are evidence of the military actions of the Polotsk prince, who asked the Almighty for help on the eve of his campaigns.
The eldest of the Vseslavichs was buried in the Borisogleb Church in Belčitsy. Saints Boris and Gleb looked down on those who accompanied Vseslavich on his final journey from beautiful frescoes. Researchers admired the frescoes of this church as early as the 1920s. At that time, in Belčitsy, where Yubileiny Lane is in today's Polotsk, the walls or foundations of four ancient churches still stood. One of them was very reminiscent of churches built in the early Middle Ages in Serbia and Bulgaria, as well as the monastery on Mount Athos in Greece.
With the death of Boris, the recent forced oaths of the Polotsk people to Kyiv also became a thing of the past.
The Kievan Prince Mstislav sent the Krivichi an order to march against the Polovtsians. The Vseslavichi not only refused, but also mocked Mstislav: "You and Bonyak Sheludyak (the Polovtsian Khan's name) may you both be in good health and manage yourselves, while we have other things to do at home." The Kievan ruler, "greatly offended," immediately after the war with the nomads, threw the armies of all Ukrainian lands against the Sorcerer's descendants.
The enemy managed to capture five Polotsk princes, including Svyatoslav Georgy, the father of Euphrosyne of Polotsk, and take them to Kyiv. After a show trial, they, along with their wives and children, were loaded onto three large boats and sent to Byzantium. This, apparently, is where the Belarusian proverb "Msschslau ne adnago sschsnuu" (meaning "one must be a prince") originated.
The Byzantine Caesar John, to whom the exiles arrived, was a close relative of the Rogvolodovichs, so their exile was honorable. The Krivichi princes did not sit in prison, but went about their usual business. The Caesar provided them with warriors and sent them against the Saracens (Arabs), in a war against whom the Polotsk people soon distinguished themselves and earned royal praise for their military prowess.
While the princes were fighting the enemies of Byzantium, the Kyiv governors plundered the Polotsk land, waged campaigns against its peaceful tributaries, and chopped off the heads of guslars who dared to sing epics about the Sorcerer.
For the third time—after the "bloody wedding" of Vladimir and Rogneda and the mysterious deaths of Rogneda, her son Izyaslav, and the young Vseslav Izyaslavich—an attempt was made to wipe out the Polotsk dynasty. Again, to no avail. When, a decade later, the two Rogvolodovich brothers, Ivan and Vasil, returned from exile to their homeland, it had already been liberated from the invaders. In 1132, the Polotsk assembly expelled Svyatopolk, the Kyivan protégé, from the city and declared Vseslav's grandson, Vasilko, who had managed to escape exile, prince.
The chronicle reports: “The Polochians said: ‘We are deprived’ and drove out Svyatopolk, and installed Vasilko as Svyatoslavich.”
Polotsk Uprising (1132)
The Polotsk people were displeased with Izyaslav exchanging their volost for another. Upon learning of this, they cried out, "Ah! Izyaslav is abandoning us!" [7] . Then an uprising began. Details of the uprising have not reached us. It ended with the Polotsk people expelling Svyatopolk Mstislavich from their land. Perhaps this was accomplished at a popular assembly , as in Novgorod in 1136. It is also unknown whether Svyatopolk's warriors resisted the rebels, but the results of the uprising suggest that even if they did, it was ineffective.
As a result of the Polotsk uprising, the visiting princes, the Yaroslavichi , their relatives, and protégés, were expelled from the Polotsk land. A veche was convened. It was decided to return the descendants of Vseslav Bryachislavich from Byzantium . From among these descendants, Vasilko Svyatoslavich became the head of the Polotsk principality , and the principality separated from Kyiv.[8]
Aftermath
The aftermath of the conflicts between the principalities of Kyiv and Polotsk resulted in shifting political dominance and the gradual integration of Polotsk into the wider sphere of the Kyivan Rus'. Repeated military campaigns, including those conducted by rulers such as Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav the Wise, weakened the autonomy of the Polotsk princes and led to the imposition of tributary and dynastic ties. Despite periods of resistance and renewed warfare, Polotsk increasingly became politically and economically connected to the broader Rus’ lands through trade, intermarriage, and religious integration following the Christianization of the region. The conflicts also contributed to internal fragmentation within both polities, as rival princely factions competed for influence and succession. In the longer term, the weakening of central authority in Kyiv and the rise of regional powers facilitated the emergence of more independent principalities, while Polotsk developed its own political and cultural identity, later playing a significant role in the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 13th and 14th centuries.
References
- ↑ nestoriana (2017-09-05). "Андрей Чернов. ПРОБЛЕМА 6360". несториана/nestoriana (in русский). Archived from the original on 2018-09-29. Retrieved 2026-02-14. Unknown parameter
|url-status=ignored (help) - ↑ "Эймундова сага — Королевские саги — Тексты — Северная Слава". norroen.info. Retrieved 2026-02-15.
- ↑ "Летопись Нестора Повесть временных лет. Русские летописи и изводы". bibliotekar.ru. Archived from the original on 2025-11-11. Retrieved 2026-02-15. Unknown parameter
|url-status=ignored (help) - ↑ pdf.kamunikat.org (PDF) https://web.archive.org/web/20180812181732/http://pdf.kamunikat.org/2184-2.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-08-12. Retrieved 2026-02-15. Missing or empty
|title=(help) - ↑ "С.М.Соловьев. История России с древнейших времен. Оглавление". www.spsl.nsc.ru. Archived from the original on 2025-11-12. Retrieved 2026-02-22. Unknown parameter
|url-status=ignored (help) - ↑ "Поучение Владимира Мономаха". bibliotekar.ru. Retrieved 2026-02-22.
- ↑ Solovʹev, S. M. СОБЫТИЯ ПРИ ПРАВНУКАХ ЯРОСЛАВА I, БОРЬБА ДЯДЕЙ С ПЛЕМЯННИКАМИ В РОДЕ МОНОМАХА И БОРЬБА СВЯТОСЛАВИЧЕЙ С МОНОМАХОВИЧАМИ ДО СМЕРТИ ЮРИЯ ВЛАДИМИРОВИЧА ДОЛГОРУКОГО (1125 - 1157). История России с древнейших времен (in русский). Archived from the original on 2025-12-11. Retrieved 2026-02-22 – via spsl.nsc.ru. Unknown parameter
|url-status=ignored (help) Search this book on
- ↑ "Чигринов П.Г. История Беларуси » Страница 9 » Литература. История Беларуси". www.istmira.com. Archived from the original on 2015-04-21. Retrieved 2026-02-22. Unknown parameter
|url-status=ignored (help)
https://imwerden.de/pdf/psrl_tom01_lavrentjevskaya_letopis_1926.pdf
https://web.archive.org/web/20120112055819/http://polotsk.nm.ru/vseslav.htm
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