Looking Back @ The Rise and Fall of Sulu Sultanate

 Looking Back

@ The rise and fall of Sulu Sultanate By: Felix M. Javier

The purpose of this monograph is to provide an extensive historical review on the Sulu Sultanate Political struggle. How it shapes Philippine Politics today, and its relevance to geopolitics in Southeast Asia and to the world, that has been forgotten by the current generation.

This work is dedicated to my motherland “Sulu” and my ancestors who fought until the last drop of their blood in order to defend our county “the Philippines today” from various invaders for Almost four centuries.

Introduction

Today, the Sultan is a mere cipher, neither feared nor respected, their existence or how they rule the Philippines was an ancient mystery to the current generation. It is because the Philippine history thought in school was never mentioned despite the fact of 500 years of political history that shape Philippine Politics today. But before the arrival of Portuguese conquistador Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Island of Samar on March 16, 1521, and later date the whole archipelago named Las Islas Filipinas or the Philippines in honor to the monarch of Spain, Prince Philip (later King Philip II), by the Spanish explorer Ruy Lopez de Villalobos during his 1542-1546 expedition to the islands, 20 years after the demised of Magellan under the hand of a ruling Datu Kaliph Pulaka (Lapu-Lapu to Filipinos today) in Mactan Cebu. Prior to its name the Philippines, the archipelago was once under the political influence of the Sulu Sultanate. A Muslim ruler lies from the southern Philippines. The Sulu Archipelago is a chain of islands in the Pacific Ocean, in the southwestern. The archipelago forms the northern limit of the Celebes Sea and the southern limit of the Sulu Sea. The Sulu Archipelago islands are within the Mindanao group of islands, consisting of the provinces of Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi hence the archipelago is sometimes referred to as BASULTA, derived from the first syllables of the three provinces. As being said, the Sulu sultanate was a very influential monarch. The empire was wide as you could imagine. He ruled not just the Island of Sulu, but including the islets nearby, such as Tawi-Tawi (Sinama form of Jawi-Jawi, pronounce Ja/J, not Ha/H Malay for "banyan tree) the island is known for having an abundance of this tree, and the province of Basilan, Palawan, Zamboanga peninsula (Former name Jambangan, means Garden or place of flowers derive from Indo-Malay), Cotabato (Kutah Bato, means Fort of Stones), Maguindanao, some parts of Vajayan (Visayas today) and some parts of Lusong such as Maynila (present-day Luzon, Manila), Pampanga, and even up to the Bicol region. The evidence of the Taosug monarch influence can still trace to the different ethnic languages spoken today such as the binisayah language in the Zamboanga peninsula, the Binisayah in the Visayas region and even the Bicolano language has some sort of similarity to that Sinug language of Taosug. In contrast to the claim of some historians, that the Taosug are the people of the current we’re not the case. Taosug (Tao means man and Sug or maisug means bravery) or rather, we called it Lupah Sug even to this date. Lupah means Land and Sug as I’ve mentioned already. On the other hand, the land of a brave man. This claim was not just a word in the air, as history recorded the undefeated of centuries battle from one conqueror to another. To be precise, for almost 400 years of untiring wars, Taosug was never been defeated even once as I will discuss later on. Whatever the case, Taosug genealogy can trace back even prior to the rule of Sultan Sharif Abu Bakr, the founder of the Sulu Sultanate that his tomb still exists on one of the slopes of Bud Tumantangis (The Weeping Mountain) in Indanan, Sulu to this date. As being said, Taosug was the descendance of the homogeneous tribe and is a blend of Malay and Indonesian races of the Majapahit empire of the Hindu-Buddhist era. To support this claim, allow me to quote the statement written by Bayan Buddiman “We can start with the 𝘣𝘪𝘳𝘢𝘥𝘥𝘢𝘭𝘪, a well-known motif in Tau Sūg oral literature. In present times, it survived in the song "Biraddali" means fairy and a new beach in Parang, Sulu, but least know its Sanskrit etymology: vidyādharī विद्याधरी. Also spelled as 𝘣𝘪𝘥𝘢𝘥𝘢𝘳𝘪, Malay stories concerning this nymph figure resonates well with the biraddali katakatas of the Sulu Archipelago, narrating the tragedy of a celestial being trapped in the world of cruel mortals”. Another proof of this Indic ancientness is the existence of the pangalay dance in the Sulu Archipelago, as according to academic Ligaya Fernando-Amilbangsa, this culturally links us a thousand or more years back to Buddhist countries such as Thailand and Cambodia in continental Southeast Asia. Apart from that, a practice of panulak bala praying at the shore to drive away from the bad luck with a lot of food offerings and the pag labot ha jin. Praying to the spirit with food offerings as well. Cooking of curry and Tyulah Itom or the black soup. A burnt coconut mix to the soup to make it black, and commemorating the 7 days and 40 days of loved ones who passed away. These practices still exist today to the Taosūg gimbahanon (Rural Area) and Hindu Buddhists in India, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, and Indonesia.

Bellow was some words similar to Sankrit of Majapahit empire 1293 to circa 1527. Image taken from bayan Buddiman

The Islamization of Bangsa Suluk

Prior to the arrival of Karim-Ul Makhdum, the taosug people were mostly animistic or practice animism, and some were practicing Hindu-Buddhist influenced by the Majapahit empire of Java Indonesia. However, in the early year of 1380 CE Makhdum Karim or Karim ul-Makhdum, a notable Arab judge and Sufi Muslim missionary scholar from Arabia who came from Malacca. Born in Makdonia makhdum karim and walisongo were affiliated with the group of kubrawi Hamadani shafii dahwa missionary, the late 14th century CE, he was a Sufi who brought Islam to the Philippines, 141 years before Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the country. He preached Islam to the people, and thus many citizens, including the ruler of Malacca, converted to Islam. Chinese Muslims, Arabs, Persians, Malays, and Indian Muslims introduced Sulu and other Muslim sultanates to Islam. Chinese Muslim merchants participated in the local commerce, and the sultanate had diplomatic relations with China during the time of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), being involved in the tribute system. After successfully converting locals to Islam, he established a Masjid in Simunul Island, Tawi Tawi, in Southern Philippines, known as Sheik Karimal Makdum Masjid which is the oldest and the first Muslim temple in the country. We can say that the conversion of Taosug to Islam was some sort of miracle or because of divine intervention perhaps. It was wholeheartedly accepted by the locals without any hostilities, and what is more, it even become the basis of political governance of the Sulu sultanate aggrandizing its power almost the entire Maharlikan soil, (Philippine Archipelago Today). Unlike the history of Christianity brought by the Spaniards in Lusong (Luzon) and in the Visayas that shed blood and took hundreds of thousands of lives of Indio’s, the Vajayan (Bisaya today) and some other Muslims in the country before they yield to the colonizer.

The First Sulu Sultanate (The De Facto Ruler)

The history of Muslims in the Philippines is considered to be the backbone of the political development in the country. And so, in 1390 AD, just 10 years after the arrival of Karim-Ul Makdom in the islets of Simunol Tawi-Tawi Sulu, Raja Baguinda Ali arrived at Buwansa, Municipality of Indanan Province of Sulu. His arrival was somewhat dramatic. Before he was able to reach the shore, the locals were suspicious of them and were trying to sink his boat and drown them. Baguinda and his men fought back as a universal term of self-defense. He then inquired to these people "why are you trying to drown me?" He insisted he came to Sulu out of travel and out of goodwill—to live among Sulu natives who, like him, were the followers of Prophet Mohammad (SAW). The people of Buwansa accepted his reasoning, and eventually became one with the people. They even named him Rajah—Rajah Baguinda Ali. Anyways…, Baguinda was a prince from Minang Kabaw, kingdom in Sumatra Indonesia called “Pagaruyung’’. (Baginda/Baguinda is a Minangkabau honorific for prince.) And was the leader of the forming polity, the ruler of the Principality of Sulu., which later turned into the Sultanate of Sulu. I would like to take a note here the term “Rajah” preference of the people of Sulu to call him instead of (Sultan) connotes there was a pre-Islamic period in the history of the Sultanate of Sulu as I mentioned earlier in the second paragraph of the introduction. There is some issue here to look at into the arrival of Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakar, the important figure of our topic to be discussed later. His exact arrival was vague, some modern scholars claimed that his arrival at Sulu was 1450s, but some other Muslim individual historians dig deeper and were able to give an exact date. Accordingly, Syed Abu Bakar arrival was on the 17th of November 1405 and not 1450s as to what the modern historians are claiming. Whatever the case…, Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakar was an Arab adventurer born in Johore, arrived in Sulu from Melaka; He married Dayang-Dayang (Princes) Param Isuli, daughter of Raja Baguinda Ali. In 1457; Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakar declared himself as His Royal Highness (H.R.H.) Paduka Maulana Mahasari Sharif Sultan Hashem Abu Bakar, Sultan of Sulu, of the Saudi House of Hashemite in Hadramaut, where most Tausug and Yakan Province of Basilan believed that he is the descendance of prophet Mohammad's genealogy is traced. In this regard, he became the first foreign king, a de facto ruler that shed no blood nor opposition to the inhabitants of the Sulu archipelago. The seat of The Royal Sultanate of Sulu is in Astana Putih, Tausug for “White Palace,” located some two kilometers southwest of the Walled City of the town of Jolo, in Umbul Duwa at the present municipality of Indanan province of Sulu. Jolo is the capital town of the Province of Sulu that is within the present geographical jurisdiction of the Republic of the Philippines. Because of his knowledge in Islamic Laws, he uses it as the basis of his political governance, and it became effective as more and more localities embrace Islam as the way of life of living.

The Bangsa Suluk economic livelihood was; farming of different crops such as Panggi Kahoy (Cassava) or roots crops, Bughas (rice), Gandom (corn), bungang kahoy (fruits) and Sayol (vegetables). Note that Sulu even today was one of the major exporters of coconut and abaca in the country, and also holds the title of being the exotic fruits capital of the Philippines. Apart from the agricultural products, fishing is as it is believed that 59 percent of Tuna and Sardines are taken away from the Sulu sea. It also includes pearling as the Sulu ocean is abundant in different marine resources, and mining minerals such as copper, bronze, silver, and gold. Fabric manufacturing is a transported textile from one region to another. Of course, the manufacturing of weapons such as the Kris or kalis, Spear or budjak for Taosug, and some others like lantaka or small brass cannons plays a vital role in the coming centuries of war between the Taosug and the invaders. Even today, smiting of Kalis (Kris) and utak (bolo) alike are still alive and can be found in some parts of Sulu province. Meanwhile, the Sulu Sea is rich in Gas/Petrol but has yet to be harvested because of the lacking of funding from the Philippine government. Apart from that, it is to believe that, piracy and selling of slaves were the major contributors to the economic development of the Sulu empire. Of course, piracy and slave were not just for wealth accumulation, but it plays a vital role as the main forces of the sultan in maritime warfare that defended the archipelago and attack the colonizers for almost four centuries from the time of Spaniard invasion to American imperialist as I’ll be discussing later on. Because of that, the Sulu sultanate aggrandizes his power and political influence even further in the neighboring countries, not just in some parts of Mindanao and Palawan, but also in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Ming Dynasty (China Today). Allow me to reiterate that the forces of the Sultan were not only the Taosug, hence historically, but Sulu and Mindanao were also a collective race of different ethnic groups originating from the Malay of Majapahit empire. They consist of Taosug, Sama (Samal) known as Badjao, Banguingui. Jama Mapon of Tawi-Tawi, Yakan of Basilan, Kalibugan of Zamboanga Province, Maguindanaon of Cotabato, Maranaw of Marawi and Iranun of Lanao Del Sur. Note that, in this era, there were no wars that occurred during the reign of the first three Sultans in the region because of the huge gap between the arrival of the Spanish forces than that of the already Islamized archipelago, however, and more than this, they were most important figures signify persons involved in the dramatic political landscape and religious revolution in the history of Southeast Asia that will be tackled later.

The Centuries of Struggle

Since the Islamization of locals in the Southern parts of the Philippines in 1380 CE up to the foundation of the Sultanate of Sulu in 1457 CE, the entire country of the Philippines has no major setback nor internal conflict had happened, and so, it prospers and became one of the powerhouses in South East Asia until 141 years later as we all known to the Filipinos today that I was stated on the introduction. The arrival of Spaniard forces brought catastrophe and political volatility throughout the Philippine archipelago, therefore, the war broke out between Pulaka Kulapan a tax collector to the Sulu sultanate, or Datu Lapu-Lapu to the Philippine history. Anyway, this claim of some Taosug historians, including myself that Lapu-Lapu was one of the subordinates of the Sultan was highly objected to and debunked by the modern historian as the claim is vague and lacking evidence to support it. Whatever the case, in April 1521, Datu Lapu-Lapu and his over 1,000 forces men battled with Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan at the shore of Mactan Cebu and met his (FM) final glory and had been slain either by Lapu-Lapu himself or one of his men. It is to believe that, “FM” head was separated from his body and displayed for days at the shore as a warning to the invaders. According to Taosug Historian Dr. Hannibal Bara, a Full Professor V of Mindanao State University-Sulu Dean of the Graduate school in his writing, The History of the Muslim in the Philippines. He mentions the writing of Dr. Cesar Adib Majul and carefully describes this resistance to the Moro war, as I also called it the beginning of the Moros centuries of struggle vividly explain into six stages.

The first phase of this war was beginning with the arrival of Legaspi who led the invasion of Muslim settlement in Manila under Rajah Sulayman in 1571, 50 years later after the arrival of the demise of Ferdinand Magellan. Dr. Bara mention that the attack was ended in the invasion of Brunei in order to destroy its sphere influence in the Northern parts of the Philippines and to isolate the Sulu sultanate in the south. It is to believe that before the hostilities took place, general Francisco Sande sent a letter to the sultan of Brunei demanding to stop the sending of Muslim missionaries to any parts of the Philippines. In this regard, we can presume that this could be the concrete evidence of political maneuvering of the Spaniards to Christianized Maharlikans to expand their hegemony in the Asia pacific. With the success of Spaniards capturing Maynila (Manila) and some parts of Lusong (Luzon), they ambitiously move to the southern parts of the Philippines to write the same faith as the second phase of their conquest began, to make Maguindanao and Sulu their vassal just like Manila and Cebu. Some times in June 1578, the Spaniards attempted to capture Sulu but encountered a bitter resistance to Taosug and ended in vain. from here; they move to Maguindanao instead to make a negotiation but also failed to contact Maguindanao leaders as they are not welcome by the Muslims in the area. A year after, the Spaniards lunch another campaign under the command of Captain Gabriel de Rivera to Kutah Bato (Cotabato today). In this case, we can surmise that their main intention is to capture the province and make locals pay tribute; persuade them not to allow foreign missionaries and inform the sultan about their victory over Brunei, gather intel reports regarding the relationship between the Sultans of Maguindanao, Sulu and the Ternatans of the northern Moluccas of eastern Indonesia. After 11 years of trials, sometimes around in 1591, the Spaniards decided to bring their military might to Maguindanao the center of Muslim power in Mindanao, believing that, if they toppled Mindanao, it would make an easier task for them to capture Sulu and Brunei to add into their vassal list. But it was just wishful thinking and miscalculated as they found out the Muslims resistance and confronted them with a fierce battle. It took them five years to finally capture Tampakan North Cotabato and was able to establish their military garrison in 1596. But the garrison did not last long as Muslim fighters carries in a series of offensive. Seeing this as Muslims were able to rival their might decided to abandon the post in 1597 and re-position themselves at La Caldera in the Zamboanga peninsula.

The third phase of the war was a bit different from that of the first two; from here, the tactics changed into guerrilla warfare, it was from defensive to offensive or a surprise attack from the Muslim forces. “They now brought the war to enemy’s territory”. Accordingly, Datu Salikula and Datu Sirungan the chiefs of Maguindanao and Buayan mobilized their forces in 1599 and attacked central Vajayan (Visayas) continuously until 1602. The account stated on Dr. Bara’s writing that this was the biggest military offensive by the Muslims garnered 145 paraws (Boat), 50 vessels manned by the Ternatans, Sangil, and Tagolanda; 60 by the Maguindanao and 35 by the Yakans of Basilan. These forces were commanded by Datu Buisan, the successor of Datu Salikula, and Datu Sirungan.

Unable to fight back to Maguindanao forces, the Spaniards launch an attack on Jolo, Sulu instead thinking that it was easy for them to capture the province. Not learning from their previous mistake, they have wasted their manpower and resources. The siege to Jolo took for 3 months but was in vain because the Sulu sultanate was able to repulse and claim victory.

Hearing from this news, Rajah Buisan together with his allies from Sangil and Ternate led another invasion of Central Visayas on the 29th of October 1603. Successfully, Buisan made a historic speech and persuaded Datus to join the cause of the struggle to fight the Spaniards. Because of this, the Spaniards were alarmed, aware of the political implication of Rajah Buisan’s speech, they force to make a truce and seek a good relationship, they sent their special envoy for peace negotiation. And so, this marks as the first treaty made by the Mighty Spaniards to the Muslims in the Philippines on September 8, 1605. But the treaty did not last long as the Spaniards attempted to capture Ternate again in April 1608. enrage of this action, the Maguindanao chief assembled his forces and construed the action as a violation of the peace treaty. And once again attacked the central Visayas. This turn of events force the Spaniards to sign another treaty in March 1609, and the amity lasted long for about 25 years until the war resumed between the Muslims and the Spaniards in 1627, but by this time, it was the war between the Taosug and the Spaniards.

In the fourth Phase of war, enraged by the humiliation of the Sulu Sultanate subordinate envoy Datu Ache intercepted their boat by the Spaniards and sent them back to Manila, the Sultan ordered and an all-out war versus the Spaniards with the help of Rajah Bungso. The Sultan brought about 2,000 of his warriors and attacked the Spanish base and shipyard in Camarines Sur and in Central Visayas. A year later in 1628, the Spanish retaliated and attacked Jolo with their military might, they brought 200 of their officers and 1,600 native allies. Though they manage to damage or defeat the forces of the Sultan but decided to withdraw immediately in fear of counterattack.

The war lasted for about 17 years from 1627 to 1644. I’ll be summarizing the following details of wars between the Sulu Sultanate and the Spanish forces.

In 1629 Sulu Sultanate commanded Datu Ache to attack the Spanish settlements in Camarines, Samar, Leyte, and Bohol. March 17, 1630. The Spaniards double their forces from 1,600 to 2,500 and attacked Jolo, but by this time, they were defeated by the forces of the Sulu Sultanate and suffered humiliation. Even their commander Lorenzo de Olaso was severely wounded and retreated. The following year in 1631, the Sulu warriors launched another invasion aimed at Leyte, the seat of Spanish power in the Visayas. In 1632, Sultan Kudarat (Qudarat) of Maguindanao forged an alliance with Sulu Sultanate and even married the daughter of Sultan Bungsu or Sharif Kabungsuan to Taosug for political gain. In 1634 the two Sultans mobilized 1,500 warriors and invaded Dapitan, Leyte, and Bohol. Because of the series attacked the situation was reversed, the Spaniards were able to draw the lesson they suffered from the behavior of Muslims and change their military tactics as they were pressured on how to stop the Muslim invasion of its held-territories. On April 6, 1635, Zamboanga was captured by the Spaniards and was able to position their military garrison. They hold Zamboanga for 29 years and became the launching pad attacking Muslim settlements nearby. Jolo capital of Sulu Sultanate was once again in turmoil. On March 13, 1637, in Lamitan province of Basilan, the seat of Maguindanao Sultan was captured, “Qudarat’s forces of about 2,000 suffered defeat and was forced to move to the interior. Seventy-two Muslims were decapitated and the Spaniards put their heads on spikes for display (Majul, 1996:135)”. Of course, the reason for hanging those heads of Muslim warriors was to instill fear who defy them. But it seems the Spaniards were still dumb to the behavior of Muslims and once again met their demise. Because of the Sulu Sultan’s bravery Sharif Kabungsuan or Bungsu, he once again led his armies and attacked the military base of Spaniards tirelessly in Zamboanga until he and his forces drove the Spaniards out of the land. This is the biggest and the greatest success of Sultan Bungsu in the series of wars he rallied. The Spanish had not enough and of course, retaliated again until they captured Jolo on January 1, 1638, for 3 months continues of indefatigable battle. The magistrate's court of Sultan was then transferred to Dungun Tawi-Tawi. In an account of Dr. Bara Mention that “The sultanate reorganized its forces and even secured the support of the Dutch in Batavia, Indonesia. On March 25, 1644, Rajah Bungsu dispatched his son, Pangiran Salikala for this purpose. Having prepared the logistics, the sultanate ordered a final offensive against the Spaniards with the Dutch navy which bombarded the Spanish garrison at Jolo. After about a year of military confrontation, the Spaniards opted to stop the war and signed a peace treaty and evacuated all their forces from Zamboanga to Manila because of an impending Chinese attack of Manila”.

After the 74 long years of peace and stability achieved by Sultan Bungsu in the so-called Moro Region, the fifth phase of war took place once again after the reoccupation of the “Jambangan” Zamboanga peninsula in 1718. This time around the Spaniards continues their invasion creeping into the sultanate’s domain trying to aggrandize their hegemony once again. The huge military base name fort pillar was built, and it was later converted into a shrine. Concerning the latter, I would like to do a little more talk here, not because of disproving one’s belief, most especially when it comes to churches, you have my highest regards. Anyhow, Historical records say that Fr. Melchor de Vera a Jesuit priest-engineer built the fort in 1635 to protect the Christian settlers in the city from invaders that include the Moro pirates, the Dutch, and the British. The account claims that it was heroic courage of Zamboangueños for their love of freedom, and home to legions of devotees who pay tribute to the miraculous Nuestra Señora La Virgen del Pilar was not the case, thou it sounds a good veneer, it was also worth to consider that this claim was highly motivated by political shenanigans to cover up Jesuit priest true intention. Those claims aim to carnage the centuries-long shreds of evidence that the edifice of Fort Pilar was a witness of resistance and bitterness by the inhabitants in the region, trying to protect their territory from the Spaniard’s land grabbers. We have to remember that, it was a military defense fortress constructed by the Spanish colonial government in Zamboanga, to begin with. For some reason, after it was recognized as a National Cultural Treasure on August 1, 1973, by Presidential Decree No. 260, the Fort pillar became a miraculous place to the Christian believers in the region. Even after today, a lot of devotees went to that place to light a candle asking for grand whatever wish they have in mind. Fort Pillar became an important part of Zamboanga’s historical heritage, not for the symbol of the battle between the sultanate and the Spaniards, but as a representation reverberating by the Christian churches believers. Whatever the case may be, the endeavor of new sultan after “Bungsu” commenced.,

The new Sultan Badar-Uddin. Badaruddin for Taosug sent his envoy Datu Bandahara and his captain as escorts to Batavia Netherland seeking military aid as well as renewing and strengthening its political relationship which was established way back in 1644 during the reign of Sultan Bungsu. He also informed Maguindanao Sultan about his plan. Finally, the two Sultans settled, nearly the end of December 1720, He commanded an offensive all-out-war and led a grandiose attack to drive the Spaniards away out of the land. The account stated that he brought 104 paraws with combined forces of 3,000 warriors but failed. Despite the war between the two opposing forces, there was an exchange of envoys and adopted a mixed policy of diplomatic and military. However, the Sulu sultanate was still firm in its claim to drive out the lingering presence of Spaniards in the region. Because of the aggressiveness of Muslim warriors, and neither of them wanted to give up, it leads to another peace treaty signed on December 11, 1726, between the Sulu sultanate and the Spanish colonial government in Maynila. Prior to the reoccupation of the Zamboanga peninsula, Sultan Badar-Uddin sent his emissary to China sometime in 1717 and then again in 1733. The objective of sending his ambassador to Ming/China was of course to inform Ming/China about the long war between the Muslims and the Spaniards. It is also to strengthen the ties between the two countries, (Sulu and Ming/China) and to borrow some forces from Ming for another campaign, it surely gives some help to Sultan. The truce was depreciated when Sultan Badar-Uddin attempted to recapture Zamboanga on December 6, 1734, while some of his forces attacked Taytay in Northern Palawan. In response to his action, the Spaniard retaliated and invaded Jolo in 1735 and the Sultan’s court drove out, which then again transferred to Dungun Tawi-Tawi for the second time around.

“While the power of the Sulu sultanate and Maguindanao approached a steady decline, the military power of the Spaniards grew faster when the steamboat was introduced to the Spanish naval force. The Muslim fleets were no longer a match with the Spanish modern fleets. The Spaniards had already foreseen a major invasion when the right time comes. They assured themselves that the final conquest of Mindanao and Sulu is just a matter of time”. (Bara 1999 p, 8).

“The 6th stage of the Moro war is the Spaniards’ dream of Mindanao conquest”. A year prior to signing the treaty, in 1850 - Spanish Governor-General Juan Urbiztondo successfully completed the destruction of the pirate stronghold in Tongkil island, province of Sulu. Following the year after success, on February 28, 1851, Urbiztondo raided Jolo and destroyed the whole town by fire, and confiscated 112 pieces of artillery. Even so, the attacked paid a heavy price and lost the lives of their important officials during this fiery raid. Jesuit fathers Ibanez, Zamora, Sanchez, Lopez, and Montiel met their final end. And so, the six phases of war commenced which was lasted until the end of Spanish rule in the country (Philippines). Sultan Pulalon at this period was aware of his position and the vulnerability to his land and countrymen, as his power as well as the Maguindanao deteriorated as a result of the long war prior to his existence. Upon realizing the imperviousness of the Spanish forces, he negotiated a peace treaty with the enemy. The treaty was signed on April 30, 1851. Hence the Spaniards calculated already that the Sultans of Sulu and Maguindanao were too weak to resist their growing forces, the peace did not hold for long and the war broke out once again. With the aim of total control in the country, the Catholic hierarchy in Maynila intensified its propaganda to win the support of the people about the possible war in the south. A Spanish priest name Roman Martinez Vigil wrote a theory of just war. He then exhorted his listener to support his proposition against Jolo as a just war, a holy war in the name of Christianity. The plan was responded to enthusiastically by rich people and Chinese capitalists, which position he was able to raise 20 Million-pesos to further these wars.

Espousing on a holy war theory, the Spaniards organized around 9,000 troops crusaders led by Governor-General Jose Malcampo. The troops were to be sent to Sulu only accompanied by hundreds of priests and nuns. On February 21, 1876, they landed on the Jolo fort with 11 transport, 11 guns boats, and 10 steamboats to annex Jolo. This extravagant display of military power was a desperate move by the Spaniards to contain Sulu island and to prevent British forces in North Borneo to extend their hegemony in Southeast Asia even further. Aware of the Spaniard’s shenanigans, the Sulu Sultan Jamalul Azam assembled his military officers and courtiers. The wise Sultan immediately devise a plan and proclaimed jihad (holy war for Taosug Muslims) and ordered the use of the concept of “Parang Sabi”l “war in the path of God” as the last recourse. The brilliant plan of the sultan was proven correct and effective. The Spaniards lost again this time and the sultanate managed to negotiate another treaty on July 22, 1878, thus saving his people from further destruction.

With the continuously growing power of the Spaniards in the Philippines, They Successfully destroyed the power of the Maguindanao Sultanate, because of this, the other ethnic tribes behind the shadow of Maguindanao like Maranaw and Eranun began their own war separately, they launched a series of attack to the Spaniard’s citadels. Because the Maguindanao Sultanate could no longer exercise its central power in Mindanao, the Maranao set up their own Sultanate to continue the struggle for independence. They sometimes use the banner of Maguindanao, and sometimes under the flag of the Sulu sultanate. Generally speaking, the Muslims in Mindanao most especially the Sulu sultanate always supported their cause to drive out the Spanish forces. One of the best and successful wars of Maranao led by Datu Amay Pakpak in defense of Marawi was in 1891, and then again in 1895.

Because the Military conflict abroad between the Spanish forces and other colonial states such as France, Italy, the Ottoman, and the German States drain the Spanish fund drastically. And so, the case in the Philippines was no different, the centuries-long war in the Philippines was unable to sustain by the Spaniards anymore. But because they used to be the powerful empire, unable to face defeat and embarrassment to the world, their cunning lead to another struggle to the people in the Philippines, but this time around would be under the hands of American imperialists when they sold the Philippines through the treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. The treaty ended the so-called Spanish-American war. Puerto Rico and Guam were ceded to the United States, and the Philippines on the other hand, were bought for $20 million dollars, and Cuba became a U.S. protectorate.

When the Spaniards finally left the Philippines, the Filipinos thought they were free from colonialism, but instead of having freedom, the struggle continued because the goal of Americans under the pretext of civilizing the natives was just a mascaraed to pursue their real intention to hold the Philippines in the Asia Pacific, which had been witnessed over the century. On the south, which is the subject of this topic, the Moro war did not end as well. Bara reiterated that the Moro-American war should be viewed as the 7th stage of the Moro war that would be discussed later.

The conflict in the Philippines with the Muslims and the Spaniards was actually a reverberation of Centuries long war between Christianity and Islam in Europe, as well as in the Arabian continent vying for Supremacy. If we scrutinize the historical evidence, the Catholic Church often use the crusade in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries to win the holy land from the Muslims. The Muslim Clergy on the other hand uses the same concept, Jihad or Parang Sabil to Taosug a war in the path of God. These were the battle of religion to the death for souls to be cleansed. Both terminologies were a proposition of churches leaders to their followers for clearance entering heaven after death. I do apologize for my boldness, I don’t want to be blasphemous towards religions. I viewed the events on the premise of the Political framework alone. Nothing less nothing more.

On Moro Terminology. A quick review on the use of Moro term. There are two conflicting views here, either the people in Mindanao are Moro or not, but am certain that some Taosug historians rejected the claim that we are Moro, instead of remaining the terminologies of Bangsa Sulok. Accordingly, Moro was an insult and mockery to our kind contradicting what modern Pilipino historians claim today as symbol of bravery and defiance. The term Moro was originally used by Spaniards for Muslims who occupied the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years, from 711 to 1492. When the Spanish colonizers discovered there were Muslims in the Philippines, they also called them Moros. For many years, the Muslims of Mindanao resented this designation, because it came from Spaniards who waged war on them throughout most of the colonizer’s 333 years stay in the Philippines. Spaniards called Mindanao Muslims “Moro piratas” because the latter’s retaliatory attacks on Christian communities in Spanish-controlled territories had caused so much havoc on colonial interest. We note, however, that Spaniards did not describe their own attacks on Muslims as piracy. It was only in the early 1970s that the name Moro became a badge of honor among Mindanao Muslims, after this label, along with Bangsamoro (Moroland), was claimed by the Moro National Liberation Front as the collective identity of Muslims in Mindanao. (The Moro Struggle in Southern Philippines p,5 Montiel)

The loss of Sabah Before I discuss how Sabah (North Borneo) loss to the Maharlikans (Present-day Philippines) or stolen from us to be precise. Let me briefly discuss how our ancestors acquired this land. In the Year 1658, the Sultanate of Brunei requested a reinforcement to Sulu Sultanate to help him stop the civil war in the rival for throne and to drive out the presence of the British army creeping into his domain that almost led to the demise of his country. The sultan responded and send more than three (3) thousand of his fighters as requested and succeeded, because of that, Sabah (North Borneo) and Palawan ceded to the Sulu sultanate as a token of appreciation saving his empire and his people.

Like the Philippines, the other neighboring Southeast Asian countries have no exception from the deadliest attacks of the European countries such as Brunei, Singapore, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Even as far as Australia, India, Africa, and America did not escape from the harshness of invasion.

On fair of Sulu Sultan Jamal ul-Alam to the growing forces of British, France and the Netherland armies on the region of Southeast Asia, that Sulu and Mindanao might suffer the same faith with, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei while facing a dilemma and exhausted from the centuries-long war with Spanish forces that always creeping into the sultan’s domain which was also deteriorated the empire treasury, he entered into an agreement to lease Sabah to the British mining company in return to not invade our country, the Philippines today. Note that, the Sultan alone cannot and does not have the power to decide the state affairs without consulting and without the approval of his RUMA BICHARA — a royal state council made of the noblest Datus, we can compare it as senators at the present time. And so, the treaty took place between the two parties.

Concerning the latter, I would like to boil down the discussion by raising two questions taken away from the writings of H. OTLEY BEYER on the Brief Memorandum on the Government of the Sultanate of Sulu and Powers of the Sultan during the 19TH Century and I quote “First, were the North Borneo lands the property of the Sultan personally, or were they state property of the Sulu Sultanate? Second, if the lands were the property of the Sultanate, could they be legally leased or alienated by this Sultan alone without the signed concurrence of the Ruma Bechara or other representatives of the people in a popular assembly?” Of course not, as I mention that the sultan alone doesn’t hold an absolute power to decide states affairs without the approval of his council. Not unlike the other monarch empires such as Spain, ancient Egypt and the Principalities of European countries holds an absolute power as being totalitarian. Obviously, there can be no doubt that Sabah was a state property of the Sultan that was acquired after the 1658 war as I mentioned earlier, and not personal property. Meaning to say, Sabah is a property of Taosug under the administration of the sultanate.

Anyway, “the state of affairs down to the middle of the 19th century. On April 30, 1851, Sultan Mohammed Pulalun (father of Sultan Jamalul A’lam) signed the first important Sulu treaty with the Spanish Government. The following persons signed the treaty in the representation of the Ruma Bechara of the Sulu Sultanate:

1. Maulana Sultan Mohammed Pulalun 2. Datu Mohammed Buyuk 3. Datu Muluk 4. Datu Amil Bahar 5. Datu Bandahala 6. Datu Muluk Kahar 7. Datu Amil Badar 8. Datu Tumanggung 9. Datu Johan 10. Datu Sauja’an 11. Datu Na’ib 12. Datu Mamancha 13. Tuan Sharif Mohammed Binsarin

On January 22, 1878, Sultan Jamalul A’lam (son of Sultan Pulalun, above) signed a one-page document, written in the Malay language in Arabic characters, giving to Gustavus Baron de Overbeck and Alfred Dent, Esq., and their Company, a permanent lease to the territories allegedly owned by him in northern Borneo, in consideration of a permanent payment of five thousand dollars per annum; and on the same day he signed another document investing the said Baron de Overbeck as Datu Bandahara and Raja of Sandakan, with full powers to govern said territories as a delegate of the Sultan of Sulu. These two documents bear only the signature and official seal (witnessed by W.H. Treacher, H. B. M. Consul-General for Borneo) of Sultan Jamalul A’lam — and are not officially witnessed or signed by any other member of the Ruma Bechara. A question, therefore, arises as to the legality of the above two documents, and this question will be duly discussed on a later page. First, however, we may look into the status of the Ruma Bechara in later years.

On the 20th of July, 1878, only six months after the date of the Borneo lease, Sultan Jamalul A’lam and his Council signed another treaty with the Spanish Government. The document bearing the following signatures in the representation of the Sultanate of Sulu: 1. Padukka Mahasari Maulana Sultan Mohammed Jamalul A’lam 2. Padukka Datu (i.e., Royal Datu) Mohammed Badarud Lin 3. Padukka Datu Raja Lawut Mohammed Zaynul ‘Abidin 4. Padukka Datu Muluk Bandarasa Mohammed Pula 5. Padukka Datu Mohammed Harun ar-Rashid

Saleeby, in his “History of Sulu” (Manila, 1908) states that Jamalul A’lam always kept firm control over the datus, but during the last years of his reign (1880-81) the power of the state council was considerably increased, and it became into two factions – the strongest being led by the greatest figure of later Sulu history, the Pangian Inchi Jamila (mother of Sultan Jamalul Kiram)”. From Philippine Official Gazette BY: H. OTLEY BEYER** (December 8, 1946).

Now, how did the Sabah lose to Sulu Sultanate that later espouses the Philippines ’ claim over the disputed territory? The British Mining Company lease not ceded Sabah (North Borneo) to Sulu Sultanate Jamalul Alam for the price of 5,000 Ringgit Malaysian Dollar or amounting to 60,936.56 pesos as of this writing, per annum or annual payment. With this, I would like to present the documents of two parties on the agreement either Sabah was leased or ceded. The two different versions of the contract would determine that the Sultan of Sulu together with his council was deceived by the British people. Because the two opposing contracts state otherwise. Photo was taken from public domain (Left) The first concession treaty was signed by Sultan Abdul Momin of Brunei on 29 December 1877, appointing Baron de Overbeck as the Maharaja Sabah, Rajah Gaya, and Sandakan. (Right) The second concession treaty was signed by Sultan Jamal ul-Azam of Sulu on 22 January 1878 also appointing Baron de Overbeck as Datu Bendahara and Raja Sandakan, approximately three weeks after the signature of the first treaty.

British version ... hereby grant and cede of our own free and sovereign will to Gustavus Baron de Overbeck of Hong Kong and Alfred Dent Esquire of London...and assigns for ever and in perpetuity all the rights and powers belonging to us over all the territories and lands being tritutary to us on the mainland of the island of Borneo commencing from the Pandassan River on the north-west coast and extending along the whole east coast as far as the Sibuco River in the south and comprising amongst other the States of Paitan, Sugut, Bangaya, Labuk, Sandakan, Kina Batangan, Mumiang, and all the other territories and states to the southward thereof bordering on Darvel Bay and as far as the Sibuco river with all the islands within three marine leagues of the coast.

Sulu version "...do hereby lease of our own freewill and satisfaction to...all the territories and lands being tributary to (us) together with their heirs, associates, successors and assigns forever and until the end of time, all rights and powers which we possess over all territories and lands tributary to us on the mainland of the Island of Borneo, commencing from the Pandassan River on the west coast to Maludu Bay, and extending along the whole east coast as far as Sibuco River on the south,..., and all the other territories and states to the southward thereof bordering on Darvel Bay and as far as the Sibuco River nautical miles of the coast."

The 1878 agreement was written in Malay using the Jawi script as we, the Tausog people speaking Jawi or Sinug in modern terms, in which the contentious wordings are as follows:

“sudah kuredhai pajakan dengan keredhaan dan kesukaan kita sendiri kepada tuan Gustavus Baron von Overbeck yang tinggal dalam negeri Hong Kong dan kepada Alfred Dent Esquire yang tinggal dalam negeri London... sampai selama-lamanya sekalian perintah dan kuasa yang kita punya yang takluk kepada kita di tanah besar Pulau Borneo dari Sungai Pandasan di sebelah barat sampai sepanjang semua tanah di pantai sebelah timur sejauh Sungai Sibuku di sebelah selatan”

The keyword in the agreement is the ambiguous term pajakan, a Malay term that was translated by Spanish linguists in 1878 and by American anthropologists H. Otley Beyer and Harold Conklin in 1946 as "arrendamiento" or "lease". However, the British used the interpretation of historian Najeeb Mitry Saleeby in 1908 and William George Maxwell and William Summer Gibson in 1924, which translated Pajak as "grant and cede".

As a Suluan’s speaking Sinug or Jawi language, the term "pajakan" or padjak means for us "mortgage" or "lease", as per the contemporary meaning of "pajakan" in Sulu and Malay, which essentially means that the land is pawned in perpetuity for the annual cession money, on the other hand, the sultanate would only need to repay the entire value of the money since the beginning of cession payment till the time it had indeed to redeem it back without any interest hence it didn’t also state either on the contract. Furthermore, the term "selama-lama" or “sa lama-lama” which means "forever" or "in perpetuity" indicates a binding effect beyond the lifetime of the then Sultan. Needless to say, so long the sultanate of Sulu exists, then the aim to claim it back would pursue it anytime they wish under the rule of its proprietary rights.

In 1939, propriety claimants by then Dayang Dayang (Princess) Hadji Piandao, the daughter of Hadji Amina and Sultan Baddaruddin, and eight other heirs filed a civil suit regarding the "cession money" payable to the heirs of Sultan of Sulu. Chief Justice Charles Frederick Cunningham Macaskie of the High Court of North Borneo known as the Macaskie decision of 1939 ruled on the share entitlement of each claimant. This ruling has often been quoted by proponents of the Sulu Sultanate's claim as proof of North Borneo's acknowledgment of the sultan's ownership of the territory, although it was made solely to determine who as heir was entitled to the "cession money" of 5,300 Malaysian ringgit per year, I will get to the bottom as I will discuss later the heirs to the throne.

It is clear upon scrutinizing the two different versions of documents presented, before the republic of the Philippines presumably, the Sulu Sultanate manipulated unknowingly. Even so, the Philippines maintains its territorial claim as part of our ancestral domain over Sabah based on the 1878 “Lease Treaty” and based on the historical account that Sabah is indeed a gift from the Sultan of Brunei to the Sultan of Sulu, which is now a region and part of the sovereign territory of the Philippines.

So how did Sabah “North Borneo” end in Malaysia? The Japanese invasion during World War II in the Malayan peninsula ended British rule. A serious military response to the communist insurgency as well as the Baling Talks in 1955 led to the establishment of independence for Malaya now Malaysia on 31 August 1957 through diplomatic negotiation with the British. Indonesia and the Philippines together signed the foundation of the federation of Malaysia but never ever had the Philippines relinquished its rights over Sabah to Malaysia. However, instead of giving Sabah “North Borneo” back to the Sulu sultanate, it ended at the hands of Malaysia for some reason as the administrator of the disputed land and later became part of Malaysia. The situation seems to be complicated hence the two countries Indonesia and Malaysia have also requested the International Court of Justice to determine, on the basis of the treaties, agreements, and any other evidence furnished by them, to which of the two States sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan belonged on November 02, 1998. Shortly after the two countries brought their cases before the ICJ, the Philippines was also requested permission to intervene not to be the third party resolving the issue, but to have access to the documents espousing its claim over North Borneo. The two countries highly objected since the Philippines had not shown that it had an interest of a legal nature at issue in the case. But ICJ decided to trial and delivered the verdict rejecting the Philippines to intervene in the case on 23 October 2001.

There was a talk about handling North Borneo to the New founding Nation at that time which is Malaysia today. And so, aware of the situation, President Diosdado Macapagal, the father of former President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo in the 21st contemporary, tried to claim back North Borneo through the judicial process and brought the case before the International Criminal Court of Justice but in vain, due to Malaysia was not recognizing it and of course, President John Kennedy of USA and ICJ headed by a bunch of Europeans and US Judges Supported Malaysia and rejected the claim of the Philippines over North Borneo instead. However, President Macapagal wrote a letter to Malaysian Prime Minister Tuknu Abdul Rahman on June 18, 1946, and I quote “It is with pleasure that I recall your observation that referring the case to the World Court was the best way out since, among other things, ‘the World Court cannot change the facts anyways”. Prime Minister Abdul Rahman replied to Macapagal stating that “You will appreciate that this matter requires careful study and I propose, therefore, to consult the member of my Cabinet and the Governor and Minister of Sabah before I can give an official reply.” (Courtesy: A STONE FOR EDIFICE: MEMOIRS OF A PRESIDENT” by Diosdado Macapagal (ANC HD, Aug 1, 2020).

Nevertheless, President Ferdinand Marcos attempted to claim back Sabah by force and recruited young Moros to infiltrate the disputed land. The secret mission was called “Operation Merdeka” in 1968. Upon learning the real intention of the secret training in Corregidor Island, the trainees mutinied and the operation was called off which led to the alleged Jabidah Massacre. This angered Malaysia and supported the uprising insurgent group in Mindanao, the Moro National Liberation Front or MNLF and New People’s Army in Visayas and Luzon or NPA. Almost all loyal forces of the Sultanate of Sulu transferred to the MNLF and fight against the government urging for independence Mindanao instead. It was a perfect opportunity for Malaysia to downplay and take advantage of the chaotic situation in the Southern Philippines to prevent any future claim to Sabah or North Borneo. It was too late for the Philippines to reverse the situation after so many years upon learning, that the Jabidah massacre was a myth. It was not really happened, because the army mutinied in Corregidor were sent back home. As I mentioned earlier, it was downplayed by Malaysia with the help of former senator Ninoy Aquino a number one critic to President Marcos, together with Chairman Joma Sison of CPP/NPA and Chairman Nur Misuari of MNLF, that was heavily funded by the Malaysian government and some assistance from Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong to hinder the future claim of the disputed territory. 3 years prior to the declaration of Martial Law on Sept 21, 1972, that butchered thousands of lives from both sides, those organizations were in position already. Those who died in Martial Law were considered to be collateral damage in exchange for political aim who wish to overthrow the gov’t and replace Marcos in Position.

Now if we take a look at the Philippine territory, as defined in the 1935 Constitution, it comprises those territories ceded under the Treaty of Paris of 1898 and the Cession Treaty of 1900, both between Spain and the United States, and the Boundaries Treaty of 1930 between Britain and the United States. Under the 1973 Constitution, the Philippine territory comprised the Philippine archipelago and all territories belonging to the Philippines by historic right or legal title. For some reason, Under the 1987 Constitution, the Philippine territory simply comprises the Philippine archipelago only (F. Lobrigo - @inquirerdotnet 10/25/2017). In this case, the Sabah or North Borneo was simply dropped out. However, In article 2 of the 1987 constitution stated that the country can renounce war to protect its sovereign rights, as Former President Marcos attempted in 1968 but called off the operation. And the Sultan of Sulu forces attempted to claim back North Borneo through armed conflict in 2013 but ended in defeat due to the small number of forces, and the Philippine government during President Aquino given no support to the cause at all. In 1968 the baseline laws Republic Act No. 5446 ratified “An act to define the baselines of the territorial sea of the Philippines”. Section 2 of the act stated that “The territorial sea around the territory of Sabah, situated in North Borneo, over which the Republic of the Philippines has acquired dominion and sovereignty”. On 16 July 2011, the Philippine Supreme Court ruled that the Philippines’ claim over Sabah is retained and may be pursued in the future.

Continuing the war with American imperialist

After the invasion of the Spaniards in the Philippines ended, the Moro war continues with the new assailant, which is the American imperialist. As I stated earlier, the Moro-American war was the continuation of the Moros centuries struggle after Spain. Dr. Bara viewed this as the 7th stage of the Moro war. In spite of the declining power of the Sulu Sultanate, still, a lot of Taosug warriors emerge to continue the battle with the white supremacy in the region. In Luuk, Sulu a well-known Panglima Imam Hassan was the first warrior leader to defy the sultan’s order to work with Americans for common good. Because he viewed that the presence of Americans was a trait to the survival of Islam in the region, he then assembled his 3,000 forces and launched and attacked at Jolo sometime in early November 1903. Armed with only Kris and some rifles, the Taosug was no match with the modern weapons of the anime, but the stand-off lasted for over a week before Hassan forces finally decided to withdraw. This marked to the Americans how the Taosug was fierce in a battle given the fact of disadvantages in weapons. Although suffered the defeat, Imam Hassan garnered sympathy from the masses. He then toured around the province campaigning other warrior leaders promoting his cause in driving out the US colonialism. Imam Hassan’s propaganda bore a positive effect on the Tausog people and later join his cause. In this scene, Americans are viewed as the enemy of Islam. It was reiterated that Americans came to the land in order to fulfill the unfinished business of Spaniard colonialism. More so, the Americans tasted bitterness among the Taosug when they hoisted their flag at the major center and require locals to fly the American flag to their ships. It even deteriorates the situation when they introduced the land reform which requires locals to pay taxes. This policy invited even more antagonism among the Taosug.

Sometimes in January 1906, three prominent Muslim leaders emerge, audaciously opposed to the American policies and their occupation of the Moro land. They were Imam Sahirun, Ma’as Abdullatif, and Panglima Sawadjaan. These three figures assembled their forces and take a position at Bud Dahu, about thirteen kilometers away from the capital Jolo. According to the account, the forces numbered more than 1,000. From here, they organized a small raiding group to attack out-post supporting the enemy. A guerilla tactics warfare. The Americans became anxious about the situation that the growing opposition might go out of hand. And so, they sent civilian representatives multiple times to negotiate to convince the defiance leaders to surrender to the US colonial government. But the three leaders remain firmly and reject the offer. After multiple attempts failed, the US decided to take down Bud Daho and brought about 790 men led by Leonard Wood the General Governor to the Moro province on March 06, 1906. Bara vividly explains the event that took place in the Bud Daho incident. Accordingly, the US troops were divided into three groups, each group was charged to attack only on three narrow passages leading to the Muslim camp. It was stated that the mountain stormed with high-powered weapons like mortars leading to the annihilation of the Taosug also known as the Bud Daho Massacre. Even so, a great number of American troops got killed during the battle before they took full control of the Muslims strongholds. The account stated that the Taosug only armed with Kris used an indigenous approach of warfare by using logs rolled off from the top intended to hit the advancing US troops who tried to approach the narrow passage from the slopes of the mountain. The US army though, succeeded in capturing the mountain top. In the early morning of March 7, 1906, the American troops fired upon the Muslim camps at close range. The Taosug warriors rushed in only with Kris at hand and fought decisively in the open field. Only six out of more than a thousand warriors had survived who managed to retreat and report the news of what transpired in the so-called battle of Bud Dahu. To be precise, there were more than 1,600 people at the mountain slaughtered by the Americans including women and children in retaliation to their fallen comrades. “Even if the massacre was described as a “slaughter”, “a frightful atrocity” and “hideous” in American newspapers at the time, those who died were described in U.S. military reports as a “band of outlaws” and “renegades” who had deserved a “no taking of prisoner’s policy. (Initiatives for International Dialogue Mar 29, 2006)”.

Though overwhelmingly defeated at the “Battle of Bud Dahu” the incident drew more bitterness from the Taosug. The martyrdom of a thousand warriors led to another uprising from the province just a month after, and by this time, it was headed by Ma’as Jikiri (Means an old man Jikiri). He assembled his small forces and attacked the US outpost town after town. His endeavor lasted for about 3 years until he met his final end in 1909. According to western records, he is the only warrior who did not surrender nor run on the battlefield even when outnumbered and overwhelmed until he’s persecuted. His heroic stand against the Americans inspired his countrymen up to the present day. His valor was commended by the American army. Ma’as Jikiri is the only foreign enemy of the American whose statue now stands at the Washington museum.

Because of the martyrdom of Ma’as Jikiri, the spirit of war never subsided and gain more sympathy from the citizens of Sulu. In 1913 another major war in the province of Sulu erupted. This time around was led by a 500-man leader named Panglima Amil. He assembled his 500 fighters were fortified at the top of Mount Bagsak 24.7 kilometers away from the capital town Jolo. Just like the incident at Bud Daho, the Americans sent a negotiation demanding the fighters to surrender but denied, and so, the battle commenced. General John Joseph Pershing of US army led his troops to the rendezvous and surrounded the mountain. Gen. Pershing was a wise commander, learning from what happened at Bud Daho, where a great number of American troops got killed. He devises his plan carefully before attacking the mountain top. He brought his 1,200 troops from 51st and 52nd company accompanied with other Moros scout from Basilan and Siasi, besides, he also took a scout from Jolo and fifty troopers from 8th Cavalry Regiments. Pershing prediction was correct, the battle was no easy, it took them 5 days before they capture the Moro Camp. The battle began on June 9 and ended at June 14, 1913. All Taosug Warriors met their martyrdom against the well-equipped US army. The account stated that, only 14 from US army got killed and 24 wounded. After the battle, General Pershing wrote a letter to his wife, stated: "The fighting was the fiercest I have ever seen. They are absolutely fearless, and once committed to combat they count death as a mere incident”. The defeat of Moro forces at Bud Bagsak marked the end of the first 10 years of US colonialism in the Philippines. Though, there was some account that indicated a few minor battles but never left a formidable force against the Americans. This also led to an end of the so-called “Kris versus Krag” episodes. The Muslims fought a grand fight at Bud Bagsak against superior weapons (Hurley,1985:30). This decline paved the way for the signing of the Kiram-Carpenter Agreement in August 20, 1915 where the sovereignty of the Sulu sultanate was taken over by the US colonial government. The collapse of the Sulu sultanate, in turn, led to the integration of Mindanao and Sulu into colonial politics (Bara, 1999). Since then, the war shifted from arm struggle to a peaceful political protest and demonstration. It took about 14 years before another major war in the province erupted once again when the runner of Sultan Kiram parted ways from him because he did not want the US policy in the Moro Land. Laksamana (Means runner to Sultan) Usab rallied his strong opposition to the Americans and garnered attention to the Taosug. He called a conference with other leaders and discusses their agenda in early 1927, of course, we can surmise here that the summit talked about how to fight with the American troops. In the meeting, they all agreed to contribute fighters from all over the province of Sulu. And so, the battle with US troops took place at Bud Langkuwasan Adjacent to Bud Bagsak in the middle of 1927. Usab’s struggle culminated with the battle of Bud Langkuwasan where most of his forces including himself embraced martyrdom. This marked the end of Moro’s armed conflict with the American invaders.

The collapse of Power After the long centuries of struggle, the power of Sulu sultanate collapsed in 1915 when they signed treaties with the American colonizer that they referred to us the Carpenters Agreement. But before the Carpenters Agreement took effect, let’s step a little bit back ward how the said agreement inter into arena. On August 20, 1899, Brigadier-General John C. Bates, representing the United States Government, negotiated an agreement with the Sultanate of Sulu commonly known as the “Bates Treaty”. This document was signed for the Sultanate of Sulu recognizing its legitimacy as a ruler of the sovereign kingdom. The following members of the state council who signed were: 1. Padukka Mahasari Maulana Sultan Hadji Mohammed Jamalul Kiram. 2. Padukka Datu Rajamuda Mohammed Muallil Wasit 3. Padukka Datu Atik 4. Padukka Datu Kalbi 5. Paduka Datu Zulkarmain

Bates main goal was supposedly to guarantee Moro neutrality in the Philippine–American War, and to establish order in the southern Philippines. After some negotiation, the Bates treaty was signed which was based on an earlier Spanish treaty. The Bates treaty did ensure the neutrality of the Muslims in the south but it was actually set up to buy time for the Americans until the war in the north ended in the 1990s. In any case, the treaties were tentatively abrogated in 1904, but the Sulu sultanate still regarded as the ruler of the kingdom until the Carpenters Agreement came into the scene in 1915, from its recognition to cessation. It stated that the sultan and his council agreed to relinquished their temporal power over territory within the Philippines. (except for certain specific grants of land to Sultan Jamalul Kiram and his heirs), but retained his rights of sovereignty over the territory of North Borneo and his religious authority as the titular head of the Mohammedan Church in Sulu and Mindanao. The treaty was facilitated under the administration of Governor-General Harrison. Accordingly, “The Sultanate of Sulu was in no wise abolished by the Carpenter Agreement; but the sultan and his council merely relinquished their temporal powers to be exercised by regularly appointed or elected officials of the Philippine Government (H. OTLEY BEYER 1946). In common knowledge, it is only the inhabitants of Sulu themselves (through a plebiscite or an elected popular assembly) who could legitimately abolish the power of the Sultanate.

The following names who signed the “Carpenters Agreement” for the Sultanate of Sulu were: 1. Sultan Hadji Mohammed Jamalul Kiram 2. Datu Rajamuda 3. Bandahara Hadji Butu 4. Datu Mohammed 5. Abdullah Awang 6. Hadji Mohammed 7. Panglima Tahil

The statement has taken from the writings of H. OTLEY BEYER dated December 8, 1946 address on Brief Memorandum on the Government of the Sultanate of Sulu and Powers of the Sultan during the 19TH Century. This is a public domain, records available in the Philippine Official Gazette. “The land grants and other obligations on which the Carpenter Agreement was predicated, were never properly carried out by the Philippine Government as originally agreed; although the Philippine Legislature had authorized the original arrangement by Act 2722, and the Sultan and his heirs had in May, 1919, signed papers accepting the arrangement authorized in the Act. (Actually, these papers were signed five days before the Act became a Law, through signature of the Governor-General). The provisions of Act 2722 were never properly carried out — due partly to a change of administration in Manila, and partly to the fact that the placing of the lands on a revenue-paying basis (as the Government had guaranteed) proved impractical as an official project. This neglect, together with the over-persuasive methods by which the signatures to the original “agreement” had been obtained, led to a legitimate feeling on the part of the sultan and his council that they had been deceived and mistreated by the Philippine Government. Recognizing the general justice of this complaint, together with the impracticality of carrying out the original provisions of Act 2722, the Philippine Legislature in 1923 passed Act 3118 – giving the Sultan Jamalul Kiram and to his brother and to three of his nieces a total of 4,096 hectares of land in fee simple. As to the somewhat doubtful legitimacy, under Sulu law, of the original “Carpenter Agreement,” Governor Carpenter himself expressed the matter quite frankly in an official communication to the Governor-General, dated March 23, 1915, in part as follows:

“… I do not recall ever having had a more trying and lengthy undertaking than have been these conferences and their objective. This has been due chiefly to the fact that so far as the Sultan will concede or I am informed there is no precedent of a sultan voluntarily giving up to (another) Government the prerogatives of trial of civil and criminal cases growing out of domestic relations, the determination of heirs and partition of estates, and especially the renunciation of the right to collect taxes for the support of the Sultan, his clergy, etc. He stated repeatedly that he had never signed anything of this sort and the most vexatious reason he gave for insisting on postponement of signature to the memorandum was in order that he might submit the matter to the datus and other representatives of the Sulu people.”

This indicates that Sultan Jamalul Kiram understood his responsibility to the Ruma Bechara, and doubted that the group then with him was sufficiently representative or comprehensive.

With regard to the Sultan’s sovereign rights in Borneo, and his position as head of the Mohammedan Church, Governor Carpenter made the following statement on May 4, 1920 (in a letter addressed to the Director of Non-Christian Tribes):

“It is necessary however that there be clearly of official record the fact that the termination of the temporal sovereignty of the Sultanate of Sulu within American territory is understood to be wholly without prejudice or effect as to the temporal sovereignty and ecclesiastical authority of the Sultanate beyond the jurisdiction of the United States Government, especially with reference to the portion of the Island of Borneo which as a dependency of the Sultanate of Sulu is understood to be held under lease by the chartered company which is known as the “British North Borneo Government’ …”

Throughout the residue of Sultan Jamalul Kiram’s reign, there was no imperative partaking from the general relations between the Sulu Sultanate and the Philippine Government established under the Carpenter Agreement, as construed after 1923, except a constant jockeying between the Datus and Sultan, on one side, and the Sulu Governor on the other, for the characterization of the borderline between “ecclesiastical” and “temporal” rights and privileges. The Sultan has tried to preserve all domestic relations cases come under the “ecclesiastical”, and should be tried in accordance with Islamic courts.

Even under the early Commonwealth Government (beginning in 1935) there was no important change of policy with due regards to the sovereign rights of the Sulu Sultanate, until after the death of Sultan Jamalul Kiram I on June 7, 1936.

If we examine carefully those presented pieces of evidence or the statements directly from the people involved in the treaties, we can boldly deduce that the Sultanate of Sulu and his council, the Ruma Bechara were perfectly deceived by the American colonizer, they have stripped off from their political power that marked the end of the reign of the Sulu Sultanate in the Philippines.

Illegal Annexation

Sometimes in the early 1930s, President Manuel Quezon released an executive order, rejecting the recognition of the power of Sultans and Datus in the Philippine archipelago. This E.O led to the establishment of “Three-Point Policies,” redefining the Moro land in general to be administered by the Philippine Government in Manila. This was a bold move from the government to illegally annex Mindanao and Sulu as part of the new commonwealth government of the Philippines. To make it clear to all of us, allow me to present the statement of SULTAN OMBRA AMILBANGSA Assemblyman of Sulu when he wrote a letter to the President of the Philippines in October 2, 1937 with respectfully replied by Jorge B. Vargas Secretary to the President.

Statement:

Letter* of His Excellency Manuel L. Quezon President of the Philippines On Three-Point Policy for Mindanao and Sulu

[Released on October 8, 1937]

“Sir:

I have the honor to inform you that your letter of the 2nd instant, addressed to His Excellency, the President, in which you comment on his “three-point policy” on the affairs of Mindanao and Sulu, has been received. In this connection permit me to call your attention to the fact that in his memorandum to the Secretary of the Interior dated September 20, 1937, His Excellency does not seek to interfere with the use of titles by Moro sultans or datus so long as it is clearly understood that a title carries with it no official rights or privileges. What the President desires to emphasize is that there are no privileged classes under this Government and no authority vested on any individual not occupying an official position. In other words, the President is determined to consider and to act towards the Mohammedan Filipinos as he considers and acts towards the Christians, precisely because he agrees with you that the so-called Moro problem is a myth.

His Excellency appreciates your kind interest in his administration, particularly in matters affecting your district, and he wishes me to inform you that your recommendation for the retention of Major Leon Angeles as Provincial Governor of Sulu for the time being, will be given due consideration”.

Very respectfully,

Jorge B. Vargas Secretary to the President

Hon. Ombra Amilbangsa National Assembly Manila

• This is a reply to a letter of Assemblyman Ombra Amilbangsa, which is as follows:

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY MANILA

October 2, 1937

His Excellency The PRESIDENT OF THE PHILIPPINES Malacañan Palace Manila

“Dear Mr. President:

1. In recent issues of the local dailies, I read with deep interest the released copy of Your Excellency’s Memorandum, addressed to the Honorable, the Secretary of the Interior, in which Your Excellency’s “Three-Point Policies,” defining how affairs in Moroland are to be administered, was embodied. As Your Excellency’s loyal supporter, I cannot let the news pass without commenting on the policies, especially in their relations to my district.

2. The policy of giving a free hand to the Commissioner of Mindanao and Sulu on all plans he may deem fit to execute is indeed plausible and commendable, and it could not have been otherwise. As a matter of fact, I joined Assemblymen Fortich and Cabili in endorsing that policy to Your Excellency when the measure was yet pending the action of the National Assembly.

3. As to the non-recognition of the various titles, a practice still adhered to by the various Mohammedan elements in Mindanao and Sulu, I think, Mr. President, the policy as released covering this subject was most unnecessary, as the non-recognition has already taken effect since the abrogation of the Bates Treaty and the implantation of the Civil Government in the regions referred to. In the agreement concluded between the Sultan of Sulu and Frank Carpenter, then Secretary of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, the former is recognized as a temporal head of that region and as such his office is confined to religious activities. In the light of these facts the Government, I think, Mr. President, has no right to interfere with them so long as no law or order is infringed. The religious titles ever since in vogue in the Mohammedan regions are akin to religious titles enjoyed and practiced by the different Christian sects.

4. The policy of suppressing the practice of appointing army officers as governors in Moro provinces is one thing about which I beg to be allowed to discuss at length and with liberty. The administration dating back to the early American administrators, had initiated various policies principally intended to maintain peace and order, but lamentably never promulgated policies to effect universal improvements in those regions. As a result of this uncomprehensive plan, the accomplishments were nothing more than the blowing out of the Moro cottas and enactment of other bloody dramas. Judging from the records of the past, it seems that questions of efficiency of administration in Moroland depend in a large measure, upon the personal ability, integrity and far-sightedness of the local administrator rather than by imposing rigid obedience to mutable policies.

5. Regarding the present incumbent, Major Leon Angeles, his administration since his appointment is one worthy of praise and commendation. His experience and adeptness in understanding conditions obtaining in the province, make him the most logical man to remain in the position for sometime until Your Excellency think otherwise. He is the most capable Filipino governor ever appointed to that position. I believe that in justice to the incumbent, Your Excellency should allow him to remain for sometime in order that he could accomplish the projects he has just started.

6. Talks of Moro problems, both of the past and the present, have been the topics deafening the ears of the public. The Moros, myself included, are ignorant of the so-called Moro problems, and we emphatically deny its existence.

7. In passing, I beg leave to state that in Mindanao Your Excellency has two groups of supporters: the first are those who readily yield assent to what Your Excellency say, and the second, those who study Your Excellency’s policy and offer constructive criticisms and suggestions to the end that the country may be benefited. I am happy that I belong to the second group so that if I express myself openly and frankly, it is because it is my honest and sincere belief that in doing so, I am helping and coöperating with Your Excellency to perfect a policy conducive to the general welfare of my people”.

Respectfully yours,

(Sgd.) SULTAN OMBRA AMILBANGSA Assemblyman for Sulu

Source: Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines (Presidential Museum and Library)

The sultan in the modern era is in a diaspora with no kingdom to be ruled nor power to be exercise, but does not dead yet. Though they have been stripped off from their political power, their influence to the Moros does not also subside. In the recent 20th contemporary, former Sultan Jamalul Kiram III ran a political position in the Philippines as senator under the party of Christian Muslim Democrats (CMD) of former president Gloria M. Arroyo, but was unable to secure the position to top 12. His daughter, Princes Jasel Kiram had also tried to ran the same position with her father but ended the same faith. In 2013, more than 400 royal forces of the Sultanate of Sulu invaded Sabah headed by former Rajah Modah now the current Sultan of Sulu Kiram. The dead issue of Sabah claim right after president Marcos for more than 3 decades has gained its recognition throughout the world once more. Since then, the lingering issue of Sabah’s claims slowed to burn Malaysia and, couldn’t ignore anymore. It would put a geo-political pressure to Malaysia in Southeast if they don’t cooperate and keep ignoring Philippines to resolve the issue just like what they did with Indonesia over the disputed territory of Ligitan and Sipadan. Most especially the relationship between Malaysia and the Philippines become more severe. Nevertheless, the United Nation might intervene to resolve the issue. When this time come, the current powerless Sulu Sultanate would gain recognition by the whole world and, once again rise to its former glory. Note: It would be appropriate to refer the Filipino to call it as North Borneo rather than Sabah. Sabah is a Malaysian term. North Borneo is ancient term used by our ancestors and recognized internationally.

List of Treaties

According to the historical records, there were series of treaties signed by the different Sultanates of Sulu over the years with other countries. All of the signed treaties recognized the legality of the Sulu Sultanate rulership in the Philippine Archipelago. The treaties are as follows: -1405 China or Ming Dynasty inter a treaty with king Paduka Pahala Batara and they called it the East Kingdome of Sulu -Diplomatic relation with Spain, Great Britain, Holland/The Netherland, Germany, and America. -Spain has 8 treaties from the 15th Century to 18 Century. It stated the respect and acceptance of the Sulu Sultanate kingdom -Great Britain had 5 treaties in just around the 16th century. -Holland had 3 while Germany had 1. -France has a lease treaty to rent the Province of Basilan in the 17th Century. On the other hand, the United States has a peace treaty in between 1899, 1915 and 1948 to the Sultanate of Sulu. -The 1915 treaty was the recognition of the USA to the kingdom of Sulu with more than 400 years of governance. The treaty clearly stated that SABAH “North Borneo” was leased to the British North Borneo Company who has the business in Malaysia. This treaty was proven that the Sulu Sultanate was the legitimate owner of Sabah.

Under the current 1987 Philippine Constitution. Some Parts of Mindanao including Basilan, Sulu, Tawi-Tawi, the lone city of Marawi, Maguindanao and Lanao were given back to the Moro people to rule as autonomy, as they failed to established an independent Islamic state over the Philippine government. While the other part of Mindanao Like the Zamboanga City and Zamboanga peninsula politically consolidated under region 9. Palawan has become part of Luzon for some reason and called it the region 4B. Unfortunately, however, Sabah and Sarawak are still under the administration of Malaysia.

Lastly, Sultan is a big word among the Moros, it bears a heavy load on someone’s shoulders, because the term sultan for us does not limit only authority, or being despotic itself, it is the one of who is pious that follows authority, willing to sacrifice everything even himself in order to protect his people and his kingdom. As such, the sense of freedom that we are enjoying today, was the fruit of centuries-long struggle by our ancestors, sacrificing themselves relentlessly into battle; And fighting those invaders who wish to exterminate our very own existence. And for that, we shall not forget them, and instead, cherish the gift that they give upon us in exchange for their lives. They died so we could live as free people, in a free world, of a free nation. As such, those who do not remember their roots, will also bear fruits that do not remember their origin. More so, those who forgot their forefathers, have also the tendency to be forgotten by their children.

References

References

-Bara, Hannibal. History of the Muslim in the Philippines, NCCA, 1999 -Islam and Philippine Society The Writings of Cesar Adib Majul BY: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the Social Sciences, Humanities, and Cultural Studies of Asian Studies. -The History of Sulu By; Najeeb M. Saleeby Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1908 -Philippine Official Gazette; Tags: Sabah, Brief Memorandum on the Government of the Sultanate of Sulu and Powers of the Sultan during the 19TH Century* By H. OTLEY BEYER** December 8, 1946 -The Moro Struggle and the Challenge to Peace-building in Mindanao, Southern Philippines By Cristina J. Montiel, Department of Psychology, Ateneo de Manila University; Rudy B. Rodil, Mindanao Historian and Former Vice-Chair of the GRP-MILF1 Peace Panel; Judith M. de Guzman, Department of Psychology, Ateneo de Manila University -Macaskie decision of 1939 High Court of North Borneo -Defining the Philippine policy on Sabah By Dr. Clarita Carlo University of the Philippines. Department of Political Science, Director for Center of Political and Democratic Reform in her interview on ANC 24/7. -INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE on its trial over the Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia) 17 December 2002. - Inquirer.Net on Sabah in federal Philippines By: Frank E. Lobrigo October 25, 2017. - Initiatives for International Dialogue Papers, Peace Process. Bud Dahu: Healing and justice is sought for a 100-year old injustice | Mar 29, 2006 | -From Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines -Archers

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