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Multiracials in Latin America

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki



Latin America was colonized mainly by Spain and Portugal, and to a lesser degree by other European powers. The history of the Iberian peninsula and the way Spanish and Portuguese colonies were set up allowed for more miscegenation compared to English and French colonies. Though recent histories of Latin American countries vary, the pre-independence Spanish colonial era is largely the same. There was a legal Caste system that classified the colonies' populations, including whites born in Spain, whites born in the New World, African slaves, Native Indians, Mestizos, Mulattos, and the multiple other racial mixtures. Genetically, the majority of Latin America is made up of multiracials, who have been mixed for generations and centuries; in some families they have been completely mixed since the 1600s. Latin America has the world's highest concentration of multigenerational mixed-race people.

History

Main article: History of Latin America

Mexico

Main articles: History of Mexico and Demographics of Mexico

According to the last Mexican census that asked about race, in 1921, about 60% self-identified as Mestizo. Since then, the Mexican government declared all Mexicans "Mestizo" in an effort to unify the Mexican populace under the umbrella of the dominant racial group.[1][2] Another 2012 estimate put the Mestizo percentage at 62%.[3] The vast majority are mixed of European and Indigenous ancestry, with European ancestry strongest in the northern and western sections, while Indigenous ancestry is strongest in the south and east.

While Mexico does not have comprehensive modern racial censuses, some international publications believe that Mexican people of predominantly European descent (Spanish or other European) make up approximately one-sixth (16.5%), this based on the figures of the last racial census in the country, made in 1921.[4] According to an opinion poll conducted by the Latinobarómetro organization in 2011, 52% of Mexican respondents said they were Mestizos, 19% Indigenous, 6% White, 2% Mulattos and 3% "other race."[5]

Genetic studies made in the Mexican population have found European ancestry ranging from 56%[6] going to 60%,[7] 64%[8] and up to 78%.[9] In general, Mexicans have both European and Amerindian ancestries, and the proportion varies by region and individuals. African ancestry is also present, but in lower proportion. There is genetic asymmetry, with the direct paternal line predominately European and the maternal line predominately Amerindian.

For instance, a 2006 study conducted by Mexico's National Institute of Genomic Medicine (INMEGEN), which genotyped 104 samples, reported that Mestizo Mexicans are 58.96% European, 35.05% "Asian" (primarily Amerindian), and 5.03% Other.[10] According to a 2009 report by the Mexican Genome Project, which sampled 300 Mestizos from six Mexican states and one indigenous group, the gene pool of the Mexican Mestizo population was calculated to be 55.2% percent indigenous, 41.8% European, 1.0% African, and 1.2% Asian.[11] A 2012 study published by the Journal of Human Genetics found the deep paternal ancestry of the Mexican Mestizo population to be predominately European (64.9%) followed by Amerindian (30.8%) and Asian (1.2%).[12] An autosomal ancestry study performed on Mexico City reported that the European ancestry of Mexicans was 52% with the rest being Amerindian and a small African contribution; additionally, maternal ancestry was analyzed, with 47% being of European origin. Unlike previous studies which only included Mexicans who self-identified as Mestizos, the only criteria for sample selection in this study was that the volunteers self-identified as Mexicans.[13]

Spanish Central America

In Central America, aside from Belize, the northern portions of the region are dominated by more Mestizo (Indigenous/European) multiracials, similar to Mexico. The southern half of Central America has multiracials with slightly stronger African blood, making them Triracial.

Guatemala

Main articles: History of Guatemala and Demographics of Guatemala

In Guatemala, about 56% self-identified as "Ladino", a term popular in Central America particularly in Guatemala for Mestizos, having both Indigenous and European ancestry, with native Mayan roots being stronger.[14] Most of the remaining population are non-mixed Indigenous.

El Salvador

Main articles: History of El Salvador and Demographics of El Salvador

According to the latest census, over 86% of the population identified as "Mestizo". Though, it is said many people who are not of an Indigenous/European mixture identify as Mestizo too. The remaining portion identifies as pure whites. The European DNA is more dominant in Salvadoran mestizos.[15]

Honduras

Main articles: History of Honduras and Demographics of Honduras

About 90% of the Honduran population self-identifies as Mestizo, having both Indigenous and European ancestry. About 3% of Honduras identifies as black, many of which have strong Indigenous and sometimes also European DNA, being "Sambo" (African/Indigenous) or Triracial.[16][17]

Nicaragua

Main articles: History of Nicaragua and Demographics of Nicaragua

According to a 2016 estimate, about 69% of the population in Nicaragua self-identifies as mixed Mestizo. The remaining portion being made up of pure (or close to it) whites, blacks, and indigenous.[18] A Japanese research of "Genomic Components in America's demography" demonstrated that, on average, the ancestry of Nicaraguans is 58–62% European, 28% Native American, and 14% African, with a very small Near Eastern contribution.[19]

Costa Rica

Main articles: History of Costa Rica and Demographics of Costa Rica

According to the latest Costa Rican census in 2011, about 84% of the people identified as white/mestizo, therefore there are no sources to differentiate the actual percentages of whites and mixed-race mestizos, being that the two are grouped together. Another about 7% self-identified as "Mulatto", being of mixed European and African ancestry.[20]

Panama

Main articles: History of Panama and Demographics of Panama

About 65% of Panama's population identifies as Mestizo and another 7% identifies as Mulatto, though likely significant portions of both may even be Triracial. The other remaining 28% is made up of whites, blacks, and natives.[18]

Spanish Caribbean

The Spanish Caribbean has the strongest African DNA and cultural influence out of all of the Spanish-speaking world. However, the majority of African descent are mixed race. European and African are the strongest elements; the majority of mixed-race people are Mulatto or Triracial (regionally known as "Trigueño").

Cuba

Main articles: History of Cuba and Demographics of Cuba

Approximately 27% of Cuba's population identifies as mixed-race Mulatto, as of 2012.[21]

An autosomal study from 2014 has found out the genetic average ancestry in Cuba to be 72% European, 20% African and 8% Native American with different proportions depending on the self-reported ancestry (White, Mulatto or Mestizo, and Black):[22]

Self-reported ancestry European African Native American
White 86% 6.7% 7.8%
Mulatto/Mestizo 63.8% 25.5% 10.7%
Black 29% 65.5% 5.5%

A 1995 study done on the population of Pinar del Rio, found that 50% of the Mt-DNA lineages (female lineages) could be traced back to Europeans, 46% to Africans and 4% to Native Americans. Cuba has the lowest traces of Indigenous ancestry in all of Spanish Latin America. This figure is consistent with both the historical background of the region, and the current demographics of it.[23]

According to another study in 2008, the Native American contribution to present-day Cubans accounted for 33% of the maternal lineages, whereas Africa and Eurasia contributed 45% and 22% of the lineages, respectively.

Dominican Republic

Main articles: History of the Dominican Republic and Demographics of the Dominican Republic

According to the latest census in 1960, about 73% self-identified as Mixed-race Mulatto. The overall genetic makeup of the Dominican Republic's population is estimated to be approximately 60% Caucasian, 30% Black African, and 10% Native American on average according to recent genealogical DNA testing.[24] Another estimate puts the average DNA for Dominicans at 47% Sub Saharan African, 43% European, and 10% Native Taino. However, most Recent studies in population genetics have concluded that the Dominican gene pool is on average predominantly European with Black African, Native Taino and Guanche influences, the latter two originating in the indigenous people of the Canary Islands and Dominican's pre-Hispanic Taíno inhabitants. European and native components are highest in the north and west region, as well as in the capital, while the African input is higher in the southeastern plain. European and African ancestry are both very high in the country, with significant Taino DNA present in many individuals.

Slavery in the colonial Santo Domingo was dominated by cattle ranching, instead of plantation slavery, which was unique even among other Spanish colonies. The racial and caste divisions were less important, eventually leading to a blend of cultures—Spanish, African, and indigenous—which would form the basis of national identity for Dominicans. Despite miscegenation being common throughout the colonial Spanish Empire, Santo Domingo was one of the colonies where miscegenation and interracial mixing was most common and had the biggest effect.[25] It is estimated that the population of the colony in 1777 was 400,000, of which 100,000 were European, 70,000 African, 100,000 European/indigenous mestizo, 60,000 African/indigenous mestizo, and 70,000 African/European.[26]

Puerto Rico

Main articles: History of Puerto Rico and Demographics of Puerto Rico

The 2010 United States Census reported that nearly 12% of Puerto Rico's population self-reported as mixed or other. The same census reported 37% of the 4.6 million Puerto Ricans living in the US mainland (during 2010).[27] Though most self-identified as white, the Puerto Rican population is largely made up of multi-racials; most Puerto Ricans are mixed to varying degrees, usually of white European/North African, black West African, and indigenous Taino ancestry.[28][28][29][30][31] It is estimated that only about 25% of all Puerto Ricans are of purely European ancestry, with little to no black African and/or Native Taino DNA.[32] About 61% have Taino ancestry through maternal lines and about 47% have high amounts of West African ancestry.[33][34][35][36][37]

The average genomewide individual ancestry proportions have been estimated as 56% European, 28% West African, and 16% Native American.[31] However, there are significant numbers of (pure or nearly pure) blacks and whites within the Puerto Rican population as well.[38] Historically, under Spanish and American rule, Puerto Rico underwent a whitening process; in particular, the island had laws like the Regla del Sacar, in which people of mixed-race origin were identified as "white", the opposite of the one-drop rule in the United States.[29][39][40][41]

Spanish South America

Colombia

Main articles: History of Colombia and Demographics of Colombia

Brazil

Main articles: History of Brazil and Demographics of Brazil

Other parts of the Caribbean

Multiracial populations are somewhat high in many Caribbean countries as well. For example, in Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, there are large "Dougla" populations. Dougla is a mix of Black African and South Asian, as the British did bring Asian slaves to some of their colonies to work alongside the African slaves. In Belize, the mix

  1. ↑ Wade (1981:32)
  2. ↑ Knight (1990:78–85)
  3. ↑ "World Factbook SOUTH AMERICA : Mexico", The World Factbook, July 12, 2018, archived from the original on January 29, 2018, retrieved February 23, 2020
  4. ↑ "Encyclopædia Britannica: Mexico Ethnic groups".
  5. ↑ Informe 2011 Latinobarómetro - pag. 58
  6. ↑ Wang, S; Ray, N; Rojas, W; et al. (2008-03-21). "Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos". PLOS Genetics. 4 (3): e1000037. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000037. PMC 2265669. PMID 18369456.
  7. ↑ Cerda-Flores, RM; Villalobos-Torres, MC; Barrera-Saldaña, HA; Cortés-Prieto, LM; Barajas, LO; Rivas, F; Carracedo, A; Zhong, Y; Barton, SA; Chakraborty, R (2002). "Genetic admixture in three Mexican Mestizo populations based on D1S80 and HLA-DQA1 loci". Am J Hum Biol. 14 (2): 257–63. doi:10.1002/ajhb.10020. PMID 11891937. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  8. ↑ In the total population sample, paternal ancestry was predominately European (64.9%), followed by Native American (30.8%) and African (4.2%). However, the European ancestry was prevalent in the north and west (66.7–95%) and, conversely, Native American ancestry increased in the center and southeast (37–50%), whereas the African ancestry was low and relatively homogeneous (0–8.8%), Journal of Human Genetics.
  9. ↑ Cerda-Flores, RM; Kshatriya, GK; Barton, SA; Leal-Garza, CH; Garza-Chapa, R; Schull, WJ; Chakraborty, R (June 1991). "Genetic structure of the populations migrating from San Luis Potosi and Zacatecas to Nuevo León in Mexico". Hum Biol. 63 (3): 309–27. PMID 2055589.
  10. ↑ J.K. Estrada; A. Hidalgo-Miranda; I. Silva-Zolezzi; G. Jimenez-Sanchez. "Evaluation of Ancestry and Linkage Disequilibrium Sharing in Admixed Population in Mexico". ASHG. Archived from the original on September 13, 2014. Retrieved July 18, 2012.
  11. ↑ Analysis of genomic diversity in Mexican Mestizo populations to develop genomic medicine in Mexico Silva-Zolezzi I, Hidalgo-Miranda A, Estrada-Gil J, Fernandez-Lopez JC, Uribe-Figueroa L, Contreras A, Balam-Ortiz E, del Bosque-Plata L, Velazquez Fernandez D, Lara C, Goya R, Hernandez-Lemus E, Davila C, Barrientos E, March S, Jimenez-Sanchez G. | National Institute of Genomic Medicine| May 26, 2009 "In this model, their mean ancestries (±Standard Deviation) were 0.552 ±0.154 for AMI, 0.418 ±0.155 for EUR, 0.018 ±0.035 for AFR, and 0.012 ±0.018 for EA"
  12. ↑ Martínez-Cortés, G; Salazar-Flores, J; Fernández-Rodríguez, LG; Rubi-Castellanos, R; Rodríguez-Loya, C; Velarde-Félix, JS; Muñoz-Valle, JF; Parra-Rojas, I; Rangel-Villalobos, H (2012). "Admixture and population structure in Mexican-Mestizos based on paternal lineages -". J. Hum. Genet. Journal of Human Genetics. 57 (9): 568–74. doi:10.1038/jhg.2012.67. PMID 22832385. In the total population sample, paternal ancestry was predominately European (64.9%), followed by Native American (30.8%) and African (4.2%). Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  13. ↑ Price, AL; Patterson, N; Yu, F; Cox, DR; Waliszewska, A; McDonald, GJ; Tandon, A; Schirmer, C; Neubauer, J; Bedoya, G; Duque, C; Villegas, A; Bortolini, MC; Salzano, FM; Gallo, C; Mazzotti, G; Tello-Ruiz, M; Riba, L; Aguilar-Salinas, CA; Canizales-Quinteros, S; Menjivar, M; Klitz, W; Henderson, B; Haiman, CA; Winkler, C; Tusie-Luna, T; Ruiz-Linares, A; Reich, D (2007). "A genomewide admixture map for Latino populations". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 80 (6): 1024–36. doi:10.1086/518313. PMC 1867092. PMID 17503322.
  14. ↑ https://www.censopoblacion.gt/dondeestamos
  15. ↑ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 27 December 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2017. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  16. ↑ Dario Euraque, "The Threat of Blackness to the Mestizo Nation: Race and Ethnicity in the Honduran Banana Economy, 1920s and 1930s," in Steve Striffler and Mark Moberg, eds. Banana Wars: Power, Production and History in the Americas (Duke University Press, 2003), pp. 229-49.
  17. ↑ Dario Euraque, "Antropólogos, archaeólogos, imperialismo y la mayanicación de Honduras, 1890-1940," Revista Historia 45 (2002): 73-103
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "CIA - The World Factbook -- Panama". CIA. Archived from the original on 2007-06-12. Retrieved 2013-10-07. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  19. ↑ "Genomic Components in America's demography". Retrieved January 8, 2018.
  20. ↑ "Costa Rica: Población total por autoidentificación étnica-racial, según provincia y sexo. (Spanish)". Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos (Costa Rica). Retrieved 2016-11-19.
  21. ↑ "World Factbook CENTRAL AMERICA : CUBA", The World Factbook, July 12, 2018, archived from the original on October 24, 2011, retrieved February 23, 2020 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  22. ↑ Marcheco-Teruel et al. 2014, Cuba: Exploring the History of Admixture and the Genetic Basis of Pigmentation Using Autosomal and Uniparental Markers
  23. ↑ Torroni, Antonio; Brown, Michael D.; Lott, Marie T.; Newman, Nancy J.; Wallace, Douglas C. (1995). "African, Native American, and European mitochondrial DNAs in Cubans from Pinar del Rio Province and implications for the recent epidemic neuropathy in Cuba". Human Mutation. 5 (4): 310–7. doi:10.1002/humu.1380050407. PMID 7627185. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  24. ↑ Montinaro, Francesco; et al. (24 March 2015). "Unravelling the hidden ancestry of American admixed populations". Nature Communications. 6. See Supplementary Data. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.6596M. doi:10.1038/ncomms7596. PMC 4374169. PMID 25803618.
  25. ↑ P. J. Ferbel (2002). "La sobrevivencia de la cultura Taína en la República Dominicana" [Survival of the Taino culture in the Dominican Republic] (in español). suncaribbean.net. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
  26. ↑ "World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Dominican Republic". Minority Rights Group International – MRGI. 2007. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
  27. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named 2010 Census
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Martínez Cruzado, Juan C. (2002). "The Use of Mitochondrial DNA to Discover Pre-Columbian Migrations to the Caribbean: Results for Puerto Rico and Expectations for the Dominican Republic" (PDF). The Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology. ISSN 1562-5028. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 22, 2004. Retrieved September 25, 2006. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Falcón in Falcón, Haslip-Viera and Matos-Rodríguez 2004: Ch. 6
  30. ↑ "DP-1: Profile of General Demographic Characteristics: Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1) 100-Percent Data". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on March 31, 2020. Retrieved January 20, 2017.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Tang, H; Choudhry, S; Mei, R; Morgan, M; Rodriguez-Cintron, W; EG; NJ (2007). "Recent genetic selection in the ancestral admixture of Puerto Ricans". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 81 (3): 626–33. doi:10.1086/520769. PMC 1950843. PMID 17701908. The average genomewide individual ancestry proportions have been estimated as .56, .28, and .16, for European, West African, and Native American, respectively
  32. ↑ Bonilla C, Shriver MD, Parra EJ, Jones A, Fernández JR (2004). "Ancestral proportions and their association with skin pigmentation and bone mineral density in Puerto Rican women from New York city" (PDF). Hum. Genet. 115 (1): 57–68. doi:10.1007/s00439-004-1125-7. PMID 15118905. Retrieved 30 May 2008. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)[dead link]
  33. ↑ Vincent, Ted (July 30, 2002). "Racial Amnesia — African Puerto Rico & Mexico: Emporia State University professor publishes controversial Mexican history". Stewartsynopsis.com. Retrieved March 28, 2016.
  34. ↑ "How Puerto Rico Became White: An Analysis of Racial Statistics in the 1910 and 1920 Censuses" (PDF). Ssc.wisc.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 7, 2012. Retrieved July 23, 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  35. ↑ Duany, Jorge (2005). "Neither White nor Black: The Politics of Race and Ethnicity among Puerto Ricans on the Island and in the U.S. Mainland" (PDF). Max Webber, Social Sciences, Hunter College. Retrieved March 23, 2016.
  36. ↑ "The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on January 8, 2019. Retrieved March 23, 2016.
  37. ↑ "2010 Census Data". US Census Bureau. 2011. Archived from the original on July 6, 2011. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  38. ↑ "Ancestry in Puerto Rico". FindArticles.com – CBSi.[dead link]
  39. ↑ Loveman, Mara; Jeronimo O. Muniz (2007). "How Puerto Rico Became White: Boundary Dynamics and Intercensus Racial Reclassification". American Sociological Review. 72 (6): 915–939. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.563.9069. doi:10.1177/000312240707200604. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  40. ↑ Kinsbruner, Jay (1996). Not of Pure Blood: The Free People of Color and Racial Prejudice in Nineteenth-century Puerto Rico. Duke University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-8223-1842-2. Retrieved January 20, 2017. Search this book on
  41. ↑ (Spanish) Real Cédula de 1789 "para el comercio de Negros". Proyecto Ensayo Hispánico. Retrieved July 20, 2007

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