Phra Somdet Wat Rakhang
Phra Somdet Wat Rakhang (Thai: พระสมเด็จวัดระฆัง) is a sacred Buddha image (amulet, or Buddhist amulet) created by Somdet Toh of Wat Rakhangkhositaram Woramahavihan. Its Buddhist art and characteristics are generally in the form of a bas-relief sculpture depicting the Buddha seated in meditation posture (samādhi), with both the cross-legged posture (khat rab) and the full lotus posture (khat phet) represented. The Buddha is shown wearing the monastic robe in the hom dong style (covering both shoulders) without adornments, seated upon a three-tiered singha-style pedestal (lion base) under a halo arch, which appears as a plain wire-like line (or split rattan), forming a limited boundary. The surrounding frame of the figure is rectangular in shape, indicating a modern artisan school style.[1] In addition, Phra Somdet Wat Rakhang is one of the amulets of the prestigious Benjapakee set (which also includes Phra Somdet, Phra Nang Phaya, Phra Kamphaeng Soom Kor, Phra Phong Suphan, and Phra Rod Lamphun). It is highly esteemed and valued in the field of amulets as well as among the general public, both in Thailand and abroad, for its sacred qualities (phutthakun), spiritual power (kritthiyanupap), artistic merit, and commercial value. It has therefore earned the title "Emperor of Amulets".[2][3]
Characteristics of Styles
Phra Somdet Wat Rakhang exists in a variety of stylistic molds, but the most popular and widely recognized include the Phra Prathan (principal image or large mold), Chedi (stupa form), Than Saem (interlaced base), Ket Bua Toom (lotus-bud top), Prok Pho (under the Bodhi tree), and Sia Bat Ok Krut (Garuda-chested, alms-bowl head) styles, with further details as follows:[4]
- Phra Somdet Wat Rakhang, Phra Prathan style (or large mold) is the most popular among the six main styles. It is generally larger in size and proportion than other molds, both in frame and in the Buddha image itself, though variations exist. At least six subtypes are recognized: Khueang, Prong, Chalud, Pom, Santhat, and Yom. The first three are larger than the Chedi style, while the others are closer in size. The name "Phra Prathan" derives from the image’s striking beauty, reflecting the proportions of Sukhothai Buddha images typically enshrined as principal icons in royal monastery ordination halls.
- Phra Somdet Wat Rakhang, Chedi style is especially elegant in its balance of outlines, curvature, and depth. The outer lines run from the lotus-top hair to the lower corners of the base, creating a stupa-like (conical) silhouette, hence the name. The curvature and depth show clear influence from the Chiang Saen school, noted for its rounded and full body forms with sharp proportions. This style has at least four subtypes: Khueang, Chalud, Santhat, and Yom.
- Phra Somdet Wat Rakhang, Than Saem style is among the most graceful, known for its slender form and vigorous Buddha features. A line drawn from the lotus-top hair to the base forms a tapering cone, resembling the Sukhothai lotus-bud stupa, thus reflecting Sukhothai influence. The strong arms show U-Thong style features, while the meditation posture (diamond-crossed legs) follows Chiang Saen traditions. Its distinctive two interlaced base lines give the style its name, with further features such as the robe fold (sanghati) across the chest and elongated ears. Six subtypes exist at Wat Rakhang: Khueang, Prong, Chalud, Pom, Santhat, and Yom.
- Phra Somdet Wat Rakhang, Ket Bua Toom style is rare and highly esteemed. Its form is intermediate between the Chedi, Than Saem, and Sanghati types. Triyampawai[5] described it as: “The beauty of this style does not derive from grandeur like the Phra Prathan, nor from prominent contours like the Chedi, nor from slender vigor like the Than Saem, but from a unique compact elegance blending many features into a distinct form.” Its unique trait is the lotus-bud shaped hair-knot, hence the name. It shows Chiang Saen early-style influence, being compact yet powerful. Five subtypes are recorded: Khueang, Prong, Santhat, Yom, and Ket Bua Riao.
- Phra Somdet Wat Rakhang, Prok Pho style is the rarest, featuring about 20 Bodhi leaf motifs at the top arch of the frame. This symbolizes the Buddha’s enlightenment under the Bodhi tree by the Neranjara River in India, hence the name. Two subtypes are known: Prok Pho Than Saem and Prok Pho Sanghati.
- Phra Somdet Wat Rakhang, Sia Bat Ok Krut style reflects Ayutthaya folk Buddhist art, similar to the Phra Takrai Na Krut at Wat Takrai in Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya. It differs greatly from refined or modern styles, instead showing a large round head and full convex chest, hence its name. This style is said to embody powerful magical inspiration and is regarded as the first rectangular-framed mold personally designed and carved by Somdet To himself.[6] It includes four subtypes: Khueang, Santhat, Prong, and Yom.
Materials used in creation
The materials or substances used in the making of Phra Somdej Wat Rakhang amulets can be divided into three categories: quantitative materials, magical materials, and auspicious materials, as follows.[7]
Quantitative materials and binders
These refer to the mixtures used to produce the required volume for creating the amulets, as well as to strengthen their structure. The quantitative materials used in the making of Phra Somdej include:[8]
- Slaked lime – the principal quantitative material and the main substance of the amulet’s composition, allowing for the production of a large number of amulets, traditionally 84,000 in number, equal to the number of dhamma-khandhas. To achieve both softness and durability, Somdet Toh selected lime derived from seashells. Because the amulet was made without fire, it is believed that he intended the amulet to belong to the "cool" class of amulets, carrying great popularity and auspiciousness.[9] Seashell lime has a fine, smooth texture and is more durable than stone-derived lime once hardened, due to its amorphous calcium carbonate composition. In addition, lime from the city pillar, city walls, and the Grand Palace walls was mixed for auspicious potency.[10]
- Cooked rice – used as both a binder and an auspicious substance. According to Phra Thamthaworn, Somdet Toh divided the rice from his alms bowl into four parts: one for his own consumption, one for disciples, one for animals, and the last for grinding into the amulet mixture. This made cooked rice within Phra Somdej both a sacred alms-offering and an auspicious element.[11]
- Banana pulp – Phra Thamthaworn stated that different types of bananas (kluai hom, kluai nam wa, and kluai hom chan) were used, with both flesh and peel ground into the mixture. Bananas acted as effective binders, preventing the mixture from sticking to molds, and were also considered auspicious alms-offerings.[12]
- Tung oil – used as a binder to prevent cracking; when dried, it hardened. This followed the advice of Luang Wichan Chianyanai, a royal goldsmith of King Rama IV, who also designed the standard Phra Somdej mold.[13]
- Sand grains – extremely fine white sand, already consecrated, was mixed into the amulets to strengthen their structure, thus serving as both a quantitative and magical material.
Magical materials
Magical materials (itthi-watthu) are substances believed to enhance the sacred power or spiritual efficacy of the amulet. These included:[14]
- Five Sacred Powders – consisting largely of white chalk powder, combined with sacred earths, ashes of temple candles, plant materials (such as dok kalong and dok rak son), and special resins, all prepared following ritual formulae. These were used to make five types of sacred powders: Phong Pathamang, Phong Itthije, Phong Maharach, Phong Phutthakhun, and Phong Trinisinghe. These powders gave softness and spiritual efficacy to the amulet’s composition.
- Burnt palm-leaf manuscript powder – ash from palm leaves inscribed with sacred letters, yantra, and formulas, which were then burned and mixed into the amulet substance. Like the Five Sacred Powders, this was considered a direct magical material, while also enhancing the softness of the mixture.
Auspicious materials
Auspicious materials (mongkhon-watthu) were added to enhance sacred efficacy and auspiciousness. They included:[15]
- Flower pollen – especially pollen from five types of lotus (white, green, red, blue, and pink), traditionally offered to Buddha images, as well as other auspicious flowers such as saraphi, pikul, and bun-nak. These contributed to the softness and sacred nature of the amulet’s substance.
- 108 types of sacred herbs – roots and plants believed to have natural magical properties, such as Wan Maha Setthi (Great Wealth Herb), Wan Charm, and Wan Phaya Lin Ngu (Snake’s Tongue Herb). These acted as both magical and auspicious substances, while also softening the amulet mixture.
- Silver and gold filings – shavings from inscribed silver and gold sheets, consecrated with the 108 yantra formulas, which were mixed into the amulet substance for magical reinforcement.
- Sandalwood oil – extracted from fragrant woods, consecrated with 108 Buddhist chants. It served as both a magical binder and a softening agent, like tung oil.
- Incense ash – collected from incense used in worship by Somdet Toh and from temple altars, finely ground and mixed in bulk, serving as both auspicious and quantitative material by softening the texture of the amulet.
Types of Somdej Amulet Material
Triyampawai[16] categorized the standard materials of Somdej amulets as follows:
- Floral pollen material – Classified under the soft and smooth (nuek num) type, consisting of a texture with fine and delicate particles, comparable to floral pollen of various kinds. This material appears only in Somdej Wat Rakhang amulets. It possesses a high degree of softness, usually shows traces of mold-release powder, and has moderate gloss and depth. The weight is average, and traces of silver-gold sand or old lacquer/gold are rarely found. Typically, it does not show "crazing" (lai nga) or "celadon crackle" (lai sangkhalok), except in rare cases resembling them, but not truly so. Somdej with floral pollen material never has gold applied with lacquer grooves. The color of the amulet body is ivory white.
- Krajae Chan (fragrant powder) material – Also classified under the soft and smooth type. Its overall characteristics are similar to floral pollen material, though not literally prepared from fragrant powder. The texture is fine but mixed with darker sacred materials, comparable to traditional fragrant cosmetic powders made from various aromatic woods. This material appears only in Somdej Wat Rakhang amulets. It is the softest and deepest type, second only to floral pollen material in fineness. Mold-release powder often appears, along with hidden firmness and heavy weight. Silver-gold sand may appear sparsely. It shows little gloss and never has lacquer/gold application or celadon crackle. Colors include yellow ochre, raw umber, burnt sienna white, neutral grey pale, and emerald green pale.
- Soft lime material – Classified under the mixed type, combining features of floral pollen and fragrant powder materials. The surface is smooth like floral pollen, with scattered darker particles like fragrant powder, but internally stronger than both. It retains softness and smoothness, hence called "soft lime material." Found in both Wat Rakhang and Bang Khun Phrom amulets, it belongs to the nuek num group with fine texture, high gloss and depth, medium weight, and occasional silver-gold sand and old lacquer/gold. Mold-release powder may appear lightly. Crazing and celadon crackle are minimal, sometimes faint lacquer lines. Colors include Naples yellow, burnt sienna white, yellow ochre, and raw umber.
- Krayasart (Thai brittle snack) material – Also a mixed type, not literally made from krayasart. The particles are darker and multi-colored, both coarse and fine, resembling the mixed grains of the snack. Found mainly in Wat Rakhang amulets and some Bang Khun Phrom examples. It is heavy, with high depth caused by varied materials. Mold-release powder is common. Both soft and firm subtypes exist. Silver-gold sand, old lacquer, and crazing appear frequently. In softer examples, fineness and gloss are high. No lacquer/gold grooves are found. Colors include light chocolate (neutral violet white) and burnt sienna white, with occasional traces of lime-white.
- Khanom tub tab (nut brittle) material – Classified under the firm (nuek krang) type. Like krayasart, it is a metaphor: the texture is coarse, with visible clumps of different materials, resembling nut brittle. Found in both Wat Rakhang and Bang Khun Phrom amulets. This type is very firm and heavy, with strong depth from gloss, smooth surface, and arrangement of darker sacred particles. Alternating ivory crack patterns appear. When coated with black lacquer (rak nam dam), heavy crazing occurs, producing striking beauty. Mold-release powder and lacquer/gold grooves are absent. Colors include Ostwald grey white and neutral grey pale. If coated with old lacquer and gold, especially black lacquer, alternating dark and light brown crack lines appear, resulting in a burnt sienna white effect of great beauty.
- Hard lime material – Classified under the firm type. Made primarily from lime (calcium carbonate), it is the hardest of all materials, with smooth thick surfaces formed when lime sets into stone. Found mostly in Bang Khun Phrom amulets and less often at Wat Rakhang. It displays strong hardness, heavy crazing, and clear white crack grids. Depth comes from bright whiteness and reflective gloss. If celadon crackle occurs, the lines are deep and clear. When lacquer and gold are applied, black lacquer is used. The surface has medium fineness, moderate to heavy weight, and sparse silver-gold sand. No lacquer/gold grooves or mold-release powder appear. Colors include neutral white, ivory white, Ostwald grey white, and Naples yellow.
- Special materials – Apart from the standard "lime plaster" (neua poon pan), it is believed that Somdej amulets may have been created with other materials, such as burnt palm-leaf ash, betel residue, oil-mixed lime, diamond lime, and kode plaster, among others.
Surface of Phra Somdej
When examining the surface characteristics of Phra Somdej, it is generally found to be related to the texture. The surface of Phra Somdej can be classified into four types:[17]
- Fragrant membrane surface (ผิวเยื่อหอม) — This type of surface appears only in amulets from Wat Rakhang, particularly those with very soft textures, such as the floral pollen mixture and the kracheachand mixture. In this type, there is almost no coating of plaster on the front, making the surface and the texture nearly inseparable, thin like a delicate membrane. Most examples may have been touched or coated with old lacquer and gold, but without developing crack patterns, due to the extreme softness of the material. Powder residue from the molding process often appears if the amulet was dried naturally.
- Powder-dusted surface (ผิวแป้งโรยพิมพ์) — This surface type results from a texture that is soft and fine, similar to those with a fragrant membrane surface. However, it occurs when the material dries without oily substances, combined with friction from old lacquer applications. Even coarser textures, such as the Krayasat mixture, may also show this surface if sufficiently dry. This results in a pale, whitish film resembling flour dust on the amulet’s surface, and if the piece originally had powder-dusting, it appears even thicker.
- Smooth surface (ผิวเรียบ) — This refers to a surface that is relatively thick and firmly attached to the material beneath, showing greater hardness than the first two types. It may arise from both softer and harder textures, giving an even and flat appearance without puffiness. Smooth surfaces are divided into two forms:
- Thin smooth surface — Found in amulets made of soft lime mixture or Krayasat mixture. It is not very thick and is softer compared to thick smooth surfaces. This type is relatively flat and does not create cracks.
- Thick smooth surface — Found in harder mixtures, such as Tubtab mixture and hard lime mixture. When coated with lacquer, this surface develops crack patterns and is considered the hardest. Some examples display deep cracks, while the thickness and hardness make them highly durable. If exposed to sweat, the surface may develop a bright white sheen, smooth and reflective like ceramic.
- Fluffy surface (ผิวฟู) — This surface type has a puffed, flaky appearance, resembling fine fish scales, similar to chalk or a whetstone. It is believed to result from particularly liquid mixtures during creation, causing a cream-like film to form on the front that touched the mold. Fluffy surfaces can be categorized as:
- Thin fluffy surface — Characterized by a thin cream-like film or light fish-scale pattern.
- Thick fluffy surface — Similar to the thin fluffy surface but with a thicker appearance. It is believed to result from liquid cream mixture blending with powder during creation, creating a thicker texture. This process may trap air bubbles or resemble boiling lime reactions, comparable to crack patterns, but only on the front surface. This surface type often shows soft shades of light gray, dull tones, or pale jasmine-green.
Theory and dynamics of the surface and texture of Phra Somdej
Since the making of Phra Somdej used slaked lime (produced from burnt seashells) as the primary material, mixed with water and other substances,[18] the texture of Phra Somdej undergoes reactions and transformations similar to those of lime mortar in general. The details of these processes can be described as follows:[19]
According to established theory, the hardening process of lime mortar and related binders occurs in several stages. The first stage, lasting about one month, is characterized by the formation of calcium hydroxide crystals (Portlandite), as shown in equation (1):
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 (1)
This is followed by a second stage, where the calcium hydroxide crystals gain strength through reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide, as in equation (2):
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 + H2O → CaCO3 + 2H2O (2)
This process, known as carbonation, releases water as part of the by-products. For this reason, during the first 1–2 years after production, the lime material of the amulet often appears moist (so-called "wet texture"). In this stage, calcium carbonate crystals (in the polymorphs calcite, aragonite, and vaterite—with calcite being the most stable) accumulate densely in the outermost layer, slowing further penetration of CO2. Nevertheless, carbonation continues slowly because of the porosity of the lime matrix. Eventually, the lime converts into calcite, increasing stability and hardness. This process of natural carbonation in lime and Portland cement concretes, as well as in accelerated silicate concretes, has been widely studied.[20][21][22][23]
The carbonation of Portlandite (Ca(OH)2) depends on several technical factors: particle dispersion, moisture content, temperature fluctuations, CO2 concentration, and the presence of additives that increase CO2 solubility—often organic binders such as banana, cooked rice, cane sugar, or tung oil. These components strongly influence recrystallization in Phra Somdej Wat Rakhang, which is noted for its high proportion of organic additives. Because environmental parameters remain fairly stable over decades, only long-term humidity significantly affects the process, enhancing the dissolution of carbonate and bicarbonate by carbonic acid and ion-exchange reactions in aqueous solution.[24]
Alongside carbonation, the strength of lime structures may also be enhanced through reactions of calcium hydroxide with silica found in rocks and ceramics—such as volcanic tuff, ash, opal-cristobalite silica, acidic volcanic rocks, and ceramic fragments.[25][26] These materials can act as fine aggregates and binding components, producing calcium hydrosilicates with varying water content, as shown in equation (3):
Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 → CaO × SiO2 × nH2O (3)
The final and longest stage in the "life" of lime is the recrystallization of calcite, accompanied by the growth of small crystals and increasing structural organization of the crystalline framework.
It is also well known that, unlike fired ceramics (e.g., bricks), which undergo no further chemical or mineralogical changes after production, lime continues to evolve chemically and mineralogically over time. This allows the use of lime’s microstructural changes as an indirect method for dating ancient artifacts.[27]
History of Creation and Archaeological Evaluation
The creation of Phra Somdej by Somdet Phra Buddhacarya (To) evolved from simple village-carved molds to the final refined craftsmanship of royal artisans, which was delicate, meticulous, and beautiful. A wide variety of forms of Phra Somdej were produced. Scholars generally divide the production into three periods:[28]
- Early Period (ca. 1812–1850 CE / 2355–2393 BE): From the late reign of King Rama II through the reign of King Rama III. The molds were carved from wood, often by local craftsmen, resulting in simple, less refined forms. Some accounts claim Somdet To himself carved certain molds. The figures generally appear shallow, with uneven lines of the halo and Buddha image. The main material was lime from burned seashells, finely ground, modeled after earlier lime-based Buddha images by Somdet Phra Sangharaja Suk. Binding agents included mashed cooked rice, bananas, honey, or caramelized sugar. Finished amulets were air-dried, resulting in a hard, dry texture. The surface color varied depending on the mixture of sacred powders and additives. Toward the end of King Rama III’s reign, Somdet To went on forest pilgrimages (tudong) to avoid royal appointments, during which he collected ancient amulets from various stupas. Only the collection from Kamphaeng Phet is directly mentioned in chronicles; these broken fragments were ground into sacred powder and mixed into later batches of Phra Somdej, becoming a key ingredient in subsequent creations.
- Middle Period (ca. 1851–1864 CE / 2394–2407 BE): Early reign of King Mongkut (Rama IV). The king summoned Somdet To to court, conferring upon him the title Phra Thammakitti and making him abbot of Wat Rakhang, a royal temple. In 1858 CE (2401 BE), for the enshrinement of the replica of Phra That Phanom, Somdet To created many Phra Somdej for interment within the structure.[29] Royal artisans assisted in carving new molds, producing more proportioned and elegant designs. The reliefs were deeper and more dimensional, with refined lines. Materials included seashell lime, but also imported Chinese porcelain lime (kaolin or Kung Sai lime), either alone or mixed with seashell lime. Collectors later debated whether “true” Phra Somdej must only use seashell lime. In practice, porcelain lime yielded a whiter, smoother surface with fewer cracks, while seashell lime tended to shrink more and show surface fissures. Many popular molds originated in this period, both from reused earlier molds and newly carved royal ones. Some commercial collector groups claim only amulets made at Wat Rakhang, after Somdet To was elevated to Somdet Phra Buddhacarya, are authentic. However, no evidence proves whether specific pieces were made at Wat Rakhang or in royal court ceremonies.
- Late Period (ca. 1865–1872 CE / 2408–2415 BE): After Somdet To’s elevation to Somdet Phra Buddhacarya, significant innovations in both mold-making and material mixtures occurred. Luang Wicharn Chian-nai, a Chinese-descended royal goldsmith devoted to Somdet To, observed cracking in drying amulets and recommended mixing tung oil (nam man tang iu), a viscous resin. This slowed drying, reduced cracking, and produced a glossy, supple surface. Luang Wicharn also pioneered stone molds (marble, slate), allowing sharper and more detailed impressions than wooden molds. Phra Somdej made with his molds exhibit clear, refined features, with high-relief depth. The addition of tung oil yielded tighter surfaces with minor shrinkage and only fine cracks. Under magnification, the texture appears soft and lustrous. Some batches used mineral pigments or plant resins for coloration, especially yellowish or light-brown tones. There is debate among commercial groups about whether Luang Wicharn’s molds were posthumous, but early photographic records show that many of the “Pim Yai” types were indeed made from his molds, casting doubt on such denials.[30]
Additionally, some traditions divide the production into four periods:[31]
- Early Period – not yet the rectangular “block” style.
- Second Period – rectangular “block” style carved by villagers or court artisans.
- Third Period – refined molds by Luang Wicharn Chian-nai, with distinctive borders touching the halo.
- Fourth Period – later molds, not consecrated by Somdet To.
Because Phra Somdej was created from the late reign of Rama II through the early reign of Rama V, it is classified as an archaeological artifact of both artistic and esoteric value. Thus, evaluating its age and authenticity is critical. Methods include:
- Study of stylistic and iconographic features.
- Examination of related historical documents.
- Scientific analysis of physical and chemical characteristics, including high-power microscopy, acid-solution reaction tests, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF).
Evaluation of Age and Authenticity of Phra Somdej
This section discusses scientific methods for evaluating the age and authenticity of Phra Somdej amulets, focusing on two widely used approaches: 1. Age estimation through reaction with acid solutions. 2. Age estimation using X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry (XRF).
Age Estimation of Phra Somdej by Acid Solution Reaction
This method evaluates Phra Somdej (as archaeological artifacts) by studying the natural physical and chemical changes of lime (from seashells), the main construction material, particularly the formation and evolution of calcite crystals. By observing the release of carbon dioxide gas bubbles when reacting with an organic acid solution, the approximate age of the amulet can be inferred. Advantages include:
- Non-destructive to the artifact
- Low cost
- Short testing time
- Supported by scientific principles
Techniques and Methods
Traditionally, experts assessed age by studying mold patterns and magnifying physical details (≈10x magnification). Older amulets typically show contraction and shrinkage marks on the lime surface.[32] However, such evaluation required specialized knowledge and long experience, often confined to a few experts. The diversity of molds, textures, surfaces, usage, and preservation added complexity and possible error. Therefore, developing new scientific methods for dating Phra Somdej is essential.[33][34]
The chemical transformation of calcium within Phra Somdej includes: portlandite formation, carbonation, and recrystallization. The process durations are summarized in Table 1.[35]
| Process | Duration |
|---|---|
| Portlandite | 1 month |
| Carbonation | 1–2 years |
| Recrystallization | > 2 years |
From Table 1 and historical accounts, genuine Phra Somdej are typically 150–200 years old.[36] Thus, authentic specimens should only exhibit recrystallized calcite, not early-stage portlandite or initial carbonation.
Authentic Phra Somdej should primarily consist of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in crystalline calcite form, with possible traces of aragonite or vaterite. When calcium carbonate reacts with an acid, calcium salts, carbon dioxide, and water form, as shown in Equations (4) and (5):[37]
- 2CH3COOH (aq) + CaCO3 (s) → Ca(CH3COO)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) (4)
- CaCO3 (s) + 2H+ → Ca2+ + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) (5)
Where:
- CH3COOH = acetic acid solution
- CaCO3 = calcium carbonate (calcite crystals)
- Ca(CH3COO)2 = calcium acetate salt
- CO2 = carbon dioxide gas
- H2O = water
The CO2 gas manifests as bubbles in the acid droplet applied on the amulet surface (≈1.5–2.0 mm in diameter). Bubble characteristics correspond to age indicators.[38]
| Bubble Characteristics | Approx. Size (mm) | Age Assessment |
|---|---|---|
| None | --- | Not lime-based; possibly resin or other material |
| Small bubbles adhering, immobile | X ≤ 0.1 | Recently made amulet |
| Small bubbles rising quickly | X ≤ 0.1 | Amulet several decades old |
| Alternating small and large bubbles | 0.1 ≤ X ≤ 0.5 | Possibly mid-to-late period Phra Somdej |
| Large bubbles rising slowly, persisting in droplet | 0.3 ≤ X ≤ 0.5 | Early-to-mid period Phra Somdej, over 150 years old |
Hypotheses on Bubble Formation
1. No bubbles: Material is not lime (e.g., resin). 2. Small, immobile bubbles (X ≤ 0.1 mm): Indicates early carbonation with sparse calcite microcrystals → relatively young age (Level 1). 3. Small bubbles rising rapidly (X ≤ 0.1 mm): Indicates initial recrystallization, unstable calcite microcrystals → several decades old (Level 2). 4. Alternating small and large bubbles (0.1 ≤ X ≤ 0.5 mm): Indicates widespread recrystallization → >100 years old, mid-to-late period (Level 3). 5. Large bubbles rising slowly, persisting (0.3 ≤ X ≤ 0.5 mm): Indicates advanced recrystallization with stable calcite → >150 years old, early-to-mid period (Level 4).
Discussion of Hypotheses
The bubble formation process is discontinuous, with each bubble generated independently as acid reacts with individual or clustered calcite crystals of varying size and stability. These qualitative indicators (bubble size, stability, rising speed) can be correlated with calcite distribution, crystal type, and maturity.
Although approximate dating is possible, precise chronological placement (e.g., year or reign) remains hypothetical. The method is best used as empirical evidence in combination with other techniques such as XRF or scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Conclusion
Acid-reaction dating is a qualitative, low-cost, and rapid method compared to others such as XRF calcium quantification or SEM analysis. It provides more concrete indicators than magnification-only inspection or expert judgment, though results should be corroborated with additional techniques for reliability.
The Buddha's Virtues and Supernatural Powers
The essential components that form the sacred virtues and supernatural powers (phutthakun and kritthiyanupap) of Phra Somdej, aside from the blessing chants and meditative empowerment performed by Somdet Phra Buddhacharn (To Phrommarangsi), are the Five Sacred Powders (Phong Wises Ha Prakan). These consist of: Phong Pathamang, Ittije, Maharach, Phutthakun, and Trinisinghe.
In actuality, these are not five separate powders mixed together, but rather a single powder that undergoes a highly elaborate process of creation in five sequential stages. First, Phong Pathamang is prepared, which is then transformed into Ittije, followed in turn by Maharach, Phutthakun, and finally Trinisinghe.
Because of this ritual process, the Five Sacred Powders are believed to embody the most potent esoteric power. The sacred virtues and supernatural powers are described as follows:[39]
- Phong Pathamang — Possesses powers related to loving-kindness and charm, but emphasizes invulnerability, great protection, avoidance of danger, invisibility, and safeguarding against ghosts, spirits, and all forms of sorcery.
- Phong Ittije — Created by rolling Phong Pathamang into a pencil-shaped stick, inscribing characters using the Mulakaccayana formula, and then erasing them with the ritual erasure method specific to Ittije. The resulting powder has strong properties of attraction and charm, and is believed to protect against illnesses.
- Phong Maharach — Produced from Ittije by again rolling into a stick, invoking the Maharach formula, and erasing the five sacred names. This powder grants supreme charm and loving-kindness, the ability to repel and remove sorcery, and provides protection and safety.
- Phong Phutthakun — Derived from Maharach by forming a stick, invoking formulas related to various Buddha qualities, and ritually erasing them. It is a sacred powder that grants supreme loving-kindness, concealment, release from dangers, and invisibility.
- Phong Trinisinghe — The final powder, linked to ancient Thai numerical formulas. It is made by gathering the erased remains of Phutthakun powder, forming a stick, and invoking the Attaradvat Sam Mongkhon 12 formula, culminating in the Trinisinghe yantra system. This completes in the form of twelve yantras, the final being the Narayana Shedding His Body yantra, which is the central yantra of Trinisinghe. The final consecration involves impressing with the Phra Phakhawambodi yantra and the Royal Lion Seal. Phong Trinisinghe is believed to bestow charm and loving-kindness, repel and remove sorcery and evil spirits, protect against claws, tusks, and animal horns, as well as illnesses, accidents, fires, and all manner of dangers, according to the wishes of the devotee.
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- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, Pari Atthathibai haeng Phra Khrueang, Vol. 1: Phra Somdet, Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya Burapha, 1977 (BE 2520).
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, Pari Atthathibai haeng Phra Khrueang, Vol. 1: Phra Somdet, Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya Burapha, 1977 (BE 2520).
- ↑ [12] S. Modindaeng, Poe̜t khambhī 1,000 lan chut tai phra khrueang thae, Bangkok: Happy Book, 2012 (BE 2555).
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, Pari Atthathibai haeng Phra Khrueang, Vol. 1: Phra Somdet, Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya Burapha, 1977 (BE 2520).
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, Pari Atthathibai haeng Phra Khrueang, Vol. 1: Phra Somdet, Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya Burapha, 1977 (BE 2520).
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, Pari Atthathibai haeng Phra Khrueang, Vol. 1: Phra Somdet, Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya Burapha, 1977 (BE 2520).
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, Pari-Atthathibai Haeng Phra Khlueang, Vol. 1: Phra Somdet, Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya Burapha, 1977.
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, Pari-Atthathibai Haeng Phra Khlueang, Vol. 1: Phra Somdet, Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya Burapha, 1977.
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, 1977.
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, 1977.
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, 1977.
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, 1977.
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, 1977.
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, 1977.
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, 1977.
- ↑ [1] ตรียัมปวาย, ปริอรรถาธิบายแห่งพระเครื่องฯ เล่ม ๑ พระสมเด็จฯ, กรุงเทพฯ : คลังวิทยาบูรพา, 2520.
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, Pari-aratthathibai haeng Phra Khrueang, Vol. 1: Phra Somdej, Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya Burapha, 1977 (BE 2520).
- ↑ [1] Triyampawai, Pari-aratthathibai haeng Phra Khrueang, Vol. 1: Phra Somdej, Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya Burapha, 1977 (BE 2520).
- ↑ [2] Kotlyar, V.; Pishchulina, V.; Beskopylny, A.N.; Meskhi, B.; Popov, Y. and Efremenko, I. Estimation of the Age of Architectural Heritage Objects by Microstructural Changes of Calcite in Lime Mortars of Ancient Brickwork and Masonry. Buildings 2021, 11, 240. [CrossRef]
- ↑ [3] Lyubomirskiy, N.; Bakhtin, A.; Fic, S.; Szafraniec, M.; Bakhtina, T. Intensive Ways of Producing Carbonate Curing Building Materials Based on Lime Secondary Raw Materials. Materials 2020, 13, 2304. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- ↑ [4] Nikolaenko, V.; Lyubomirskiy, N.; Bakhtina, T. The Effect of Forced Carbonation on the Change in the Structure of Lime-Containing Systems over Time. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2020, 753, 032078. [CrossRef]
- ↑ [5] Lyubomirskiy, N.V.; Bakhtina, T.A.; Bakhtin, A.S.; Fedorkin, S.I. The Carbonate-Hardening Lime Construction Material Properties Formation during their Long-Term Storage and Use under Normal Conditions. Mater. Sci. Forum 2019, 974, 187–194. [CrossRef]
- ↑ [6] Dimes, F.G. Conservation of Building and Decorative Stone. Conserv. Build. Decor. Stone 2007. [CrossRef]
- ↑ [2] Kotlyar, V.; Pishchulina, V.; Beskopylny, A.N.; Meskhi, B.; Popov, Y. and Efremenko, I. Estimation of the Age of Architectural Heritage Objects by Microstructural Changes of Calcite in Lime Mortars of Ancient Brickwork and Masonry. Buildings 2021, 11, 240. [CrossRef]
- ↑ [7] Jivotkov, O.; Kotlyar, V.; Kozlov, G.; Jivotkova, I.; Kozlov, A. Silicate Brick with Reduced Density and Thermal Conductivity. Mater. Sci. Forum 2020, 1011, 37–43. [CrossRef]
- ↑ [8] Kotlyar, V. The Calcite Crystallinity and the Age of Limestone Brick Mortars of Medieval Objects of the North of the Byzantine Oecumene. Mater. Sci. Forum 2019, 974, 83–89. [CrossRef]
- ↑ [2] Kotlyar, V.; Pishchulina, V.; Beskopylny, A.N.; Meskhi, B.; Popov, Y. and Efremenko, I. Estimation of the Age of Architectural Heritage Objects by Microstructural Changes of Calcite in Lime Mortars of Ancient Brickwork and Masonry. Buildings 2021, 11, 240. [CrossRef]
- ↑ [12] การพิจารณาสภาพผิวและประเมินอายุพระสมเด็จ https://royalbuddhasiam.wordpress.com/2021/10/03/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%9C%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3/, retrieved November 30, 2024.
- ↑ [9] Anek Hutangkabodi, Phra Somdej Chao Khun Krom Tha, Bangkok: Petch Prakai, 2018.
- ↑ [2] Wiphatchawati, Phra Somdej Bang Khun Phrom (The Lost Ones), Bangkok: S. Asia Place, 2016.
- ↑ [2] Wiphatchawati, Phra Somdej Bang Khun Phrom (The Lost Ones), Bangkok: S. Asia Place, 2016.
- ↑ [1] Triyamphawai, Pari-aratthathibai Haeng Phra Khlueang, Vol. 1: Phra Somdej, Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya Burapha, 1977.
- ↑ [2] Kotlyar, V.; Pishchulina, V.; Beskopylny, A.N.; Meskhi, B.; Popov, Y. and Efremenko, I. Estimation of the Age of Architectural Heritage Objects by Microstructural Changes of Calcite in Lime Mortars of Ancient Brickwork and Masonry. Buildings 2021, 11, 240. [CrossRef]
- ↑ [9] Anek Hutangkabodi, Phra Somdej Chao Khun Krom Tha, Bangkok: Petch Prakai, 2018.
- ↑ [2] Kotlyar et al., Buildings, 2021.
- ↑ [12] Assessment of Phra Somdej Surfaces and Dating. https://royalbuddhasiam.wordpress.com/2021/10/03/…, retrieved November 30, 2024.
- ↑ [10] Chloe Yaan, The Rate of Reaction of Calcium Carbonate Dissolving in Acetic Acid, Magill School. https://www.oliphantscienceawards.com.au/files/4309_0341-016_yew_written_report.pdf, downloaded November 7, 2024.
- ↑ [11] What are the products when calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid?, Vedantu. https://www.vedantu.com/question-answer/…, downloaded November 7, 2024.
- ↑ [1] Triyamphawai, Pari-aratthathibai Haeng Phra Khlueang, Vol. 1: Phra Somdej, Bangkok: Khlang Witthaya Burapha, 1977.
