Risk taking
Risk taking, risk-taking, risky behavior or risk seeking[1] is the occurrence or tendency for behavior where the likelihood of good or bad outcomes is uncertain (risk).[2] Risk taking can be positive by involving socially acceptable and constructive acts, or negative by involving illegal or dangerous acts.[2] Risk aversion is the opposite tendency, where behavior with high risk is instead avoided.[1]
Risk taking is considered an important developmental aspect of adolescence[2] and is also associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), borderline personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder.[3][4][5]
Risk taking is closely related to and often co-occurs with impulsivity. They differ in that impulsivity is proportionate to levels of delayed gratification, whereas risk taking is proportionate to reward sensitivity and is not affected by time delays.[6]
Types
Economics and neuroeconomics
"Economists define risk in terms of the variability of possible outcomes, whereas clinicians and laypeople generally view risk as exposure to possible loss or harm."[7]
Positive
Management
Sexual
Sexual risk taking can take the form of unprotected sex, and this has been studied in a variety of contexts including men who have sex with men,[12] and adolescent girls.[13]
Illegal
Illegal risk taking can include substance abuse and violence. In adolescence, illegal risk taking occurs most often in neurodiverse individuals, and can be attributed to conduct disorder, oppositional-defiant disorder, or ADHD.[14]
Traffic
Cyclists [15]
Causes
There causes of risk taking behavior are believed to be biosocial - derived through a combination of biological factors and social environments.[20]
Risk taking is not only developmentally necessary in adolescence, functional magnetic resonance imaging has demonstrated differing regional brain functions to anticipated or experienced rewards and penalties. Rewards were found to be experienced with greater intensity, and penalties are experienced with reduced intensity.[14] However, these results are contested by other researchers who claim that neurodevelopmental factors have only a subtle overall effect on development of risk taking.[21]
A specific mutation in the metabotropic glutamate receptor 2 gene has been found to correlate with risk taking behavior.[22]
Prevalence
Prevention
Early intervention approaches have been found most effective at reducing the development of risk taking behavior. There is some evidence that pre-birth nurse visitations about stress management can reduce the chances of developing risk-taking behavior and conduct disorder in the child.[21]
Measurement
Probability discounting
Probability discounting is a task used to measure risk-taking, by the client evaluating choices between smaller certain rewards and uncertain larger gains.[6][1]
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Shead, N Will; Hodgins, David C (July 2009). "Probability discounting of gains and losses: implications for risk attitudes and impulsivity". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 92 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1901/jeab.2009.92-1. ISSN 0022-5002. PMC 2707142. PMID 20119519.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Duell, Natasha; Steinberg, Laurence (March 2019). "Positive Risk Taking in Adolescence". Child Development Perspectives. 13 (1): 48–52. doi:10.1111/cdep.12310. ISSN 1750-8592. PMC 6371981. PMID 30774707.
- ↑ Moukhtarian, Talar R.; Mintah, Ruth S.; Moran, Paul; Asherson, Philip (2018-05-20). "Emotion dysregulation in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder". Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation. 5 (1): 9. doi:10.1186/s40479-018-0086-8. ISSN 2051-6673. PMC 5960499. PMID 29796281.
- ↑ Darke, Shane; Williamson, Anna; Ross, Joanne; Teesson, Maree; Lynskey, Michael (April 2004). "Borderline personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder and risk-taking among heroin users: findings from the Australian Treatment Outcome Study (ATOS)". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 74 (1): 77–83. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2003.12.002. ISSN 0376-8716. PMID 15072810.
- ↑ Yalch, Matthew M.; Stewart, Amber M.; Dehart, Ryanne M. (2020-07-27). "Influence of Betrayal Trauma on Antisocial Personality Disorder Traits". Journal of Trauma & Dissociation. 22 (1): 122–134. doi:10.1080/15299732.2020.1792025. ISSN 1529-9732. PMID 32716816 Check
|pmid=value (help). Unknown parameter|s2cid=ignored (help) - ↑ 6.0 6.1 Herman, Aleksandra M.; Critchley, Hugo D.; Duka, Theodora (2018). "Risk-Taking and Impulsivity: The Role of Mood States and Interoception". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 1625. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01625. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 6123387. PMID 30210421.
- ↑ Schonberg, Tom; Fox, Craig R.; Poldrack, Russell A. (2011-01-01). "Mind the gap: bridging economic and naturalistic risk-taking with cognitive neuroscience". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 15 (1): 11–19. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.10.002. ISSN 1364-6613. PMC 3014440. PMID 21130018.
- ↑ Seale, Jane; Nind, Melanie; Simmons, Ben (September 2013). "Transforming positive risk-taking practices: the possibilities of creativity and resilience in learning disability contexts". Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research. 15 (3): 233–248. doi:10.1080/15017419.2012.703967. ISSN 1501-7419.
- ↑ Robertson, John P.; Collinson, Christine (2011-03-30). "Positive risk taking: Whose risk is it? An exploration in community outreach teams in adult mental health and learning disability services". Health, Risk & Society. 13 (2): 147–164. doi:10.1080/13698575.2011.556185. ISSN 1369-8575. Unknown parameter
|s2cid=ignored (help) - ↑ Seale, Jane (2014-04-03). "The role of supporters in facilitating the use of technologies by adolescents and adults with learning disabilities: a place for positive risk-taking?". European Journal of Special Needs Education. 29 (2): 220–236. doi:10.1080/08856257.2014.906980. ISSN 0885-6257. Unknown parameter
|s2cid=ignored (help) - ↑ E., Hoskisson, Robert (2017). Managerial risk taking a multi-theoretical review and future research agenda. Sage Publications. OCLC 1023303478. Search this book on
- ↑ Mustanski, Brian; Newcomb, Michael E.; Clerkin, Elise M. (September 2011). "Relationship characteristics and sexual risk-taking in young men who have sex with men". Health Psychology : Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association. 30 (5): 597–605. doi:10.1037/a0023858. ISSN 0278-6133. PMC 3184611. PMID 21604883.
- ↑ O'Donnell, Lydia; Myint-U, Athi; Duran, Richard; Stueve, Ann (May 2010). "Especially for Daughters: Parent Education to Address Alcohol and Sex-Related Risk Taking Among Urban Young Adolescent Girls". Health Promotion Practice. 11 (3_suppl): 70S–78S. doi:10.1177/1524839909355517. ISSN 1524-8399. PMID 20488971. Unknown parameter
|s2cid=ignored (help) - ↑ 14.0 14.1 Bjork, James M.; Pardini, Dustin A. (July 2014). "Who are those "risk-taking adolescents"? Individual differences in developmental neuroimaging research". Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. 11: 56–64. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2014.07.008. ISSN 1878-9293. PMC 4324055. PMID 25176616.
- ↑ Cobey, Kelly D.; Laan, Freek; Stulp, Gert; Buunk, Abraham P.; Pollet, Thomas V. (2013-04-01). "Sex Differences in Risk Taking Behavior among Dutch Cyclists". Evolutionary Psychology. 11 (2): 147470491301100. doi:10.1177/147470491301100206. ISSN 1474-7049. Unknown parameter
|s2cid=ignored (help) - ↑ Bucsuházy, Kateřina; Matuchová, Eva; Zůvala, Robert; Moravcová, Pavlína; Kostíková, Martina; Mikulec, Roman (2020). "Human factors contributing to the road traffic accident occurrence". Transportation Research Procedia. 45: 555–561. doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2020.03.057. ISSN 2352-1465. Unknown parameter
|s2cid=ignored (help) - ↑ Elander, James; West, Robert; French, Davina (1993). "Behavioral correlates of individual differences in road-traffic crash risk: An examination of methods and findings". Psychological Bulletin. 113 (2): 279–294. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.113.2.279. ISSN 1939-1455. PMID 8451335.
- ↑ Petridou, Eleni; Moustaki, Maria (2000). "Human factors in the causation of road traffic crashes". European Journal of Epidemiology. 16 (9): 819–826. doi:10.1023/a:1007649804201. ISSN 0393-2990. PMID 11297224. Unknown parameter
|s2cid=ignored (help) - ↑ Ulleberg, Pål (December 2001). "Personality subtypes of young drivers. Relationship to risk-taking preferences, accident involvement, and response to a traffic safety campaign". Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour. 4 (4): 279–297. doi:10.1016/s1369-8478(01)00029-8. ISSN 1369-8478.
- ↑ Zuckerman, Marvin; Kuhlman, D. Michael (December 2000). "Personality and Risk‐Taking: Common Bisocial Factors". Journal of Personality. 68 (6): 999–1029. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.00124. ISSN 0022-3506. PMID 11130742.
- ↑ 21.0 21.1 Romer, Daniel; Khurana, Atika (2014). "Adolescent risk taking, impulsivity, and brain development: Implications for prevention". PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e545602014-001. Retrieved 2022-06-05.
- ↑ Wood, Christian M.; Nicolas, Celine S.; Choi, Sun-Lim; Roman, Erika; Nylander, Ingrid; Fernandez-Teruel, Alberto; Kiianmaa, Kalervo; Bienkowski, Przemyslaw; de Jong, Trynke R.; Colombo, Giancarlo; Chastagnier, Denis (2017-03-15). "Prevalence and influence of cys407* Grm2 mutation in Hannover-derived Wistar rats: mGlu2 receptor loss links to alcohol intake, risk taking and emotional behaviour". Neuropharmacology. Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors, 5 years on. 115: 128–138. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.03.020. ISSN 0028-3908. Unknown parameter
|s2cid=ignored (help)
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