Romanian Revival

Template:Prod llm/dated The Romanian Revival (also known as the Romanian National Revival) was a period of cultural, intellectual, social, economic and political development among the Romanians during the late 18th and 19th centuries. It was characterized by the development of modern Romanian national consciousness, the expansion of education, the development of Romanian-language literature and scholarship, and the emergence of political movements advocating national and civil rights.

The revival developed in the historical Romanian lands of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania, which were politically divided during much of the period. In Transylvania, the intellectual movement was closely associated with the Transylvanian School, whose representatives promoted education, historical scholarship and the Romanian language. The Romanian Greek-Catholic clergy and educational institutions in Blaj played an important role in the transmission of Western intellectual ideas and in the development of Romanian national consciousness.

The movement was influenced by the Enlightenment, European nationalism and the political and cultural changes taking place elsewhere in Europe. Romanian intellectuals increasingly advocated educational reform, cultural modernization, political representation and the recognition of Romanians as a distinct nation.

The Romanian Revival contributed to the Wallachian uprising of 1821, the Revolution of 1848 in Wallachia and Moldavia, the Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 and the subsequent development of the modern Romanian state. In Transylvania, the movement also produced political demands for recognition and equality for Romanians within the Habsburg monarchy and, after 1867, within Austria-Hungary.

Characteristics

The Romanian Revival was characterized by the development of a modern Romanian national identity, the expansion of education, the modernization of the Romanian language and literature, and the growing participation of intellectuals in political and cultural life.

The Transylvanian School played an important role in promoting education and historical and linguistic scholarship. Its representatives emphasized the Latin origins of the Romanian language and people and produced historical works, grammars, dictionaries and educational texts.

The Romanian Greek-Catholic Church was particularly important in the intellectual development of Romanians in Transylvania. Clergymen educated in institutions in Rome and Vienna were exposed to Western intellectual currents and subsequently contributed to the production of Romanian historical and linguistic works. The establishment of educational institutions and a printing press at Blaj helped make the town an important centre of Romanian culture.

The period also saw the gradual adoption of the Latin alphabet for Romanian. Romanian scholars associated with the Transylvanian intellectual movement promoted the Latin character of the Romanian language, and by the middle of the 19th century the Latin alphabet had replaced the Cyrillic script in Romanian literary usage.

Romanian literature developed rapidly during the 19th century. Writers and intellectuals including Ion Heliade Rădulescu, Gheorghe Asachi, Vasile Alecsandri, Mihail Kogălniceanu, Costache Negruzzi and Nicolae Bălcescu contributed to the development of modern Romanian literary and political culture.

The revival also had a political dimension. Intellectuals and political leaders increasingly advocated constitutional government, administrative reform, civil rights, education and the political union of the Romanian principalities. These demands became particularly prominent during the Revolution of 1848 in Wallachia and Moldavia.

In Transylvania, Romanian political leaders sought recognition of the Romanian population as a political nation and defended Romanian-language education and cultural institutions. The movement's political development was closely connected with the struggle for equal political and civil rights within the Habsburg state.

Periodization

The Romanian Revival does not have a universally accepted beginning or end. Its origins are generally associated with the intellectual developments of the late 18th century, particularly in Transylvania, while its political and cultural development continued throughout the 19th century.

The first major phase is associated with the Transylvanian School and the intellectual activity of Romanian scholars during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. A subsequent phase developed during the first half of the 19th century through the expansion of education, printing, literature and political journalism.

The Wallachian uprising of 1821 marked an important stage in the political development of Wallachia. Led by Tudor Vladimirescu, the uprising challenged the existing political order and was followed by the restoration of native rulers in Moldavia and Wallachia.

The Revolution of 1848 in Wallachia and Moldavia represented another major turning point. Inspired by the wider European revolutions of 1848, Romanian revolutionaries demanded political, administrative and social reforms, as well as national unity.

The election of Alexandru Ioan Cuza as ruler of both Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 created the basis for the modern Romanian state. His reign was followed by major administrative, educational, secular and agrarian reforms.

The establishment of the Kingdom of Romania in 1881 represented an important stage in the political consolidation of the Romanian state. Romanian national movements nevertheless continued outside the kingdom, particularly in Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia.

Notable figures

Romanian Enlighteners and national activists

• Inocențiu Micu-Klein (1692–1768)
• Samuil Micu (1745–1806)
• Gheorghe Șincai (1754–1816)
• Petru Maior (c. 1756–1821)
• Ion Budai-Deleanu (1760–1820)
• Gheorghe Lazăr (1779–1823)
• Gheorghe Asachi (1788–1869)
• Dinicu Golescu (1777–1830)
• Ion Heliade Rădulescu (1802–1872)
• Simion Bărnuțiu (1808–1864)
• George Bariț (1812–1893)
• Andrei Mureșanu (1816–1863)
• Mihail Kogălniceanu (1817–1891)
• Nicolae Bălcescu (1819–1852)
• C. A. Rosetti (1816–1885)
• Vasile Alecsandri (1821–1890)
• Avram Iancu (1824–1872)
• Alexandru Ioan Cuza (1820–1873)
• Andrei Șaguna (1808–1873)
• Alecu Russo (1819–1859)
• Costache Negruzzi (1808–1868)
• Dimitrie Bolintineanu (1819–1872)
• Ion Ghica (1816–1897)
• Nicolae Filimon (1819–1865)
• Mihai Eminescu (1850–1889)
• Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu (1838–1907)
• Titu Maiorescu (1840–1917)
• Alexandru Odobescu (1834–1895)
• Ion Creangă (1837–1889)

Transylvanian School

The Transylvanian School was an intellectual movement that developed among Romanian scholars in Transylvania during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Its representatives were particularly associated with the Romanian Greek-Catholic educational institutions of Blaj.

The movement promoted education, historical scholarship and the Romanian language. Its scholars emphasized the Latin origins of Romanian and sought to demonstrate the continuity and historical identity of the Romanian people. They produced grammars, dictionaries, historical works and religious and educational publications.

The activity of the Transylvanian School contributed to the development of modern Romanian national consciousness and influenced later Romanian political and cultural movements.

Wallachian uprising of 1821

The Wallachian uprising of 1821 was led by Tudor Vladimirescu and represented an important political development in the Romanian lands. Vladimirescu's movement opposed the political system associated with the Phanariots and called for changes in the administration of Wallachia.

The uprising ended the period of Phanariot rule in Wallachia and Moldavia. Although Vladimirescu's movement was defeated and he was killed, the political changes that followed contributed to the development of a new generation of Romanian political activists.

Revolution of 1848

The Revolution of 1848 in Wallachia and Moldavia formed part of the wider European revolutionary movement of 1848. Romanian revolutionaries demanded political and administrative reform, civil liberties, social reforms and national unity.

In Wallachia, revolutionary leaders including Ion Heliade Rădulescu, Nicolae Bălcescu and C. A. Rosetti participated in the revolutionary movement and established a provisional government. The Islaz Proclamation set out a programme of political and social reforms.

The revolution in Wallachia was suppressed after several months by Ottoman and Russian intervention. In Moldavia, the revolutionary movement was suppressed at an earlier stage.

In Transylvania, Romanian representatives gathered at Blaj in 1848 and demanded political recognition and equal rights for Romanians. The events of 1848 strengthened the political organization of the Romanian national movement in Transylvania.

Union of Moldavia and Wallachia

The Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia in 1859 was one of the major political achievements associated with the Romanian national movement. Alexandru Ioan Cuza was elected ruler of Moldavia and subsequently ruler of Wallachia, creating the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia.

The new state introduced extensive administrative, educational, legal and agrarian reforms. In 1862, the two principalities adopted the name Romania and established a unified government and administration in Bucharest.

Cuza's reforms contributed to the modernization of the Romanian state, while his removal in 1866 led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under Carol I of Romania.

Kingdom of Romania

Romania gained international recognition of its independence following the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). Its independence was recognized by the Congress of Berlin in 1878. In 1881, Romania was proclaimed a kingdom, with Carol I as its first king.

The establishment of the kingdom represented an important stage in the consolidation of the Romanian state. Romanian national movements nevertheless continued in territories outside the kingdom, particularly in Transylvania and Bukovina.

In Transylvania, Romanian political and cultural organizations continued to campaign for national, linguistic and educational rights within Austria-Hungary. The movement eventually contributed to the political developments that culminated in the Union of Transylvania with Romania in 1918.

See also

• Transylvanian School
• Romanian nationalism
• Romanian literature
• Romanian Enlightenment
• Wallachian uprising of 1821
• Unification of Moldavia and Wallachia
• United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia
• History of Romania
• Cultural history of Romania
• National awakening
• Romantic nationalism
• Union of Transylvania with Romania

References

Bibliography

• Hitchins, Keith (1996). The Romanians, 1774–1866. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820591-3. Search this book on
• Hitchins, Keith (1985). The Idea of Nation: The Romanians of Transylvania, 1691–1849. Bucharest: Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică. Search this book on
• Hitchins, Keith (1999). A Nation Discovered: Romanian Intellectuals in Transylvania and the Idea of Nation, 1700–1848. Bucharest: Editura Enciclopedică. Search this book on
• Deletant, Dennis (1991). Romania: A Country Study (PDF). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Search this book on
• Hitchins, Keith (2014). A Concise History of Romania. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87238-6. Search this book on

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