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Stereotypes of animals

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki


For repetitive animal behaviors, see Stereotypy (non-human).
A "wise old owl" in a 1940s poster from the War Production Board

When anthropomorphising an animal there are traits which commonly tend to be associated with particular animal species. Some of these are exaggerations of real aspects or behaviours of the creature in question, while other times the stereotype is taken from mythology and replaces any observation-based judgment of that animal's behavior. Once they have entered the culture as widely recognized stereotypes of animals, they tend to be used both in conversation and media as a kind of shorthand for expressing particular qualities.

Some modern stereotypes of animals have a long tradition dating back to Aesop's Fables, which draw upon sources that include ancient Egyptian animal tales. Aesop's stereotypes were so deeply ingrained by the time of Apollonius of Tyana that they were accepted as representative of the various types of animals' "true" natures:

And there is another charm about him, namely, that he puts animals in a pleasing light and makes them interesting to mankind. For after being brought up from childhood with these stories, and after being as it were nursed by them from babyhood, we acquire certain opinions of the several animals and think of some of them as royal animals, of others as silly, of others as witty, and others as innocent.

— Flavius Philostratus[1]

Animal stereotyping in general

Many animal stereotypes reflect anthropomorphic notions unrelated to animals' true behaviors. Some stereotypes are based on mistaken or grossly oversimplified impressions; spotted hyenas, for example, commonly portrayed as cowardly scavengers, are efficient pack hunters with complex social structures.

Animal stereotypes in Western cultures

Mammals

Bats

  • The bloodthirsty or evil bat
  • The expression "as blind as a bat" is common but in reality bats are not blind.[3] Microbats have poor visual acuity while some megabats have very good vision.
  • Another stereotype associated with bats is that the animal will fly into one's hair. This is an urban legend. Bats can navigate very well in the dark thanks to echolocation.[4]
  • In many languages the word "bat" is cognate with the word "mouse", with the species being defined as either a "winged mouse" ("vlermuis" in Afrikaans, "vleermuis" in Dutch, "Fledermaus" in German, "fladdermus" in Swedish, "летучая мышь" in Russian), a "bald mouse" ("chauve-souris" in French), a "blind mouse" ("murciélago" in Spanish, "slijepi miš" in Bosnian), a "leather mouse" ("nahkhiir" in Estonian) or an "old mouse" ("saguzahar" in Basque). In reality bats are not related to mice, but belong to the Laurasiatheria.[5][6]

Beavers

Cats

There is an ancient belief that cats have multiple lives, which explains how they manage to survive so many unfortunate situations. In many countries cat's lives are traditionally believed to be nine, but in Italy, Germany, Greece and some Spanish-language regions it's said to be seven,[7] while in Turkish and Arabic traditions it's six.[8] The idea of cat's luck is also based on the fact that falling cats often land on their feet, using an instinctive righting reflex to twist their bodies around. Despite this ability they can still be injured or killed by a high fall.[9]

Cattle

  • The aggressive bull who attacks everyone and everything with the color red
    • This stereotype can be found in many comic strips and cartoons and is based on bullfighting where the bullfighter taunts the bull by waving a small red cape (muleta). This has led to the urban legend that bulls will attack anything in the color red. In reality bulls attack the waving cape instead of the color. The reason those capes have the color red is its association with blood and the tradition itself. Cattle are dichromats, so red does not stand out as a bright color.[13][14][15]
    • In popular culture all bulls used for bullfighting will be called "El Toro", which is simply Spanish for "the bull".
  • The vicious bull
    • Bulls have been used in many European coats of arms and weapon shields
    • In Greek mythology the Minotaur was a monster who was a man with a bull's head.
  • The powerful, mighty bull and the holy cow
  • Many ancient cultures have worshipped cattle as divine creatures. In Hinduism the holy cow is still in effect.
  • The dumb bull, cow, or calf
    • Since cattle seem to do nothing more than stand in grassy fields, obstruct traffic and stare at everything passing by, people have portrayed them as characters who are not very bright.
    • In many languages being called "a stupid cow" or "dumb calf" is an insult. Being "treated as cattle" or expressing a "herd mentality" are also pejorative expressions.
    • The urban legend of cow tipping is also based on this perception.
    • Example in fiction: Heffer Wolfe.

Donkeys

Elephants

  • The unforgetting elephant
    • From the folk-saying "An elephant never forgets" and the expression "an elephant memory" (in some languages, such as Dutch, they speak of a "horse memory"). There are numerous anecdotes and examples of elephants who remembered information or incidents that happened decades earlier.[16] Scientific research has also proven that the hippocampus is linked to emotion through the processing of certain types of memory, especially spatial. This is thought to possibly be why elephants suffer from psychological flashbacks and the equivalent of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).[17][18]
  • The mice-fearing elephant
    • Because of the comedic image of such a large animal being so frightened of something so tiny, mice-fearing elephants have been a popular staple of children's novels, comic strips and cartoons. Elephants are known to be startled by sudden movements of various kinds of animals, including dogs, cats or snakes, but have not been found to fear mice especially.[19] Research has shown, however, that elephants are particularly afraid of bees.[20] In the 2007 MythBusters episode Shooting Fish in a Barrel the team found that an African elephant in the wild was in fact startled when it saw a mouse that they had released in its vicinity, and even turned back. As a result, the team deemed the myth "plausible".[21]
    • Examples: The story about elephants fearing mice goes back to A.D. 77, when Pliny the Elder mentioned it in his text "Natural History".[22] The image also appears in Dumbo, The Sword in the Stone and Bedknobs and Broomsticks.
    • Examples: Hannibal the elephant in the Nero album "Hannibal", ...
  • An ancient belief states that old elephants leave their herd and instinctively direct themselves toward a specific location known as an elephants' graveyard to die. This is an urban legend.[23]

Foxes

Foxes are often stereotyped as sly and cunning tricksters, for instance in the famous fable of The Fox and the Crow, portrayed here on Léon Rousseau's painted panel of the fable, Musée Jean de La Fontaine.

Hyenas

  • The comical/always-laughing hyena, usually portrayed as a bully or a downright villain[citation needed]
A hyena call bears an uncanny resemblance to a human laugh.[citation needed] Hyenas are also scavengers, which led people to portray them as cowards who would rather steal meals from more successful predators than hunt or kill their prey themselves. This is a simplification of far more complex social structures and hunting tactics within the species.[citation needed]
Examples:

Lemmings

  • The suicidal lemming
    • Lemmings tend to migrate in large numbers, which can include jumping off cliffs into the water and swimming great distances to the point of exhaustion and even death, but such an outcome is unintended. The stereotype of lemmings jumping off cliffs as a deliberate act of suicide was influenced by a Disney documentary, White Wilderness (1958) where the animals were chased off a cliff by the documentary makers, purely for some sensational images.[24] The misconception itself is much older, dating back to at least the late 19th century.[25]
    • The Lemmings series of video games is based on the myth of the suicidal lemming: the player has to guide a group of lemmings marching blindly forwards to that they can reach the exit.[26]

Lions

The Lion of Judah is an example of a lion portrayed as a noble monarch.

Opossums

  • The opossum which hangs by its tail
    • This is an urban legend. An opossum does use its semi-prehensile tail to stabilize position while climbing, but its adult body weight makes it impossible to hang from a tree by its tail alone.[27]
  • The opossum who "plays possum".
    • When threatened by predators an opossum may fall into a catatonic state, acting as if it is dead. This behaviour deters predators, as an animal which suddenly appears to die could have been suffering from illness. While opossums do fake their own deaths humans have often misinterpreted it as if the animal just faints, or is "playing". In reality the act of an opossum playing dead is a reflex action.[27]
  • Opossums are also often thought to be huge rats, which are rodents. They are actually marsupials.[27]

Pigs

  • The obnoxious, filthy, greedy, ugly and/or dirty pig
    • All these aspects are due to the natural pig lifestyle (when raised on a farm rather than a feedlot)—"greedy" from the way they devour any food put in front of them, "filthy" from the fact that a pig-sty is generally a soup of mud and feces which the pigs do not seem bothered by (this also gives rise to the saying "As happy as a pig").[citation needed] The stereotype may also derive in part from Judeo-Islamic cultures, whose concepts of kosher/halal teach that pigs are "unclean" for various reasons.[citation needed]
    • "Pig" is a pejorative nickname for a filthy or ugly person in many languages.[citation needed] It also is a derogatory word for the police in English slang, which is why all policemen in Fritz the Cat are pigs, and why Chief Wiggum of The Simpsons resembles a pig.[citation needed]

Sheep

  • The cute little sheep
  • The sacrificial lamb
    • Due to their innocent image lambs have been sacrificed in various cultures and religions.
    • Examples: Lamb of God.
  • The gullible sheep
    • Much like geese sheep are also a popular metaphor for people who bow down to herd mentality. Just like real sheep they will follow the dominant sheep or their shepherd and don't dare to move or think outside the crowd. The English words Sheeple and sheepish are derived from this image.
  • The black sheep
    • A black sheep standing out of a crowd of white sheep is also a popular metaphor, with two different interpretations. A "black sheep" is someone who unfavorably stands out within a group, a family, a company, a class room, etc., ... It can either be someone whose bad reputation is deserved or someone who is a victim or prejudice and discrimination. Penguins are sometimes used in this context as well.
    • Example: Baa, Baa, Black Sheep.

Simians

Sloths

  • The lazy sloth
    • This stereotype is largely true, as sloths do indeed move very slowly in reality due to their metabolism being very low.[citation needed] They are named for the one of the seven deadly sins, sloth, meaning spiritual apathy.
    • In the 2016 animated film Zootopia, sloths are depicted as performing basic tasks extremely slowly to the point where even completing basic sentences is difficult for them.[citation needed]
    • Sid the prehistoric sloth in the Ice Age films is depicted as lively and fast-talking, in contrast to the "slow" stereotype.

Squirrels and chipmunks

Tigers

Weasels

  • The sneaky and thieving weasel who always manages to flee[citation needed]
    • From the English sayings: "As scared as a weasel" and "to weasel out of a situation". A weasel word is a subjective term in an otherwise objective sentence.
    • The weasel in the song Pop Goes the Weasel is also fleeing from the monkey.
    • Other examples: The weasels in The Wind in the Willows and Who Framed Roger Rabbit
    • Exceptions: I. M. Weasel, the titular character in the cartoon I Am Weasel is portrayed as civilised, good-natured and a model citizen with many achievements. Buck from Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs is another exception, being heroic and fearless but insane. Weekly in Blacksad is a tabloid journalist, falling into the sneaky stereotype, but is the best friend of the protagonist.
  • The backstabbing weasel[citation needed]
    • To call someone a weasel is to call someone treacherous.
    • Examples: The Professor from Conker's Bad Fur Day.

Wolves and coyotes

Wolves are often stereotyped as cruel, evil and seductive, for instance in the fairy tale of Little Red Riding Hood, here illustrated by Gustave Doré.

Birds in general

  • Birds are often portrayed as stupid. The English language has the expression birdbrain, for people who aren't very bright. There are many urban legends about birds being so stupid that they accidentally hurt or kill themselves.[31][32]
  • Another expression, "eat like a bird", derives from the notion that birds have small appetites, while in fact a bird eats very much compared to its weight. [citation needed]
  • Some birds have an association with beauty, peace and love. In British English "bird" can mean "pretty, attractive girl". The fact that songbirds whistle has also contributed to an association with peace, beauty and tranquillity.[citation needed]
  • An often told story claims that when humans touch birds' eggs or baby birds their mother will later reject them, because of the human scent. This is an urban legend, because birds have a limited sense of smell and cannot detect human scent. The story was likely thought up to prevent people from accidentally breaking eggs or separate baby birds from their parents.[33]

Chickens

  • The stupid, cowardly and easily frightened chicken
    • The term "chicken" has become a playful term for someone too scared to engage in a slightly intimidating task.
    • Since chickens can't fly very high they tend to run around whenever they are scared of something. This encouraged their stereotypical image as dumb and panicky creatures. In many languages the phrase "to run around/operate/work like a headless chicken" also expresses this image.
    • In the English language "to chicken out of something" means to appear a coward. Calling somebody "chicken" and cackling is seen as an insult.
    • Examples: Nanny from Count Duckula, several characters in Chicken Run, the song Ain't Nobody Here But Us Chickens
    • The three bold, fox-fighting chicken sisters in Foxbusters are a notable exception.
  • The motherly hen
  • The vain, macho cock/rooster
    • Roosters are polygamous animals. When rival roosters enter their territory they will attack them in cock fights. Therefore, humans have often stereotyped them as robust, tough, machoistic males. The words "cocky" and "cocksure" in English refer to assertive, arrogant behaviour,[34][35] while the Dutch term "haantjesgedrag" ("little rooster behaviour") defines boys or men trying to impose one another.[36] In English the word "cock" is also used as slang for the word "penis".[37]
    • Some countries or communities use roosters as their proud emblem: the Gallic rooster, for instance.
    • Roosters usually sit on high perches, looking out for their group. When it spots danger it will crow loudly. This led people to portray roosters as people who crave attention and suffer from delusions of grandeur. The image of the high perched rooster is also prevalent in Christian traditions, where statues of cocks are often put on top of church steeples as a weather vane.
    • Examples: The "Chanticleer and the Fox" tale from The Canterbury Tales, Foghorn Leghorn, Tortellini the rooster from the 1997 film The Fearless Four (based on the Town Musicians of Bremen), Markies de Canteclaer in Tom Puss, Rocky and Fowler in Chicken Run, General Tsao from Sly 3: Honor Among Thieves
    • Thanks to the story Chanticleer many cocks and roosters in fiction have this name or a variation thereof.[citation needed]
  • The cock/rooster whose cries announce the break of dawn
    • Roosters can be heard crowing as it begins to get lighter. In past centuries people believed the rooster controlled the rise of daylight and thus only crowed at this occasion. While roosters do indeed crow at dawn and therefore were often used as a prototypical alarm clock in past centuries,[38] they can and will crow at any time of the day, not just in the morning. The idea that the rooster scares the darkness away led to its worship in various religious belief systems. In English the word "cock-crow" is a synonym for "early morning".[39]
    • Examples: Chantecler in the eponymous play literally believes his crows cause the sun to rise.

Game fowl

Crows and ravens

  • The ominous raven or crow
    • In ancient folklore ravens and crows were often seen as foretellers of death and destruction, as portrayed in Edgar Allan Poe's poem "The Raven". Also, in Celtic and Irish myths, goddesses of war often appeared in the form of a raven or crow. The stereotype of ravens portraying death could stem from the fact that they are often seen feasting on the gore of dead soldiers after battle.
    • In Norse mythology Huginn and Muninn were ravens who brought the god Odin information and thus subverted this stereotype.
    • Crows and ravens are also often depicted as villains.
    • Examples: Diablo, Dolf in Alfred J. Kwak, and corvids such as General Ironbeak and his horde in the Redwall series
      • Subversions include Salomo the raven in Paulus the woodgnome, who is portrayed as being very wise and erudite. The crows in Dumbo first mock Dumbo, but as they learn how he was mistreated they feel remorse and help him gain the confidence to use his ears for flying. Meneer de Raaf in the Dutch TV series De Fabeltjeskrant is a raven who can be sarcastic, but is still a good character.
  • The Afro-American crow
    • In the 19th and early 20th century white Americans often compared black people with crows, due to the black colour of the bird. Crows in these stereotypical depictions speak in jive.
    • Examples: Jim Crow, the crows in Dumbo, the comic strip and animated version of Fritz the Cat.

Ducks

Eagles

Eagles are often incorrectly portrayed as kidnappers of little children and animals, as shown here in this scene from D.W. Griffith's Rescued from an Eagle's Nest (1907).

Geese

Magpies

Ostriches

  • The nervous and easily frightened ostrich
    • Ostriches are often portrayed as being nervous and are widely thought to bury their heads in the sand at the first sign of danger. In reality this is not true; the ostrich is more likely to respond by fleeing, or, failing in that, delivering powerful kicks, easily capable of killing a man or a lion.[42]

Owls

A cemetery monument for Hungarian engineer Adolf Czakó [hu] in Kerepesi, depicting him in the presence of an owl, symbolizing the man's wisdom.

Parrots, cockatoos and mynahs

  • The talkative, annoying, and/or smartypants parrot/cockatoo/mynah (no distinction)
    • Parrots are also often portrayed as if they can actually converse with people, whereas real parrots can only mimic certain sounds.
    • Examples: Paulie, Beo the mynah in the Nero story Beo de Verschrikkelijke ("Beo the Terrible"), Flip in Jommeke, Nigel in Rio, Popugai in 38 Parrots, Iago and Preston from Garfield 2

Pelicans

  • In ancient Egypt pelicans were associated with death and the afterlife. As a result, they are depicted on a lot of walls of tombs and funerary text as a protective symbol.[44]
  • In medieval Europe pelicans were portrayed as being particularly attentive to their young, to the point of providing their own blood by wounding their own breast when no other food was available. This legend may be a result of the impression the bird gives that it appears to be stabbing itself with its bill. In reality, it often presses it onto its chest in order to fully empty the pouch. Another possible derivation is the tendency of the bird to rest with its bill on its breast; the Dalmatian pelican has a blood-red pouch in the early breeding season and this may have contributed to the myth. Since then the pelican came to symbolise the Passion of Jesus and the Eucharist,[45] and usurped the image of the lamb and the flag.[46]

Penguins

Pigeons and doves

12th century Venetian mosaic depiction of Noah releasing a dove after the Great Flood ended. This is one of the origins of the image of doves as symbols of peace and goodwill.
  • The peaceful dove
    • The peace dove is a universal symbol of pacifism and peace.
    • In biblical stories the dove is often used as a sign of goodwill or a peaceful messenger. This image can also be found in other religious and mythological traditions, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh. Today doves are often released from cages into the open air to inaugurate a special event.
  • The loving pigeon couple.
  • The dumb pigeon
    • Like most other birds pigeons are frequently depicted as stupid. In Flemish dialect the word "simpele duif" ("simple pigeon") is a pejorative term used to refer to dumb or naïve people.[47]

Songbirds

Storks

Swans

Vultures and buzzards

Reptiles and amphibians

Alligators and crocodiles

A cartoon by Bernhard Gillam depicting Ulysses S. Grant in a crocodile suit, literally crying crocodile tears.
  • The weeping and hypocritical crocodile
    • Many political cartoons, legends and stories feature crocodiles who claim to be sad about someone else's grief and then cry fake tears as a result. This stereotype is based on the fact that in real life crocodiles can often be observed with teary eyes while they consume their dead prey. The reason for this behaviour is that crocodiles are unable to chew and thus are forced to rip their food into chunks and swallow them whole. Since the glands that keep their eyes moist are right near their throats this eating habit actually forces them to produce tears. This observation lead humans to believe that crocodiles are crying about the death of the animal they hypocritically just killed themselves and created the expression "crying crocodile tears", which means that one shows emotions without really meaning it.[48]
  • The villainous crocodile/alligator

Frogs and toads

Snakes

The Midgard Serpent in Norse mythology is an example of a snake being portrayed as an evil monster.

Turtles and tortoises

Fish and sea mammals

Dolphins

Goldfish

Orcas

Sharks

Invertebrates

Ants

  • The diligent ant
    • This stems mainly from a fable, The Ant and the Grasshopper, in which the ant works hard to prepare for the winter while the grasshopper wastes the summer and autumn having fun, only to have to beg food from the ant or starve.
    • Examples: The Ant and the Aardvark, in which the ant is often busy working.
  • The militant ant
    • Ants, like many animals that form colonies or hives, are known for working together like an army.[61][62] Some popular culture stories portray ants as military soldiers.
    • Example: the ants from Antz
  • The thieving/bothersome ant

Bees

Crickets and grasshoppers

Ladybugs

  • Ladybugs are always depicted as female in popular culture.[citation needed] This is a very old association. Though historically many European languages referenced Freyja, the fertility goddess of Norse mythology, in the names, the Virgin Mary has now largely supplanted her, so that, for example, "freyjuhœna" (Old Norse) and "Frouehenge" have been changed into "marihøne" (Norwegian) and "Marienkäfer" (German), which corresponds with "Our Lady's bird".[63] This also explains with it is one of the few insects associated with beauty, luck, peace and tranquility,[citation needed] making it a popular logo and mascot.

Mantises

Spiders

Wasps

Worms

  • Annelids, particularly Earthworms (and by conflation maggots, which few laypersons recognize as being kin to insects rather than to actual worms), are often regarded as "the lowest of the low", and popular culture references to them will usually reflect this.[citation needed]
  • In children's stories worms are often portrayed as tiny, feeble, sympathetic sidekicks.[citation needed]
  • Bookworms are always portrayed as little worms with glasses who carry books in one arm. This is based on the expression "bookworm" to describe a bibliophile.[citation needed]
  • Earth worms are often believed to become two worms when cut in half. However, only a limited number of earthworm species[73] are capable of anterior regeneration. When such earthworms are bisected, only the front half of the worm (where the mouth is located) can feed and survive, while the other half dies.[74] Species of the planarian flatworms actually do become two new planarians when bisected or split down the middle.[75]

Indian animal stereotypes

India has a rich tradition of animal stories and beast fables, including one of the world's oldest collections of stories, the Panchatantra and its later derivatives such as the Hitopadesha. Throughout these fables, the talking animals behave as humans (unlike the Aesop model, in which animals behave as animals), and are used to invoke characters with stereotypical personalities. There is also a distinction between wild and domesticated animals. Some common stereotypes include:

  • Lion: king of the forest; demonstrates all royal strengths and weaknesses. Brave, noble and proud but can be haughty and foolish. Has natural rivalry with the elephant.[76]
  • Jackal: greedy and cunning (akin to the fox in European tradition); sometimes punished but often gets away. Is often a manipulative minister to the king.[77]
  • Hare: small and vulnerable but compensates by being crafty, outwitting stronger rivals.[77]
  • Elephant (wild or domestic): noble, proud, strong; enemy of the lion but like the lion can be naive and, when in rut, wild and unpredictable.[78]
  • Cat (domestic or wild): cunning and hypocritical, with a calm appearance hiding murderous intentions.[79]
  • Tiger: Symbol of might and courage; celebrated as national animal of India.[80]
  • Dog: considered unclean and impure, reviled—not a pet but a pest; considered to lack self-respect.[78]
  • Mongoose: loyal and useful pet, best known for its natural enmity toward snakes. See The Brahmin and the Mongoose.[81]

References

  1. ↑ Philostratus, Flavius (c. 210 CE). The Life of Apollonius of Tyan Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine, 5.14. Translated by F.C. Conybeare. the Loeb Classical Library (1912)
  2. ↑ Greenhall, Arthur M. 1961. Bats in Agriculture. A Ministry of Agriculture Publication. Trinidad and Tobago
  3. ↑ Sophasarun, Nida. "Experts debunk bats' bad rap". Online extra. National Geographic. Archived from the original on December 30, 2007. Retrieved April 30, 2013.
  4. ↑ "BATS Magazine Archive". Batcon.org. 2014-03-05. Retrieved 2016-06-10.
  5. ↑ Pumo, D.E.; et al. (1998). "Complete Mitochondrial Genome of a Neotropical Fruit Bat, Artibeus jamaicensis, and a New Hypothesis of the Relationships of Bats to Other Eutherian Mammals". Journal of Molecular Evolution. 47 (6): 709–717. doi:10.1007/PL00006430. PMID 9847413. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  6. ↑ Zhou, X.; et al. (2011). "Phylogenomic Analysis Resolves the Interordinal Relationships and Rapid Diversification of the Laurasiatherian Mammals". Systematic Biology. 61 (1): 150–164. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syr089. PMC 3243735. PMID 21900649.
  7. ↑ Sugobono, Nora (7 March 2010). "Las vidas del gato" (in español). El Comercio. Archived from the original on January 27, 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2010. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  8. ↑ Dowling, Tim (19 March 2010). "Tall tails: Pet myths busted". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 18 March 2010.
  9. ↑ ASPCA (30 June 2005). "The ASPCA Warns About High-Rise Falls by Cats". New York: About.com. Archived from the original on 22 May 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
  10. ↑ "Cats Suck Babies' Breath". snopes.com. Retrieved 2016-06-10.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on October 5, 2015. Retrieved October 3, 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
  12. ↑ Perreault, Jet (2013-01-30). "Why Do Cats Hate Water?". Petful. Retrieved 2016-06-10.
  13. ↑ Smith II, Larry (2007). "Longhorn_Information – handling". International Texas Longhorn Association. Archived from the original on May 11, 2010. Retrieved June 23, 2010. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  14. ↑ Dario, A. (September 12, 2003). "Cattle – Basic Care" (PDF). IACUC, University of Tennessee. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 25, 2008. Retrieved June 23, 2010.
  15. ↑ Grandin, Temple (2007). "Behavioral Principles of Handling Cattle and Other Grazing Animals under Extensive Conditions". In Moberg, Gary; Mench, Joy A. The Biology of Animal Stress. CABI. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-84593-219-0. Retrieved January 28, 2011. Search this book on
  16. ↑ "Elephant Information". 2011-07-18. Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2016-06-10. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  17. ↑ Bekoff, Marc. "Do Elephants Cry?: The science is conclusive: animals are emotional beings". Emagazine. Archived from the original on 2012-02-04. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  18. ↑ Siebert, Charles (October 6, 2006). "An Elephant Crack Up?". The New York Times.
  19. ↑ "Are Elephants Really Afraid of Mice?". Live Science. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
  20. ↑ Weintraub, Karen (2018). "Elephants Are Very Scared of Bees. That Could Save Their Lives". The New York Times.
  21. ↑ "Elephants Are Afraid of Mice | MythBusters". Discovery. 2012-04-11. Retrieved 2016-06-10.
  22. ↑ "Rocky Road: Pliny the Elder". Strangescience.net. 2016-01-06. Retrieved 2016-06-10.
  23. ↑ Spanney, Laura (January 28, 1995). "Not Many People Know That". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 2014-04-27. Retrieved November 11, 2011. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  24. ↑ Mikkelson, Barbara and David P. (August 19, 2007). "White Wilderness Lemmings Suicide". Snopes. Retrieved August 29, 2009.
  25. ↑ Scott, W. (November 1891). "The Monthly chronicle of North-country lore and legend: v.1–5; Mar. 1887-Dec. 1891". The Monthly Chronicle of North-country Lore and Legend. 5: 523. Retrieved January 7, 2011.
  26. ↑ Herold, Charles (29 June 2006). "Addictive as Chips, but Less Fattening". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 30 January 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2014. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 "Possums Hang By Tails". snopes.com. 2015-11-29. Retrieved 2016-06-10.
  28. ↑ [1][dead link]
  29. ↑ Conger, Cristen (2008-07-30). "Why Wolves Howl - Do wolves really howl at the moon? | HowStuffWorks". Animals.howstuffworks.com. Retrieved 2016-06-10.
  30. ↑ Richardson, Lance (2014-04-14). "Why do wolves howl? Wolves do not howl at the moon". Slate.com. Retrieved 2016-06-10.
  31. ↑ "Penguins Fall Over Watching Planes". snopes.com. Retrieved 2016-06-10.
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