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Tribo-fatigue

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki



File:Tribo-fatigue-1 EN-ั†ะฒ.jpg
The main effects in Tribo-Fatigue: DE โ€“ direct effect; BE โ€“ back effect; ฮ›ฯƒ\ฯ„ โ€“ effect of ฮ›-interactions (indicated by arrows) of damage caused by stresses (ฯƒ, ฯ„w) of different types (hexagon represents the tribo-fatigue logos)

Tribo-fatigue is a discipline of mechanics,[1][2] which studies wear-fatigue damage (WFD) in and the fracture of tribo-fatigue systems (TFS).[3][4] The field was founded at the junction of tribology, and mechanics of fatigue damage and fracture in materials and structural elements.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]

The methodological, theoretical and experimental foundations of tribo-fatigue were developed by L. A. Sosnovskiy.[1][6][8][9][11][12][13]

Etymology

The term tribo-fatigue is derived from ฯ„ฯฮนฮฒฮฟ (translit. tribo) in Greek, meaning friction, and fatigue in French and English, meaning fatigue. It was first proposed in a letter of L. ะ. Sosnovskiy to K.V. Frolov on September 30, 1984.[1] This term was first published in 1986.[14] It is included in the Belarusian Encyclopedia[3] and the Great Encyclopedic Dictionary.[4] It is regulated by an interstate standard.[5]

History

The sources of tribo-fatigue are such scientific disciplines as friction, tribology, fatigue (Figure 1).

File:Ris-S4-10.jpg
Figure 1 โ€“ From tribology to tribo-fatigue

The initial stage of development (1985โ€“1993) ended with the holding of the first International Symposium on Tribo-Fatigue (ISTF) in 1993, the preparatory materials for which were published in the following references[2][15][16][17] and many other works. Likewise, they are summarized in the following reference sources[18][19] and many other works. In subsequent years, a large complex of research and development work in the new area was organized and carried out.[15] For this, TRIBOFATIGUE Ltd. (organized in 1992) was transformed into S&P Group TRIBOFATIGUE Ltd. (since 1994), a Tribo-Fatigue laboratory of double subordination was organized โ€“ to the Scientific Center of the problems of mechanics and machinery of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus and the Designing Bureau of the PG "Gomselmash" (since 1995). The Academies of Sciences of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine approved (in 1996) the International Coordinating Council for Tribo-Fatigue, to which the China also joined (since 1999). The plant's Laboratory of wear-fatigue tests at PG "Gomselmash" was organized (since 1999). The Presidium of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, the State committee for science and technology (SCST) of the Republic of Belarus, the Ministry of education of the Republic of Belarus and the Ministry of industry of the Republic of Belarus decided to establish (since 2004) the Interdepartmental laboratory "Tribo-Fatigue". The Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus approved (in 1992) a separate scientific and technical project โ€œTribo-Fatigueโ€. The first "Plan of the International complex of research and development on Tribo-Fatigue " was approved (since 1995) by the Vice-Presidents of the NAS of Belarus, Russia, Ukraine. In subsequent years, a large set of studies was carried out under separate scientific and technical projects of the Republic of Belarus ("Priority", etc.), within the framework of the state scientific programs "Mechanics", "Metallurgy", "Standards and scientific devices", etc., under economic contracts with large industrial enterprises (PG "Gomselmash", JSC "MAZ", JSC "Gomeltransneft Druzhba"), according to state and interstate plans for standardization, etc. Since 1993, the International Symposia on Tribo-Fatigue (ISTF) have been regularly held, which summed up the development and developed promising areas of work in this area. International recognition of works on Tribo-Fatigue was marked by the silver medal of the USSR Exhibition of economic achievements (1989), by the Decree of the President of Ukraine on awarding a group of Ukrainian and Belarusian scientists the State Prize of Ukraine in science and technology (1997),[15] etc. In 2015, a bibliographic index was published; it included 930 works on Tribo-Fatigue, including more 30 books and 12 state and interstate standards that had been developed based on the results of research in a new field. Currently, the number of works exceeds 1,200 titles.[20] The results of Tribo-Fatigue research were discussed at more than 120 international congresses, congresses, conferences, symposia, colloquia in Belarus, Russia, China, USA, Japan, Great Britain, Germany, Canada, Australia, Ukraine and other countries.[15]

Objects to study

Tribo-fatigue studies mechanical systems where the friction process is implemented in its manifestations during rolling, sliding, slipping, impact, erosion, and the like. At the same time, friction accommodates and transfers the volume-alternating load, which is in particular cyclic.[5][6][8][9] These are high-duty products. Thus, in the traditionally studied friction pair of the wheel and rail, the rail head is simultaneously subjected to alternating bending. Therefore, the performance of this system is determined by the complex WFD, which is the mechano-rolling fatigue.[5][6][21] Similarly in the pair of the crankshaft and connecting rod, the shaft journal is simultaneously subjected to bending and torsion; therefore, its performance is determined by the complex WFD, which is the mechano-sliding fatigue.[5][6][22] In a variety of shaft-and-hub joints, the shaft is additionally subjected to bending with rotation. The joints' performance is determined by the complex WFD, which is the fretting fatigue.[5][6][23] Meanwhile, the pipe-and-fluid system, often using oil, simultaneously realizes both hydrodynamic friction and internal pressure that loads in an alternating pattern. Therefore, its performance is determined by the complex WFD, which is the mechano-corrosion fatigue, also called the corrosion-erosion fatigue.[5][6][24][25] Similarly, mechano-radiation fatigue is characteristic of the primary circuit pipes of the nuclear power plant.[26]

A TFS is any friction pair where at least one of the elements is additionally and simultaneously loaded with the volume (non-contact) load. At least one TFS can be found in virtually every modern machine, such as a car; the system must be heavily loaded and largely determines the operational reliability of the product. From this it follows that the great technical and economic significance for modern technology of the problems of friction and wear (studied in tribology), on the one hand, and the problems of fatigue damage and fracture (studied in the mechanics of fatigue of materials), on the other hand, increases manifold when particular damaging phenomena (fatigue, friction and wear) are realized simultaneously and jointly in the form of complex WFD, studied in tribo-fatigue.[1]

Wear-fatigue damage

Figure 2 shows the classification of the main types of WFD (in four languages). Table 1 describes the three main classes of TFS: 1) solid / solid; 2) solid / liquid; 3) solid / particles.

File:Tribo-fatigue-2 EN 2 ch-2.tif
Figure 2 โ€“ The main types of WFD
Table 1 โ€“ Typical TFS and their complex damage
Typical TFS Complex damage and fracture Definition
Crankpin / connecting-rod end with sliding bearing Mechano-sliding fatigue WFD due to the effect of kinetic interaction between the phenomena of mechanical fatigue and sliding friction
Wheel / rail Mechano-rolling fatigue WFD due to the effect of kinetic interaction between the phenomena of mechanical fatigue and rolling friction (rolling friction with slippage)
Spline shaft / bushing Fretting fatigue WFD due to the effect of kinetic interaction between the phenomena of mechanical fatigue and fretting
Propeller shaft / sea water Mechano-corrosion fatigue WFD due to the effect of kinetic interaction between alternating stresses and corrosive environment
Turbine blades / fluid or gas flow carrying solid particles Mechano-erosion fatigue WFD due to the effect of kinetic interaction between the phenomena of mechanical fatigue and erosion
Pipe / fluid flow under pressure Corrosion-erosion fatigue WFD due to the effect of kinetic interaction between the phenomena of mechanical fatigue, corrosion and erosion

Effects

Table 2 summarizes the subject matter of tribo-fatigue as compared to tribology and mechanical fatigue, the two of which are the sources of tribo-fatigue.

Table 2 โ€“ Comparison of the methodologies of scientific disciplines
Discipline Object of study Basic methods of studies Tasks
experimental theoretical
Tribo-fatigue Tribo-fatigue system Wear-fatigue tests Mechanics of wear-fatigue damage Optimal management of complex WFD processes of TFS in order to reduce labor, equipment and materials costs in their production and operation
Tribology Friction pair Tribotesting Contact mechanics Combating wear up to wear-free friction and preventing jamming of friction pairs
Fatigue Structural element Fatigue tests Mechanics of deformation and fracture Reducing the rate of accumulation of damage and preventing fatigue failure of structural elements

There are three main effects established and studied in tribo-fatigue.[5][6][7][8][9][10] The direct effect in tribo-fatigue is to study the influence of processes and conditions of friction and wear on the change in the characteristics of fatigue resistance of TFS and their elements.[6][11][27] Experiments prove that friction and wear can reduce by 3 to 7 times or more or significantly increase by 30 to 40 percent[6][28] the fatigue limit ฯƒโˆ’1 of structural elements (Figure 3). The back effect is the impact of alternating stresses on the change in the characteristics of friction and wear of the TFS and its elements.[6][11][27][29] Likewise, experiments prove that cyclic stresses under the volume load excited in the contact zone can, depending on the conditions, either reduce or increase the wear resistance of a friction pair by 10 to 60 percent or more.

File:Tribo-fatigue-2 EN.jpg
Figure 3 โ€“ Diagram explaining the main features: ฮ›-interactions with the direct effect (p0 is the highest stress on the contact pad during rolling; ฯ„w is the frictional stress during sliding; q is the contact pressure in the fretting zone)

The effect of ฮ›-interactions of damage (ฯ‰ฯƒ, ฯ‰ฯ„) is caused by normal stresses (index ฯƒ) due to non-contact volume loads, which produce fatigue, and frictional stresses (index ฯ„w), which produce friction and wear. They can be illustrated by the following rule:[6]

File:Tribo-fatigue-3.jpg

According to this rule, damage from contact and volume loads is non-additive: they are not summed but interact dialectically. ฮ›-functions should take three classes of values (ฮ› > 1, ฮ› < 1, ฮ› = 1) to describe unity, diversity, and physical hardening-softening processes in a system (Figure 3).[6] There are formulas for calculating the limiting stresses with direct (ฯƒโˆ’1ฯ„) and back (ฯ„fฯƒ) effects, taking into account ฮ›-interactions of damage:[6][30]

File:Tribo-fatigue-4-2.jpg

ฮ›-functions defined at the macro-level are similar to non-additivity parameters in q-estimation.[31] They were used as the basis for development of the statistical theory of non-additive systems at the nano-level.[32] They are fundamental in modern concepts of non-additive systems. The TFS can be viewed as a real class of non-additive systems at the macro-level.

By taking into account the above three effects, it is possible to formulate and address the tasks of optimal management in view of economic responsibility of the WFD processes of TFS as well as to calculate strength and wear resistance of high-duty mechanical systems (see Table 2 and [6][7][8][9][10]).

Interdisciplinary results

Tribo-fatigue has contributed to discoveries impacting other fields, including fundamental ones.

  • The generalized law of friction has been theoretically formulated[7][33] and experimentally confirmed:[6][7][34][35] in the general case, the friction force is proportional both to contact load (FN) and volume load (Pb) if the latter excites cyclic stresses (ยฑฯƒ) in the area of contact:
File:Tribo-fatigue-4-3.jpg

The coefficient of friction in the TFS is:

File:Tribo-fatigue-4-4.jpg

where p0 is the maximum value of pressure p distribution in the contact area, kฯƒ/p is the function that depends on the correlation of stresses acting in the area of contact and caused by non-contact and contact loads, and f is the coefficient of friction according to the classic Amonton-Coulomb law. If friction is implemented in a tension zone with volume loading, fฯƒ/p < fs, while in the compression zone, becomes fฯƒ/p > fs. The difference between the values of fฯƒ/p and fs reaches 10% to 50% or more, depending on the loading conditions.[34] Practical use of the classic law for analysis of friction in TFS is unjustified since it results in a significant calculation error.

  • The mechanical-mathematical model of the combined stress-strain state of TFS in three-dimensional setting (i, j) is as such:[6][7][10][36]
File:Tribo-fatigue-5.jpg

where ฯƒij(n), ฯƒij(ฯ„), ฯƒij(b) are the stresses caused respectively by the normal contact load (superscript (n)), tangential ฯ„ contact load, and non-contact (b) loads. Superscripts M, N and Q correspond to the internal moment, and longitudinal and transverse forces during volumetric deformation such as by bending, tension, compression, and torsion. This model is the basis of formulating and solving a new class of contact problems, supplemented by the action of various non-contact forces.[7][37] It also results in a new subdiscipline in the theory of elasticity, supplemented to consider the local effects in the load application area.[7][38] Calculations of direct and back effects for this model are adequate to the experimental results.

  • Based on the statistical model of a deformable solid,[39] a new and effective measure for the volume damage of friction pairs and TFS at any (i, j) stress condition has been proposed:[7][40]
File:Tribo-fatigue-6.jpg

where ฯƒ*min is the lower limit of the scattering of the limiting stress for a given object and P is the probability of damage determined with a confidence probability ฮณ. This measure helps to solve tasks of analyzing the scale effect, calculation, and experimental assessment of the wear, since the latter is implemented within a dangerous volume VPฮณ.[41] Dangerous volumes in friction pairs and TFS, depending on the damage assessment criteria, have been systematized and classified. Dangerous volumes are classified according to various criteria (stress state, deformed state, potential strain energy) in dynamic and static setting.[7]

  • The generalized energy theory[6][30][42][43] of limiting states of TFS can predict the occurrence of failures according to various performance criteria such as fatigue failure, unacceptable wear, and critical density of pittings. There are solutions for several particular cases. Thus the equation concerning criteria for a special case of mechanic sliding fatigue takes the following form:
File:Tribo-fatigue-6-2.jpg

where a<<1 are coefficients, which single out from the total energy, which is the energy delivered to the system. The amount of total energy is used to form the irreparable damage. Methods for calculating such coefficients have been developed.[6][7][8][9][10] Numerous verifications of the equation showed its adequacy to experiments.

  • Experimental and theoretical studies formulated nine tribo-fatigue surprises.[44][45][46] According to a 2005 work, "the scientists could not see, understand, imagine or analytically describe" occurrences relating to "the emergence of tribo-fatigue".[44] For example, surprise S3, a tribo-fatigue bomb,[44] is the abnormally low resistance to fracture at fretting fatigue due to the strong interaction of a complex of weak damages. It turned out that such a surprise is found in a rotor of a unique turbine with a unit capacity of 1200 megawatts (MW) in a fusion reactor with a strong magnetic field, which was in a rocket engine with hydrogen fuel, in turn in an installation for drilling ultra-deep wells.[1] Surprise S5, also known as the Troppy effect,[44] is the formation of irregular residual surface undulating damage as a result of non-stationary process of elastoplastic deformation in an area of contact interaction during rolling friction. This phenomenon occurs in a wheel-and-rail system as wavy damage that occurs on the tread surface under severe operating conditions.[47]
  • Entropy in thermodynamics is a characteristic of energy dissipation. Tribo-Fatigue proposes a similar characteristic of its absorption:[48]
File:Tribo-fatigue-7.jpg

Tribo-fatigue entropy, which is surprise S7,[44] generates irreversible damage ฯ‰ฮฃ in dangerous volumes VPฮณ on moving and deformable solids interacting with either each other or the medium. Here Tฮฃ โ‰ฅ T is the temperature caused by all sources (T is the temperature of the medium), ฮณ1(w) is the pressure or stress that results in the damage of a dangerous volume of a unit value, Uฮฃeff is the effective absorbed energy caused by loads of a different nature. Tribo-fatigue entropy was used to formulate and analytically record the general law of entropy increase for the first time in history.[49][50] This law, like the concept of entropy itself, is useful for cosmological studies.[51][52][53] According to surprise S8, concerning tribo-fatigue life,[44] life is a special way of existence of protein bodies evolving through inevitable states of irreparable damage. This concept is based on the analysis of the phenomena of fatigue, wear, biochemical, and other damage characteristic of a living organism; besides, it has helped describe the way of life of Homo sapiens,[54] as well as in philosophy and social studies.[55][56]

TFS design

Principles and methods[6][10][57] developed for the design of TFS for strength, durability, reliability, and durability taking into account the risk of an operation can solve many tasks.[58] Tribo-Fatigue moves away from the traditional design of individual parts and turns to the estimation and design of mechanical systems.[1] With regard to the mechano-sliding fatigue of the bending shaft and sliding-surface bearing system, the following tasks can be set and practically solved:

  • determining the required diameter of the shaft taking into account the direct effect,
  • determining the required area of contact of the system elements taking into account the back effect,
  • selecting materials for both elements of the system,
  • setting the requirements of the value of the friction coefficient,
  • calculating the durability of the system and its elements,
  • assessing the reliability of the system under given operating conditions,
  • and calculating the risk factors and indicators of safe system operation.

Figure 4 shows a comparative analysis of the methods of calculation of TFS based on the criteria of Tribo-Fatigue (the parameters with the index TF), the criteria of mechanical fatigue (the parameters with the index F) and also the tribological parameter or the coefficient of friction. In all the graphs the horizontal dotted line means that in calculations based on individual criteria of either mechanical fatigue or tribology, the required parameters are assumed as singles. The curvilinear dotted lines describe the direct or the back effects providing the function of interaction of damages is ฮ›ฯƒ/ฯ„=1. The remaining (solid) lines characterize the above effects with the account of various conditions of interaction of damages: the softening processes prevail at ฮ›ฯƒ/ฯ„>1, the hardening processes prevail at ฮ›ฯƒ/ฯ„<1.

File:Ris-S4-9.jpg
Figure 4 โ€“ Methods of calculation and design of TFS

For example, let us comment on determination of the required cross section of the shaft. Its diameter dF taken according to the known method of calculation for mechanical fatigue is assumed equal to a unity dF=1.

If the shaft is an element of the TFS, then the allowance for the effect of the processes of friction and wear, that are generally characterized by the relative value of friction stresses ฯ„W2/ฯ„f2, leads to the fact that in order to provide its strength reliability the value of dTF can be either significantly less (for example, 0.9dF) or significantly more (for example, 1.3dF) than the value of dF; it depends on the ratio between the occurring processes of hardening-softening (ฮ›ฯƒ/ฯ„>1 or ฮ›ฯƒ/ฯ„<1).

The analysis of other graphs in Figure 4 leads to similar conclusions in deciding on the selection of the required area of contact, properties of a material, friction coefficient, etc.

Testing machines

File:SZ-01.jpg
Figure 5 โ€“ Testing machine SZ-01
File:Tribo-fatigue-8 EN.jpg
Figure 6 โ€“ Scheme of the testing machine and formation of the wear-fatigue testing methods (ICS โ€“ information-control system)

A new class of testing equipment, called SI-series machines, for wear-fatigue testing of materials, models of friction pairs, and TFS is based on inventions within the Tribo-Fatigue framework (Figure 5).[6][35][59][60][61] The main feature of such machines is the use of standardized sizes of test objects (Figure 6). This ensures correct comparison of the results of tests carried out under different conditions.

The SI-series machines are installed in the research laboratories of JSC "Gomselmash", JSC "Gomeltransneft Druzhba", Belarusian-Russian University in Mogilev, Belarusian State University in Minsk, and other academic institutions. Technical characteristics of the SI-series machines are regulated by the requirements of the interstate standard GOST 30755-2001 "Tribo-Fatigue. Machines for wear-fatigue tests. General technical requirements". The main test methods are standardized.[62]

SI series machines are equipped with information-control system built on the basis of a personal computer. The software allows you to fully automate testing, registration of measured parameters (Figure 7) and processing of statistical arrays of experimental data.

File:Tribo-fatigue-7 new.jpg
Figure 7 โ€“ Information control system (ICS) for SI series machines: M1, M2 โ€“ specimen and counter-specimen drives, respectively
File:Tribo-fatigue-9 EN-2.jpg
Figure 8 โ€“ Peripheral PTC device for PC: ะขะœ โ€“ compact modular desktop test center; ICS โ€“ information-control system

In 2018, a prototype model of a personal desktop test center (PTC) on the base of the SI-series machines as a result of their miniaturization was manufactured under the government of Belarus.[63] Such a center is planned to be used as a peripheral device for PCs (Figure 8) in the universities. Test complexes are intended for the setting of a modern laboratory workshop for students and undergraduates as a part of the disciplines of the mechanical science, which include tribo-fatigue.

Management of irreversible WFD

Table 5 gives a comparative analysis of the damageability (ฯ‰) under the influence of the main control parameter โ€“ load for TFS, friction pairs and structural elements (see also "Interdisciplinary results"). It can be seen that in Tribo-Fatigue there is a possibility of the most effective control of the processes of irreversible damage. This is explained not only by the fact that two types of loads (contact and volumetric) operate in the TFS, but also by the fact that ฮ›-interactions of damage are realized in such a system (see "Effects", "Interdisciplinary results"), which, depending on conditions of testing or operation, can radically change the mechanisms of complex WFD. An example of such an interaction is shown in Figure 9. Here are the results of studying (by atomic force microscopy) the process of cracking of carbon steel samples under rolling friction and during complex wear-fatigue tests depending on the contact pressure p0 and the magnitude of the cyclic stress amplitude ฯƒa. The figures (their size 35x35 ฮผm2) show the morphology of primary damage to the friction surface, typical for the corresponding test modes. And the histogram shows the dependence of the critical depth h of the damaged layer on the level of cyclic stresses ฯƒa (at a constant contact pressure p0 = 2,130 MPa).

Figure 9 โ€“ Microtopography of surface damage during rolling friction (vertical column of figures) and wear-fatigue tests (remaining figures)

In pure rolling friction, an increase in the contact pressure leads to an increase in surface plastic deformation, hence to deformational fragmentation of grains, the formation of first discrete pores and cracks, and then their chains. The system of deformed grains, chains of pores and cracks is unidirectional and oriented along the rolling direction. This process leads to the formation of relatively large discrete chipping pits. There are two main types of wear - flaking and chipping. And the critical depth of the damaged layer is estimated at ~0.4 ... 0.5 ฮผm.

According to the dialectic of ฮ›-damage, under other conditions of testing or operation (when ฮ›<1), the so-called tribo-fatigue bomb is possible (Figure 10):[6] abnormally low resistance to fracture during fretting fatigue, due to the strong interaction of a complex of weak damages. The elimination of the tribo-fatigue bomb was achieved by a corresponding change in design and using special materials.[64]

Figure 10 โ€“ To the analysis of conditions of existence of a tribo-fatigue bomb
File:Tribo-fatigue-17 newest2.jpg
Figure 11 โ€“ To the analysis of the wheel / rail system from the standpoint of Tribo-Fatigue

The situations discussed above are shown schematically in Figure 3.

Figure 11 shows a more complex task of managing a complex WFD (ฮ›>1, ฮ›<1, ฮ›=1), which is typical for such technically important wheel / rail TFS.[6]

As academic discipline

Tribo-Fatigue has been introduced as a course in the curricula of several universities in Belarus since 1996. Complete academic and methodological support is available.[10][65][66][67] Online courses on Tribo-Fatigue are officially registered in Belarus.[68] During the last twenty years, the course has been attended by more than 3,500 students and undergraduates, who contributed to improving the quality of training of mechanical engineers and mechanical mathematicians.[69][70][71]

Tribo-fatigue for industry

Hi-Tech: cast knives for cutting and grinding apparatus of high-performance forage harvesters

The TFS โ€œknifeโ€“clampโ€“boltsโ€“baseโ€ in this apparatus works in difficult conditions: high shock-cyclic loads, contact loads and the influence of an aggressive environment (green mass). The operability of the most critical element of this system โ€“ cutting knives, in essence, largely determines the reliability and performance of combines.[72][73]

File:Tribo-fatigue-10 newest.jpg
Figure 12 โ€“ Reducing the width (ฮ”a) of the size of the cutting edge of the knives, depending on the operating time, based on the results of operational tests: 1 โ€“ steel knives of foreign manufacture with surfacing of the cutting edge with hard alloy; 2, 3 โ€“ cast knives manufactured by JSC "Gomselmash" from DITG cast iron (MONICA) without hardening (3) and with laser hardening of the cutting edge (2)

The operational reliability of knives is determined by two parameters: a decrease in ฮ”a of the width of the cutting edge (wear) and an increase in the radius of curvature r of the cutting edge. JSC "Gomselmash" and S&P Group TRIBOFATIGUE Ltd replaced steel knives with cast iron knives. The knives are made of ductile iron with spherical graphite and high fatigue resistance DITG (MONICA).[74][75][76][77] The results of field tests of knives are presented in Figure 12.[78] It is seen that cast iron knives fully provide the condition for wear resistance: ฮ”a = 17.2 mm < limฮ”a = 20 mm.

Steel and cast iron knives were comparatively tested.[79] It is seen that cast knives by this criterion are more efficient than steel knives: ฮ”r = 0.19 โ€“ 0.10 = 0.09 mm, i.e. almost 2 times.

JSC "Gomselmash" and S&P Group TRIBOFATIGUE Ltd have also developed an original technique for accelerated laboratory testing of knives under conditions close to operational.[80]

Operational reliability of the linear part of the pipeline

The pipe / fluid (oil) flow system under pressure is TFS (Figure 13): the pressure during operation is repeatedly variable, and the friction of oil during movement causes corrosion-erosion wear on the inner surface of the pipe.[24][81][82][83] A statistical study was conducted of changes in internal pressure in 4 sections of the โ€œDruzhbaโ€ pipeline with a total length of 882 km. for 5 years.[83][84][85][86] The sample was about 400,000 pressure values over 5 years. It was shown (see the example in Figure 13b) that the pressure swing is in the range from 0.4 to 3.7 MPa. The maximum deviation of the daily average pressure from the annual average exceeds 2 MPa, which is more than half of the largest. It turned out that the parameters of the loading process are different in different seasons of the year. Figure 13c-d shows the wall friction for a two-dimensional problem statement caused by the motion of a viscous fluid: c โ€“ distribution of the transverse component vy of the flow velocity (in the circumferential direction) along the pipe length (v0 = 10 m/s); d โ€“ tangential stresses on the pipe wall.[81][82]

File:Tribo-fatigue-12 newest.jpg
Figure 13 โ€“ Oil line pipe as the TFS
File:Tribo-fatigue-13 newest.jpg
Figure 14 โ€“ Operational reliability of the linear part of the โ€œDruzhbaโ€ oil pipeline

Specialists came to the conclusion that the alternating nature of the load is the main reason for the accumulation of damage to the inner surface of the pipe. This initiates the formation of crack-like defects, the development of which during operation leads to a pipeline accident. From figure 14 it can be seen that during the period of operation before the development of the depreciation period (1964โ€ฆ1996), accidents were almost annually.

In connection with the approaching depreciation period, JSC "Gomeltransneft Druzhba" and S&P Group TRIBOFATIGUE Ltd developed a set of measures to restore the operability of such sections of the pipeline. The main ones were: stabilizing the pressure during operation and increasing the strength of the pipe material by loading with increased internal pressure (25% higher than the working one). The operation of the pipeline after the depreciation period (after 1996 in Figure 14) showed that there were no accidents for 12 years. The three accidents shown during this period relate to damage to the pipeline during repair and construction works. The working pressure was increased: before depreciation โ€“ 42 MPa, after depreciation โ€“ 45 MPa.

Further operation of the pipeline (after 2010) showed that failures of underwater sections of the pipeline may not be according to the criterion of crack resistance (Figure 15, upper image), but according to the criterion of wear (Figure 15, lower images).[87][88] In this regard, an original method of wear-resistant tests of pipe steel samples in an oil medium was developed (Figure 16).[89] The tests were carried out on a SI-series machine (see Figure 5). To eliminate accidents due to wear, the underwater sections of the pipeline were reconstructed.[90]

File:Tribo-fatigue-14 newest.jpg
Figure 15 โ€“ Pipes fracture pattern: ะฐ โ€“ magistral crack (MC) along the weld; b โ€“ magistral crack along the bottom of oval-type local corrosion damage streamlets; c โ€“ magistral crack along the clusters of pockmark-like damages on one side of the strip-type local corrosion damage
File:Tribo-fatigue-15 newest2.tif
Figure 16 โ€“ Corrosion-erosion fatigue: test procedure

According to the results of the work, normative documents were developed.[91][92] Thus, the effectiveness of the โ€œtribo-fatigue approachโ€ to ensure the reliability of the linear sections of the โ€œDruzhbaโ€ oil pipeline was confirmed.[24][81][82]

Hi-Tech: cast iron rails

The wheel / rail system is TFS: it is loaded with a spatial system of cyclic forces (Figure 17) and simultaneously works under friction conditions (during rolling, sliding and fretting).[93][94][95][96] Modern production of its main element โ€“ steel rails is carried out by rolling.[97]

File:Tribo-fatigue-16 newest.jpg
Figure 17 โ€“ Wheel / rail system

JSC โ€œGomselmashโ€ and S&P Group TRIBOFATIGUE Ltd developed a technology for casting rails made of high-strength cast iron with spherical graphite and high fatigue resistance DITG (MONICA).[75][76][98]

On August 24, 2008 JSC โ€œGomselmashโ€ and S&P Group TRIBOFATIGUE Ltd cast the first rail R65 from DITG cast iron.

File:Cast iron MONICA-4.jpg
Figure 18 โ€“ A heavy freight train (train weight 3000 tons) goes along the experimental R65 rails made of MONICA (shown by arrow)

By permission of the Gomel Department of the Belarusian Railway in 2012โ€“2014 (all seasons of the year) the planned operation of the experimental batch of R65 rails from the DITG was carried out on the tracks of the organized train traffic (Figure 18). After operational tests, the rails were dismantled for study. It was established: there was no vertical and lateral wear of the rail heads, there were no additional difficulties during operation in winter and summer, the general appearance and condition of the rails was normal, the rails can be re-stacked and operated in the existing section of the track.

According to calculations,[99][100] the wear resistance of cast iron rails is approximately 1.5 times higher than steel, under the same operating conditions. This is due to the special properties of cast iron (self-lubrication, ability to dampen vibrations, etc.).

For accelerated laboratory tests, original physical models of the wheel / rail system were developed, which are tested on SI-series machines (see Figure 5) under conditions close to operational. For example, test specimens are cut from the rail head in such a way that they contain a surface area damaged during operation. A laboratory test procedure has been developed, during which rail corrugation is reproduced (Figure 19).[101][102]

File:Tribo-fatigue-21 newest.jpg
Figure 19 โ€“ Surface residual irregular wave-like damage

Thus, it is shown that cast iron rails are promising. Given the uniqueness of the railway track, experts believe[99] that it is more rational to cast railway wheels from cast iron, especially for locomotives.

Large-sized gears

Toothed gears are a TFS: in the contact zone, rolling friction with slippage occurs, and in the transition zone from the tooth to the crown there is a cyclic bending (fatigue). Laboratory models are shown in Figure 20. Accelerated laboratory tests of such models are carried out on SI-series machines (see Figure 5). An example of tests is shown in Figure 21. The test method allows you to establish the conditions for the transition of failures either by the criterion of wear resistance, or by the criterion of fatigue.[103][104][105]

File:Tribo-fatigue-22 newest.jpg
Figure 20 โ€“ Modifications of gearing models
File:Tribo-fatigue-23 newest.jpg
Figure 21 โ€“ Results of combined tests for bending and contact fatigue

As a result of the studies, it was shown that steel large-sized (~500 mm diameter) gears of gearboxes of forage and grain harvesters manufactured by JSC โ€œGomselmashโ€ can be made by casting of ductile iron with spheroidal graphite with high fatigue resistance DITG (MONICA).[75][76] Fifteen gearboxes were manufactured with pilot cast iron gears and serial steel gears. For each harvester, these gearboxes were installed as follows: on the one hand, a gearbox with a cast iron gears, and on the other hand, a gearbox with a steel gears. This ensured comparability of the results of field tests under the same conditions. The results of field (full-scale) tests are shown in Figure 22. It can be seen: the operability of cast iron large-sized gears is higher than that of steel gears.

File:Tribo-fatigue-24 2 newest.jpg
Figure 22 โ€“ Comparison of operational damage to gears made of cast iron DITG and steel after 444 running hours (1 season of work)

JSC โ€œMAZโ€, OIM NASB and S&P Group TRIBOFATIGUE Ltd have also developed an integrated approach to assessing the reliability of the drive axle of a MAZ-5440 truck tractor produced by the Minsk Automobile Plant.[106][107]

โ€œFrom science to education and productionโ€

File:Tribo-fatigue-26 2 newest.tif
Figure 23 โ€“ To the analysis of the fundamental triad education โ€“ science โ€“ production and its implementation

Articles[63][108] provide a general analysis of the work on Tribo-Fatigue over the past 20โ€“25 years: โ€œfrom science to education and productionโ€,[108] i.e. in three main areas of activity. Figure 23 illustrates the principles of such activities. When scientific results are introduced into production, this is a recognition of their practical effectiveness. When they form a new academic discipline of the university, it becomes the common property of the scientific and educational sphere of society. The same figure shows the relationship between Tribo-Fatigue and Mechanothermodynamics, a branch of physics, one of the sources of which is Tribo-Fatigue.[109]

International Symposia

Seven international symposia on tribo-fatigue were held in four countries: Belarus, Russia, China and Ukraine. Reports and materials of symposia published in these countries.[110][111][112][113][114][115] More than 2,500 scientists and experts took part in the symposiums, and 147 report authors from many countries were awarded honorary diplomas "For the Contribution to Tribo-Fatigue Development". In 2010, 25 scientists and scientific coordinators from different countries were awarded with the Honorable Anniversary Sign "TRIBO-FATIGUE-25" (gilded).

At ISTF 2010 (Minsk) and ISTF 2015 (Gomel), special sections "Philosophy and Tribo-Fatigue" worked, in which specialists in physics, sociology, biology, etc. also took part. Problems of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research in modern science were discussed.

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