Universal religion
In the morphological classification of religions, a universalizing religion or universal religion refers to a religion believing their laws and cosmology to be binding for everyone.[1] They can be directly contrasted to ethnic religions in terms of their characteristics, which are, according to John Hinnells, limited by ethnic or national scope.[2] Cornelis Tiele was the first known person to formalize this classification in western study of religion.
"Universalizing religion" is different from but related to the term "universalism", which is one strategy of being "universalizing" (i.e. absorb any possible pre-existing religion into your framework as a matter of principle, or phrased more negatively, water everything down to the point where all religions are the same anyway). It is not synonymous with "universalism".
Characteristics[edit]
Jainism is the oldest surviving universalizing religious stream.[3][4]
Universalizing religions are tied to the life of the founder whereas ethnic religions are tied to the physical environment. Those universalizing religions who believe in an eternal universe claim that their religion is eternal and it is regenerated from time to time and the latest founder is just the current regenerator in the beginningless and endless chain of regenerators.[5][6] Their calendar is generally based on an important event in founder's life. They celebrate important events in the life of the founder; such as birth, death, date of sermon, date of enlightenment etc. They believe that Supreme Being reveals the laws of interactions between various entities of the Universe, either directly or indirectly on the Earth. Some also believe that the same Supreme Being creates the Universe for humans to use. They also believe in existence of "special persons" who compile the laws of Universe as revealed by the Supreme Being. Universalizing religions are usually, but not necessarily widespread. Yet another characteristic of universal religions that are rarely found in ethnic religions is the ease of conversion. Conversion to universal religions is usually relatively easy and highly encouraged by practitioners of the faith.
Some have suggested that there is a bias in naming top level religions for morphological classifications and branches of Buddhism should be considered separate religions if uniform criteria are applied across all the religions.[7]
Ethnic religions grow up slowly and almost imperceptibly, the product of the collective mind seeking satisfaction for their needs. Universal religions, on the contrary, are the outcome of a vivid personal experience on the part of an individual, and reflect his outlook on the world and life. Taking form at the outset in the religious consciousness of a person, these religions lay stress on the inward and subjective side of the religious relation. Man's relation to his god is not a ready-made fact, but a spiritual end to be realized. The inner spirit is not monopoly of any caste or people or species. It is in his spirit that man is religious. Faith is possible for all. Universal religions are individualizing, i.e. inward and personally realized. As all the men (and species for some religions) have the same spiritual nature, they can partake of the same religious experience. Neither physical kinship in a group nor participation in a given ritual system can create in a man or specie or take from them the spirit by which they worship and serve their god. Hence Universal religion is appealing to the spirit without distinction of class or race or specie. The salvation or redemption which it offers is open to all. Just as the object of worship is one, the method of divine service everywhere is the same. The missionary zeal they have displayed has corresponded to their inward vitality. After passing through many vicissitudes these religions are still alive.[8]
Comparison of various Universal religions[edit]
| Christianity | Buddhism | Atheism | Jainism | Islam | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karma(Cause/Effect) | Affirms | Affirms | Denies | Affirms | Affirms |
| Afterlife | Eternal Heaven/Eternal Hell | Rebirth[9] | Denies[10] | Reincarnation | Eternal Heaven/Eternal Hell |
| Beforelife | Denies | Rebirth[11] | Denies[12] | Reincarnation | Denies |
| Ascetic life | Denies | Affirms | Denies | Affirms | Denies except in Sufism |
| Rituals, Bhakti | Affirms | Affirms, optional[13] (Pali: Bhatti) |
Denies | Affirms, optional[14] | Affirms |
| Non-killing and Vegetarianism | Affirms with respect to humans only, but Just War affirmed |
Affirms, Unclear on meat as food[15] |
Strongest proponent of non-violence; Vegetarianism to avoid violence against animals[16] |
Affirms with respect to muslims only, but Just War affirmed | |
| Human Free will | Hyper-Calvinism denies, Others affirm to varying degree | Affirms | Affirms[17] | Denies | |
| Maya | Affirms | Affirms (prapañca)[18] |
Denies | Affirms | Affirms |
| Soul | Affirms | Denies[19] | Denies[20] | Affirms[21]:119 | Affirms |
| Creator God | Affirms | Denies | Denies | Denies | Affirms |
| Personal God | Affirms | Denies | Denies | Affirms | Affirms |
| Epistemology (Pramana) |
Omniscience(God only), Sensual Knowledge, Reasoning, Scripture |
Sensual Knowledge, Reasoning[22][23] |
Sensual Knowledge[24] , Methodological naturalism |
Omniscience, Telepathy, Remote Sensing, Sensual Knowledge, Reasoning, Scriptures[22] |
Omniscience(God only), Sensual Knowledge, Reasoning, Scripture |
| Epistemic authority | Bible/Pope | Buddha text[25] | Jain Agamas | Quran | |
| Salvation (Soteriology) |
Eternal Heaven | Nirvana (realize Śūnyatā)[26] |
Siddha[27] | Eternal Heaven | |
| Metaphysics (Ultimate Reality) |
God, Matter, Time, Space, Souls | Skandha, Śūnyatā[28][29] | Matter, Time, Space | Matter, Time, Space, Souls, Principle of Motion, Principle of Rest[30] |
God, Matter, Time, Space, Souls |
References[edit]
- ↑ Monaghan, John; Just, Peter (2000). Social & Cultural Anthropology. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-19-285346-2. Search this book on
- ↑ Hinnells, John R. (2005). The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion. Routledge. pp. 439–440. ISBN 0-415-33311-3. Retrieved 2009-09-17. Search this book on
- ↑ "Jainism and Buddhism as enduring historical streams" (PDF). p. 1.
- ↑ "Jainism oldest personally founded". p. 294.
- ↑ Britannica Tirthankar Definition, Encyclopædia Britannica
- ↑ "History of the Buddhas". Buddha Dharma Education Association. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
- ↑ Religious Conversion: Religion Scholars Thinking Together, Shanta Premawardhana, John Wiley & Sons, 2015, page 35.
- ↑ "Philosophy of religions". p. 138.
- ↑ Damien Keown (2013), Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199663835 Search this book on ., pages 32-46
- ↑ Haribhadrasūri (Translator: M Jain, 1989), Saddarsanasamuccaya, Asiatic Society, OCLC 255495691
- ↑ Damien Keown (2013), Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199663835 Search this book on ., pages 32-46
- ↑ Haribhadrasūri (Translator: M Jain, 1989), Saddarsanasamuccaya, Asiatic Society, OCLC 255495691
- ↑ Karel Werner (1995), Love Divine: Studies in Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700702350 Search this book on ., pages 45-46
- ↑ John Cort, Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN, pages 64-68, 86-90, 100-112
- ↑ U Tahtinen (1976), Ahimsa: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition, London, ISBN 978-0091233402 Search this book on ., pages 75-78, 94-106
- ↑ U Tahtinen (1976), Ahimsa: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition, London, ISBN 978-0091233402 Search this book on ., pages 57-62, 109-111
- ↑ Howard Coward (2008), The Perfectibility of Human Nature in Eastern and Western Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791473368 Search this book on ., pages 103-114;
Harold Coward (2003), Encyclopedia of Science and Religion, Macmillan Reference, see Karma, ISBN 978-0028657042 Search this book on.
- ↑ Damien Keown (2004), A Dictionary of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198605607 Search this book on ., Entry for Prapañca, Quote: "Term meaning ‘proliferation’, in the sense of the multiplication of erroneous concepts, ideas, and ideologies which obscure the true nature of reality".
- ↑ [a] Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791422175 Search this book on ., page 64; "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";
[b]KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-8120806191 Search this book on., pages 246-249, from note 385 onwards;
[c]John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120801585 Search this book on., page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism";
[d]Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist ‘No-Self’ Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now;
[e]Anatta Encyclopædia Britannica, Quote:"In Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying substance that can be called the soul. (...) The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman (self)." - ↑ Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata, Anthem, ISBN 978-0857284334 Search this book on ., page 216
- ↑ Padmanabh S. Jaini (2001). Collected papers on Buddhist studies. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 9788120817760. Search this book on
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791430675 Search this book on ., page 238
- ↑ D Sharma (1966), Epistemological negative dialectics of Indian logic — Abhāva versus Anupalabdhi, Indo-Iranian Journal, 9(4): 291-300
- ↑ MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2), pages 13-16
- ↑ Christopher Bartley (2011), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-1847064493 Search this book on ., pages 46, 120
- ↑ Jerald Gort (1992), On Sharing Religious Experience: Possibilities of Interfaith Mutuality, Rodopi, ISBN 978-0802805058 Search this book on ., pages 209-210
- ↑ John Cort (2010), Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195385021 Search this book on ., pages 80, 188
- ↑ Masao Abe and Steven Heine (1995), Buddhism and Interfaith Dialogue, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824817527 Search this book on ., pages 105-106
- ↑ Chad Meister (2009), Introducing Philosophy of Religion, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415403276 Search this book on ., page 60; Quote: "In this chapter, we looked at religious metaphysics and saw two different ways of understanding Ultimate Reality. On the one hand, it can be understood as an absolute state of being. Within Hindu absolutism, for example, it is Brahman, the undifferentiated Absolute. Within Buddhist metaphysics, fundamental reality is Sunyata, or the Void."
- ↑ Christopher Key Chapple (2004), Jainism and Ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820456 Search this book on ., page 20
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