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Amnesty in Venezuela

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki

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Amnesty in Venezuela refers to a series of legal measures implemented throughout the country's history that were aimed at benefiting persons prosecuted for political reasons.[1][2] During and after the country's independence, several cycles of amnesties were enacted under various legal forms, including amnesty laws, pardons, commutations and dismissals of charges, with the aim of achieving pacification and national reconciliation during moments of political crisis and conflict.[2][3][4][5]

Background

Colonial period

From the colonial period onwards, the practices of amnesty and pardon were implemented by colonial authorities as a way of granting forgiveness to persons convicted of certain crimes.[3][6] There was a degree of confusion between the two terms, and at times they were used interchangeably.[3] The pardon was a measure applied to one or several persons convicted by a final judgment and was the prerogative of the regent or another high authority,[3] whereas amnesty, which developed later, was understood as an exceptional law applied to specific situations and affecting a significant number of people.[3]

In colonial America, pardons could only be granted by the viceroy, and their use was limited to situations of conflict.[3][6] This faculty was already mentioned in a real cédula issued by Philip III of Spain in 1614, included in the Laws of the Indies.[6] Pardons were regulated by means of cédulas or letters of pardon, and their scope varied over time, although they were generally not applied to those convicted of lèse-majesté, treason, premeditated homicide and other serious crimes.[3][6] On occasions such as royal weddings or the births of members of the Crown, the king customarily granted pardons that were applied in the colonies.[6]

One of the most notable cases of pardon during the colonial period took place in 1781, following the revolt of the Comuneros of Los Andes, provoked by a tax increase approved by the colonial authorities.[7] After the defeat and arrest of the main participants, the governor of the province, Francisco de Arce, requested that the viceroy of New Granada, Archbishop Antonio Caballero y Góngora, grant a pardon to the detainees.[7]

The viceroy gave his approval and asked the governor of the Captaincy General of Venezuela, Luis de Unzaga, to grant a general pardon and amnesty to the rebels.[7] The case was forwarded to the War Auditor, who suspended the proceedings and consulted the monarch as to how to proceed. The viceroy in turn sent a plea for clemency to King Charles III of Spain, who in January 1783 granted a pardon to those involved, with the exception of the leaders of the rebellion.[7] Months later, the Crown set up a special junta composed of members of the Council of the Indies to evaluate the case and reach a final resolution. In June 1783, the junta recommended the release of the detainees and the elimination of bail requirements and the seizure of assets.[7]

From the mid-18th century, colonial jurists began to denounce the obsolescence and injustices of the Hispanic legal system.[3][6] American jurists criticised judicial abuses and disproportionate sentences, and also questioned the granting of pardons that harmed victims.[3][6] The New Granadan author Joseph Marcos Gutiérrez, in his influential Tratado de práctica criminal (1804), was critical of the application of the royal pardon and debated which public power should have the authority to grant it.[3][6]

War of independence

The violence unleashed before and during the war of independence led both patriots and royalists to make use of various pardons and amnesties.[6][8] In 1808 the so-called Mantuano Conspiracy took place, an attempt by the Mantuanos to install a junta to govern the Captaincy General of Venezuela. The movement failed and its participants were arrested, but several of them were later pardoned, including Francisco Rodríguez del Toro, Marquis del Toro.[8]

During the First Republic of Venezuela, the General Congress decreed an amnesty for those who had received minor sentences among the participants of the Valencia uprising of July 1811.[9][10] In a similar vein, the republicans also demanded amnesty from Spain as a condition for the Capitulation of San Mateo.[10] Despite the amnesty and pardon decrees, rebellions and conspiracies did not cease, leading several patriot leaders to express criticism of policies of forgiveness.[11][12] In 1812, the military commander Simón Bolívar wrote in his Cartagena Manifesto:

Every conspiracy was followed by a pardon, and every pardon was followed by another conspiracy that was again pardoned, because liberal governments must be distinguished by clemency. Criminal clemency, which contributed more than anything else to bringing down the machine we had not yet entirely completed!

— Simón Bolívar, Cartagena Manifesto (1812)[11][12]

While the war progressed, both patriots and royalists continued to use pardons as a tactic for integrating personnel into their ranks.[6] After declaring the Decree of War to the Death, Bolívar in 1813 proclaimed a general pardon, valid for one month, for Americans fighting on the royalist side. A year later, the measure was extended indefinitely and was expanded to include Spaniards, Canarians and deserters from the republican army.[6]

These procedures were replicated by other patriot leaders.[6] By executive decision, applications had to be evaluated by a Pardon Commission, and appeals had to be submitted to the alcalde ordinario, who performed judicial functions.[6] However, the administrative chaos brought about by the war meant that authorities faced difficulties in managing applications, and there were complaints that the alcaldes delayed decisions in order to allow applicants to be sentenced.[6]

The royalists also issued several pardon decrees. The accession of Ferdinand VII to the throne was accompanied by a series of pardons, while the royalist commander Pablo Morillo was granted the authority to extend such pardons. In 1817, Morillo and brigadier Juan Bautista Pardo announced the grace of a royal pardon in Venezuela, but the offer had little impact.[6]

As the patriot victory drew closer, various measures of forgiveness continued to be applied. The Treaty of Armistice and Regularization of War of 1820 was one of the first large-scale attempts to promote policies of pardon and oblivion, by trying to reintegrate part of the defeated royalist combatants into the republic.[8]

Gran Colombia

Conflict continued after the formation of Gran Colombia, leading to further amnesties and pardons.[2] In 1819, at the initiative of deputy Juan Vicente Cardozo, the Congress of Angostura granted a general pardon. The preamble to the document stated that the measure was motivated by a desire to celebrate the installation of the Congress "with acts of humanity, piety and beneficence".[6] This act began to lay the foundation for the power to decree pardons to depend mainly on the Congress rather than the executive.[6]

When the Constituent Congress of 1821 was formed, a pardon was also decreed to mark its installation and to attract deserters and fugitives.[2][6] The decree stated that runaway slaves who availed themselves of the benefit could "return to the dominion of their masters or to the service of arms".[6] Furthermore, Article 55, paragraph 20 of the Colombian Constitution of 1821 established that the Congress would have exclusive authority to grant general pardons and individual pardons.[6]

Over the years several centres of instability persisted, mainly associated with separatist movements and royalist rebel groups. As a result, pardons were used in an attempt to placate them. In 1827, Bolívar decreed an amnesty for those involved in the Cosiata separatist movement.[2][10]

Various republican leaders also offered pardons to the royalist rebel forces that remained in combat.[8] In 1829, a capitulation was signed between the royalist officer José Arizábalo and the republican general Lorenzo Bustillos. The document established the freedom of prisoners of war, their reintegration into national life, perpetual oblivion, amnesty and equality before the law. The measure was also extended to the royalist rebel José Dionisio Cisneros and his followers, although it was rejected by them.[8]

History

19th century

After the dissolution of Gran Colombia, the tradition of granting amnesties and pardons was maintained in the Constitution of Venezuela of 1830, to be applied in cases of "grave matters of public convenience".[2][3] The president had the right to grant pardons, amnesties and reprieves, although in order to grant them he had to refer to the Congress or to the Council of Government. The Congress, for its part, also had the power to grant general pardons and amnesties.[2][3]

In June 1830 the Congress granted pardons to several royalist rebels. A year later, the Council of Government authorised José Antonio Páez's government to grant an absolute pardon to the royalist Cisneros and his men.[8] Following the Revolution of the Reforms of 1835, which briefly deposed the first civilian president José María Vargas, the Congress of Venezuela enacted an amnesty for those involved, at the instigation of Carlos Soublette.[2][10] Two years later, Soublette's government, after executing Colonel Francisco María Farías, granted pardons to those who had taken part in the attempted uprising in the city of Maracaibo led by Farías and to those who had risen up in El Vigía of Puerto Cabello in the same year.[2]

Following the 1846 Venezuelan peasant insurrection, Páez's government granted pardons to a large number of people who had taken part in the movement.[2][3] Between 1847 and 1848 the government of José Tadeo Monagas continued this policy, benefiting leaders such as Antonio Leocadio Guzmán and Ezequiel Zamora, who had been sentenced to death.[2][3] In 1855 Monagas returned to the presidency, and the Congress granted him the authority to issue safe-conducts to exiles.[2][3]

In the 1857 and 1858 constitutions, the Congress retained the power to grant general amnesties and pardons, but the executive's authority to apply them was restricted to certain exceptional cases.[3][13] In 1858 the Congress approved a decree granting amnesty to all those exiled for political events from 1848 onwards, but the overthrow of Monagas following the March Revolution rendered the measure ineffective.[2][3]

The fall of Monagas led members of the Liberal Party to organise a group of insurgents known as the Sierra Faction.[3][14] Because of the strength gained by the movement, the government attempted to put pardon policies into practice in order to demobilise and pacify it, although not entirely successfully.[3] Between 1858 and 1859, the government of Julián Castro issued four pardon decrees in an attempt to pacify the Faction. The pardons made it possible to release several political prisoners and bring back exiles.[2][3]

The continuity of frequent civil wars during the century led to the continued use of pardon measures.[2][3] The Venezuelan Constituent Assembly of 1864 decreed an amnesty following the Federal War, on the grounds that "to destroy all hatreds, it was fitting to give a great example of national magnanimity".[2][10]

In 1868, during the Blue Revolution, a decree of amnesty was granted to those who had been tried in political cases. In 1870, interim president Guillermo Tell Villegas released several persons detained for political reasons.[2] Likewise, during the regime of Antonio Guzmán Blanco, several political prisoners were released, although without being formally declared pardons or amnesties.[2] In June 1877, President Francisco Linares Alcántara also decreed a general amnesty.[2][15]

By the 1880s, pardon policies were still being implemented. In 1882, President Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl pardoned all those involved in the Ana Jacinta expedition.[2] President Joaquín Crespo, for his part, in 1886 issued pardons to all those who had taken part in an attempted rebellion the previous year.[2]

20th century

Dictatorships of Castro and Gómez

During the dictatorship of Cipriano Castro, the naval blockade of Venezuela began in 1902, undertaken by several European countries. This led Castro to declare a general amnesty to release political prisoners, although one of the main motivations of the measure was to secure the support of the imprisoned nationalist leader José Manuel Hernández.[2]

Once Castro had been deposed, the dictatorship of Juan Vicente Gómez began. At the start of the dictatorship in 1908, some political prisoners were released and exiles were allowed to return. However, in subsequent years levels of repression and the number of detainees increased.[2] On 24 July 1925, Gómez offered a political amnesty that allowed the repatriation of approximately 20,000 exiles from Colombia.[2][16] Two years later a general amnesty was approved, but the protests initiated by the Generation of 1928 led the regime to resume repressive measures.[2]

Post-Gómez period

After Gómez's death, the government of Eleazar López Contreras was installed, and in its early days several political prisoners were released through various legal mechanisms,[2][17] but during his regime detentions and expulsions from the country continued. This pattern combining releases, the return of exiles and repression was also continued during the period known as the Trienio Adeco.[2][17]

Between 1948 and 1958 a military dictatorship led mainly by Marcos Pérez Jiménez again came to power, and during this period no amnesties or pardons were implemented.[2] After Pérez Jiménez was overthrown, a process of democratic opening began. A governing junta led by Wolfgang Larrazábal took power in 1958 and decreed a general amnesty for those detained under Pérez Jiménez's rule, while promoting the return of exiles.[17][18]

Two-party system

After the approval of the 1961 Constitution, the constitutional tradition of including the possibility of granting amnesties and pardons was maintained. Article 139 retained the Congress's authority to grant amnesties, and Article 190, paragraph 21 granted the president the power to issue pardons.[18][19]

From the 1960s onwards a series of coup attempts took place, and several left-wing political sectors launched an armed insurrection, which led to the arrest of numerous guerrillas and political leaders.[2][5][20] After several years of high conflict during which human rights violations were committed, the government of Raúl Leoni took the first steps to implement pacification measures, releasing several detainees through selective dismissals and commutations of sentences.[2][18][20] In 1964 the Law on the Commutation of Sentences by Pardon or Banishment from the National Territory was approved, which could be invoked by guerrillas.[21][22]

Pacification policies would play an important role during the first presidency of Rafael Caldera in achieving the reintegration of insurgent groups into institutional political life.[2][4] Between 1969 and 1971 Caldera's government had recourse to various legal measures such as pardons, mass dismissals, the legalisation of parties and the facilitation of the return of exiled guerrillas.[4][18]

While these releases were taking place, families and non-governmental organisations began campaigning in favour of a general amnesty. The Human Rights Defence Committee (CDDH) and the Pro-Amnesty Unitary Committees (CUPA), led by Laura Pérez Carmona de Prada, launched the "national campaign for the amnesty of political prisoners".[4][23] In 1973 the CUPA and the CDDH proposed a draft Amnesty Law during the First Meeting of Jurists and Parliamentarians for Amnesty.[23] The project had the support of several deputies and was discussed in the National Congress, although it was not passed.[4][23]

The movement in favour of amnesty continued during the first presidency of Carlos Andrés Pérez and the government of Luis Herrera Campins.[4] In 1974 the National Strike Command of Political Prisoners organised a national hunger strike, among whose demands was that the Congress begin discussion of the draft Amnesty Law.[4] By 1979 several guerrilla leaders had expressed their willingness to accept a possible amnesty offered by the government of Herrera Campins, provided that detained guerrillas were released.[4] In April of that year the president dismissed proceedings against twenty prisoners accused of rebellion, and months later the government dismissed proceedings against Douglas Bravo, Carlos Betancourt, Fortunato Herrera and other guerrillas.[4] These measures continued during the start of the government of Jaime Lusinchi.[4][24]

Although no amnesty law was passed during this period, by the 1990s most of the members of insurgent movements had been demobilised and had managed to reintegrate themselves into peaceful political life thanks to the various legal measures that entailed forgiveness and oblivion of the crimes committed.[2][4] However, these mechanisms also meant that some of the human rights violations committed by the State during its struggle with guerrilla groups, which included torture, disappearances and executions, were not investigated and no guarantees of non-repetition were established.[25][26]

On 4 February 1992, during the second presidency of Carlos Andrés Pérez, a first coup attempt took place, followed months later by a second coup attempt.[24][27] Following the failure of the attempts and the arrest of the participants, various human rights organisations, activists and politicians spoke out in favour of granting an amnesty to the detainees.[27][28]

On 30 March 1992 a group of deputies, together with the political figures Darío Vivas and Tarek William Saab, introduced a draft Amnesty Law in the Congress.[27][29] Three days later the March of Silence was held in Caracas, in which demonstrators demanded the freedom of the detained military officers.[27][29] The Pérez government began to dismiss proceedings against some of the participants, and these measures continued under the government of Ramón José Velásquez.[24][27]

In July 1993, Hugo Chávez, the principal leader of the detained military officers, sent a letter to the Venezuelan Episcopal Conference requesting its intermediation, together with that of other political sectors, for the approval of an Amnesty Law. In Chávez's words, he was writing on behalf of the military officers detained in the "prisons of dignity", arguing that the approval of the law would serve as "a formula to seek reconciliation, tranquillity and social peace, and thus to be able to slow down the grave political crisis".[29][30][31]

For the 1993 general election, presidential candidates Andrés Velásquez, Claudio Fermín and Oswaldo Álvarez Paz publicly came out in favour of a general amnesty for those detained for the coup attempts.[27][32] In 1994, at the start of the second presidency of Rafael Caldera, members of La Causa R again introduced a new draft Amnesty Law in the Congress.[27] Caldera's government continued the dismissal of proceedings, and in March 1994 Chávez was released, appealing to reasons of national interest, such as peace and the reunification of the Armed Forces.[24][27][29][33]

In the 1999 Constitution, Article 187, paragraph 5 conferred exclusive power to grant amnesties on the National Assembly. These could be approved by a simple majority, unless they were given the character of an organic law. Article 29 of the constitution excluded from the benefit of pardon and amnesty persons prosecuted for human rights violations and crimes against humanity.[34][35]

21st century

On 17 April 2000 the General Political Amnesty Law was promulgated in Official Gazette No. 36,934; its Article 1 benefited all persons who, up to 31 December 1992, "in confrontation with the established general order, had been prosecuted, convicted or persecuted for committing, for political motives, political crimes or crimes connected with political crimes". A subsequent Decree with the Rank, Value and Force of Amnesty Law was issued in the Extraordinary Official Gazette No. 5870 on 31 December 2007.[36] The 2007 law was intended to grant amnesty to those involved in the 2002 coup attempt, the 2002–2003 oil strike and the 2007 protests.[33] However, the amnesty excluded detained Caracas Metropolitan Police officers and absolved the Llaguno Overpass gunmen.[37][38]

On 29 March 2016, the opposition-majority Fourth Legislature of the National Assembly of Venezuela, at that time presided over by Henry Ramos Allup, passed the Law of Amnesty and National Reconciliation, which offered a partial amnesty for some prisoners detained for political reasons. The text consisted of 29 articles and was based on Article 29 of the 1999 Constitution, under which war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity were excluded from the amnesty, as established by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.[39] Nicolás Maduro rejected the law, and the Supreme Tribunal of Justice, aligned with Maduro, declared it unconstitutional.[40][41]

On 25 January 2019, the National Assembly (that year presided over by Juan Guaidó) promulgated the Amnesty Law, which benefited civilians, military personnel and other officials identified as prisoners, persecuted persons and political exiles for acts committed between 1 January 1999 and the date of the law's entry into force,[42] as well as a broad spectrum of crimes including political acts such as rebellion and sedition. Its objective was to remove certain legal effects that could endanger the consolidation of a new democratic system.[43]

On 30 January 2026, the acting president of Venezuela, Delcy Rodríguez, announced a draft general amnesty law before the Supreme Tribunal of Justice, stating that it would include political prisoners detained from 1999 onwards and calling for it to be taken to the National Assembly. Rodríguez said that its aim was to "repair the wounds left by political confrontation, from violence, from extremism", as well as to "redirect justice in our country" and "the coexistence between Venezuelans".[44]

See also

  • Political prisoners in Venezuela
  • Pardon
  • Human rights in Venezuela

References

  1. ↑ "Amnistía". Diccionario de la lengua española (in español). Real Academia Española. Retrieved 3 March 2026.
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 Manuel Vicente Magallanes. "Amnistías". Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela (in español). Fundación Empresas Polar. Retrieved 2 March 2026.
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 Hébrard, Véronique (1 January 2026). "El indulto y la amnistía como modalidades de clausura de un conflicto armado en Venezuela a mediados del siglo XIX". Historia y Sociedad (in español) (50): 87–108. doi:10.15446/hys.n50.121067. ISSN 2357-4720. Retrieved 2 March 2026.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 Montes de Oca 2022, pp. 135–223
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Sanabria M., Rafael A. (5 February 2026). "La amnistía desde siempre en la historia de Venezuela". Tal Cual (in español). Retrieved 3 March 2026.
  6. ↑ 6.00 6.01 6.02 6.03 6.04 6.05 6.06 6.07 6.08 6.09 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 Melo Flores, Jairo Antonio (12 October 2016). "El indulto en el proceso de Independencia de la Nueva Granada, 1808-1821". Revista Historia y Justicia (in español) (6). doi:10.4000/rhj.612. ISSN 0719-4153. Retrieved 5 March 2026.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Zubiri Marín, María Teresa (1991). "Mandato de los pueblos indios de América. Los comuneros de Mérida: una reacción contra la política colonial española del siglo XVIII en Venezuela". Boletín Americanista (in español) (41): 7–19. ISSN 0520-4100. Retrieved 4 March 2026.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 Alfaro Pareja, Francisco (2016). "La desmovilización y la reinserción de los vencidos a la vida nacional: Los realistas en el conflicto por la independencia de Venezuela". Panorama (in español). 10 (18): 51–65. ISSN 2145-308X. Retrieved 4 March 2026.
  9. ↑ "Insurrección de Valencia". Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela (in español). Fundación Empresas Polar. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 "Anteproyecto de Ley de Amnistía propuesto por el Foro Penal". Foro Penal (in español). 31 January 2026. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Lara Farías, Daniel (19 June 2021). "El 'perdón a la traición', el indulto: la medida que fue imprescindible para el nacimiento del chavismo". La Gaceta de la Iberosfera (in español). Retrieved 8 March 2026.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Gómez Grillo, Elio. "El Libertador de América, Simón Bolívar, ante la corrupción administrativa" (PDF). Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (in español).
  13. ↑ Brewer-Carías, Allan R. (1990). Los derechos humanos en Venezuela: casi 200 años de historia (in español). Academia de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales. p. 351. Search this book on
  14. ↑ Hébrard, Véronique (9 December 2013). La Faction de la Sierra. Un apprentissage du politique entre engagement et contrainte. Venezuela, 1858-1859 (in français). Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense. Retrieved 2 March 2026. Search this book on
  15. ↑ Fundación Empresas Polar. "García, Juan Bautista". Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela (in español). Retrieved 2 January 2023.
  16. ↑ "Baptista Galindo, Francisco". Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela (in español). Fundación Empresas Polar. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Montes de Oca 2022, pp. 29–92
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Benítez, Pedro (26 February 2026). "Amnistías en Venezuela". Emisora Costa del Sol 93.1 FM (in español). Retrieved 3 March 2026.
  19. ↑ "Constitución de la República de Venezuela, 23 enero 1961". Miguel de Cervantes Virtual Library (in español). Retrieved 3 March 2026.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Montes de Oca 2022, pp. 117–127
  21. ↑ "1964 - Cronología de historia de Venezuela". Fundación Empresas Polar (in español). Retrieved 3 March 2026.
  22. ↑ Guillen Araque, Jessica (31 March 2023). "Cuba: problema interno y externo de Venezuela. Una aproximación desde la mirada del gobierno de Raúl Leoni (1964-1969)". Cuadernos UCAB (in español) (18). doi:10.62876/cuadernosucab.vi18.6152. ISSN 2959-7617. Retrieved 3 March 2026.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Montes de Oca 2022, pp. 547–553
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Guevara, Antonio (1 March 2026). "Amnistía en paz". El Nacional (in español). Retrieved 3 March 2026.
  25. ↑ Montes de Oca 2022, p. 203
  26. ↑ Montes de Oca 2022, pp. 128–133
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6 27.7 Juan José Caldera (1 September 2007). "El sobreseimiento de Chávez" (in español). Retrieved 5 March 2026.
  28. ↑ Rohde, Clifford C. (1993). Human Rights in Venezuela. Human Rights Watch. pp. 66–77. ISBN 978-1-56432-114-5. Retrieved 14 June 2024. Search this book on
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 Oscar Pérez (18 January 2016). "Amnistía, del cielo al infierno". Analítica (in español). Retrieved 6 March 2026.
  30. ↑ Cambero, Alexánder (14 April 2016). "La amnistía que solicitó Hugo Chávez". El Tiempo (in español). Retrieved 6 March 2026.
  31. ↑ "Repiqueteo// Ovidio Pérez Morales: "El 4F hubo muchos muertos y se buscó amnistía"". Diario Versión Final (in español). 10 April 2016. Retrieved 7 March 2026.
  32. ↑ Juan José Peralta. "Cronicario: Andrés Velásquez, Claudio Fermín y Álvarez Paz pidieron en 1993 liberar a Hugo Chávez #16Nov". El Impulso (in español).
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Flores, Jordan (31 January 2026). "¿Qué es una amnistía y cuál es su historial en Venezuela?". El Diario (in español). Retrieved 3 March 2026.
  34. ↑ "Tips básicos sobre la Ley de Amnistía". Observatorio Venezolano de Violencia (in español). 24 February 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2026.
  35. ↑ "Ley de Amnistía para la Convivencia Democrática". Acceso a la Justicia (in español).
  36. ↑ Anteproyecto de Ley de Amnistía General (PDF) (in español). Foro Penal. January 2026. Retrieved 2 February 2026. Search this book on
  37. ↑ "Reúnen casi 10.000 firmas para encarcelar o deportar a Richard Peñalver". Diario de Avisos (in español). 6 April 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2026.
  38. ↑ Barráez, Sebastiana (6 March 2026). "Veintitrés años después del golpe del 11 de abril, tres policías siguen sin ver la libertad: la otra cara del caso Puente Llaguno". Infobae (in español). Retrieved 9 March 2026.
  39. ↑ "Ley de Amnistía y Reconciliación Nacional" (PDF). Asamblea Nacional de Venezuela (in español). 29 March 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
  40. ↑ Meza, Alfredo (12 April 2016). "El Supremo de Venezuela declara inconstitucional la Ley de Amnistía y Reconciliación". El País (in español). ISSN 1134-6582. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
  41. ↑ Press, Europa (30 March 2016). "¿Qué dice la Ley de Amnistía aprobada en Venezuela?". Europa Press (in español). Retrieved 29 January 2019.
  42. ↑ "¿En qué consiste la amnistía que propone Juan Guaidó para militares y civiles?". CNN (in español). 28 January 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
  43. ↑ Shifter, Michael (24 January 2019). "Opinión: ¿Tiene salida pacífica Venezuela?". The New York Times (in español). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
  44. ↑ Ayuso, Ana (31 January 2026). "Delcy Rodríguez propone una ley de amnistía general para "reparar las heridas" en Venezuela". RTVE (in español). Retrieved 2 February 2026.

Bibliography


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