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Art collecting

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki



Nah! Why do you say this? The basic idea is good. Johnbod (talk) 03:29, 12 August 2025 (UTC)
File:Frans Francken the Younger - The cabinet of a collector with paintings, shells, coins, fossils and flowers - 1619.jpg
Cabinet of a collector (1619) by Frans Francken the Younger, an allegory of collecting.

Art collecting is the acquisition, care and organization of artworks by private individuals and institutions such as museums, foundations and corporations. Practices range from occasional purchases to highly focused, long term building of collections; they are shaped by systems of taste, expertise, markets and law.[1][2] Collecting has deep historical antecedents: in the earliest civilizations of Egypt, Babylonia, China and India, arrays of precious objects and artworks were stored in temples, tombs and palaces and in the treasuries of kings, where they served primarily to exalt the power and glory of rulers or priestly castes rather than to display art for its own sake.[3] Most of the world’s major art museums grew out of great private collections formed by royalty, the aristocracy or other wealthy patrons.[3] During the Renaissance and early modern period in Europe, Kunst und Wunderkammern (“cabinets of curiosities”)—mini museums of art, naturalia and scientific instruments assembled by private collectors—served as encyclopedic precursors to the modern museum.[4]

In the United States and Europe, private collecting has been closely tied to the creation of museums and public access to art. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, political revolutions and colonial expansion freed masterpieces from royal and ecclesiastical treasuries and brought them onto the market; an emerging class of private buyers amassed works not only for their homes but also to establish “collection museums”. Examples include the Wallace Collection in London, the Musée Condé at Chantilly, the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston, the Frick Collection in New York and the Huntington Art Gallery in Pasadena, all of which were intended from the outset as public institutions and preserve the founders’ personal installations.[5][6][7]

Contemporary collecting operates across galleries and dealers in the primary market and through public auctions and private sales in the secondary market; art fairs remain major hubs (in 2023, 30% of dealers identified fairs as their greatest source of new buyers), and online platforms have grown in importance.[8] The 2024 edition of The Art Market reported global online art sales of about US$11.8 billion—around 18% of turnover—following a 7% year on year increase for 2023; total global sales in 2023 were estimated at US$65 billion (−4% year on year).[9] In 2024, market sales fell further to an estimated US$57.5 billion (−12% year on year); the United States remained the largest market and the United Kingdom regained second place ahead of China.[10]

Collecting today is accompanied by due diligence and ethical frameworks addressing provenance and restitution, illicit trade and anti money laundering (AML) compliance, authentication and forgery risks, deaccessioning standards, and the environmental footprint of art handling and travel. A 2022 U.S. Treasury study found that the art market’s opacity and use of intermediaries can make it “susceptible to abuse by illicit financial actors,” prompting calls for dealers and auction houses to vet clients, report suspicious activity and improve transparency.[11] Museums have responded to scrutiny of looted artefacts by expanding provenance research; in 2023 the Metropolitan Museum of Art announced plans to hire a manager and additional staff to “broaden, expedite, and intensify” research into the histories of its collections.[12] High profile cases, such as the Knoedler Gallery forgery scandal, have underscored the need for independent authentication and buyer due diligence even when purchasing from longstanding galleries.[13] Professional guidance on collection stewardship and deaccessioning is set out in the Association of Art Museum Directors’ Professional Practices in Art Museums.[14] The art world’s carbon footprint has also drawn attention: research aggregated by the Gallery Climate Coalition suggests that annual sector wide emissions may be on the order of 70 million tonnes of CO₂e, with transportation and shipping among the largest contributors, prompting efforts to reduce travel and waste.[15] Legal and ethical touchstones include the UNESCO 1970 Convention on illicit import and export of cultural property, the Washington Principles on Nazi-Confiscated Art (1998), and AML regimes such as the United Kingdom’s oversight of “art market participants.”[16]

Definitions and scope

Art collecting generally refers to the purposeful acquisition and stewardship of artworks or categories of art over time—such as painting, sculpture, prints, photography and time based media—to build coherent collections rather than to acquire individual pieces in isolation.[3] Collecting differs from commissioning, which refers to requesting and paying an artist to produce a specific work,[17] and from sponsorship, which is generally financial or in kind support provided in exchange for benefits such as publicity or brand association.[18] Collections may be privately or publicly owned: Encyclopædia Britannica defines an art collection as “an accumulation of works of art by a private individual or a public institution” and notes that many museums grew out of private collections.[3] Museums themselves are “not for profit, permanent institutions” that research, collect, conserve, interpret and exhibit heritage, according to the 2022 definition adopted by the International Council of Museums (ICOM).[19] Collecting is also undertaken by universities, corporations and foundations; corporate art programmes are maintained by a range of companies and organizations.[20]

History

Ancient and medieval collecting

File:The Pinakotheke on the Acropolis, 22 February 2022.jpg
A view of the site of the ancient pinakotheke on the Athenian Acropolis.
File:Japan- Nara, Todaiji Shosoin 2009.jpg
The eighth century Shōsōin treasure house at Tōdai ji, Nara, Japan.

Evidence of purposeful collecting predates the modern museum. The earliest known curated assemblage, attributed to the priestess Ennigaldi Nanna in sixth century BCE Mesopotamia, was a small educational museum in Ur where antiquities were displayed with clay tablet labels.[21][22] In classical antiquity, Greek and Roman temple treasuries housed works of art and natural curiosities brought from across the empires and were sometimes accessible to the public upon payment of a small fee; a pinakotheke on the Athenian Acropolis displayed paintings honouring the gods.[22][23] Imperial collecting traditions flourished outside Europe: successive Chinese emperors promoted the arts—Han emperor Wudi established an academy containing paintings and calligraphies from each province, and the last Han emperor Xiandi created a gallery of portraits of his ministers—while Japan’s eighth century Tōdai temple and its Shōsōin repository preserve imperial treasures.[22] In the Islamic world, collections of relics at the tombs of early Muslim martyrs and the waqf (religious endowment) institution fostered assemblages of scientific instruments and sacred objects.[22] In medieval Europe collections were largely confined to princely households and churches: cathedrals accumulated relics of saints, rulers and clergy acquired classical statuary and exotic curiosities from the Levant, and there was brisk trade in antiquities, but these assemblages were typically private rather than public.[22]

Renaissance to Enlightenment

File:Frans Francken (II), Kunst- und Raritätenkammer (1636).jpg
A seventeenth century depiction of a Kunst und Wunderkammer (Francken, 1636).
File:Innsbruck Schloss Ambras Unterschloss Innen Wunderkammer 12.jpg
Curiosities collection (Wunderkammer) at Ambras Castle, Innsbruck.

Humanist scholarship and the Age of Exploration broadened horizons and inspired collectors across Europe to assemble encyclopedic rooms of marvels. Princes, scholars and merchants created Kunst und Wunderkammern (“rooms of art and wonders”) that grouped objects into three principal categories—naturalia (specimens from nature), arteficialia (works of art and artefacts) and scientifica (scientific instruments and automata)—with many princely cabinets also including “exotica”.[4] In Italy such rooms were called stanzino, studiolo, museo or galleria, whereas north of the Alps they were known as Kunst und Wunderkammern, Kuriositätenkabinette or Raritätenkammern; descriptions from the period (for example, in the Zimmerische Chronik, 1565) attest to the terminology and display practices.[4] Collectors invested in purpose built spaces. Duke Albrecht V of Bavaria founded a Kunstkammer in Munich in 1565 that housed nearly 3,500 objects; it was accommodated in a dedicated Renaissance style complex described as having an arcaded courtyard and four wings. In Dresden, the electors of Saxony created a “working collection” with a didactic aim intended to improve visitors’ skills and cultural interests, and Emperor Rudolf II established a celebrated Kunstkammer at Prague’s Hradčany Palace that combined art, naturalia and scientific instruments in a sequence of specially designed rooms.[4]

Nineteenth and early twentieth centuries

File:The Great Gallery In the Wallace Collection, London in July 2012.jpg
The Great Gallery, Wallace Collection, London (opened 1900).
File:Isabella-Stewart-Gardner-Museum-Courtyard-01.jpg
Courtyard of the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston (opened 1903).

Industrialisation, political upheavals and colonial conquest in the late 18th and 19th centuries freed masterpieces from royal and ecclesiastical treasuries, expanding the art market.[3] An emerging class of collectors in Europe and the United States—bankers, industrialists and cultural patrons—amassed paintings, sculpture, furniture and manuscripts not only for personal enjoyment but also to create “collection museums,” personal museums designed from the outset to be open to the public.[5] Examples include the Musée Condé at Chantilly (opened 1898), the Wallace Collection in London (opened 1900), the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston (opened 1903), the Huntington Art Gallery in San Marino, California (opened 1919), the Frick Collection in New York (opened 1935) and Dumbarton Oaks in Washington, D.C. (opened 1940).[6][7]

Post–World War II to present

File:Sotheby's auctioneer Adrian Biddell (6440873573).jpg
A Sotheby’s auctioneer taking bids at a 2011 charity sale.

After the Second World War, auctions regained prominence within the art market. At Sotheby’s, this shift was driven by Peter Wilson, who in 1958 staged a black tie evening auction of Jakob Goldschmidt’s Impressionist collection and pioneered practices such as public presale estimates, telephone bidding and guarantees.[24][25] Competition between the houses produced record breaking sales: at Christie’s in 1970, Velázquez’s Juan de Pareja became the first painting to sell for more than £1 million.[26] Since the 1960s, the art market has been characterised by the rise of modern and contemporary art collecting, a proliferation of galleries and dealers, and the globalisation of art fairs and private foundations.

Global traditions

File:唐 韓幹 照夜白圖 卷-Night-Shining White MET DP153679.jpg
Night Shining White, attributed to Han Gan (Tang dynasty); collectors’ seals visible on the handscroll.
File:Bichitr - Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings, from the St. Petersburg album - Google Art Project.jpg
Bichitr, Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings (c. 1615–20), a Mughal miniature that reflects cross cultural collecting.
File:Endowment Charter ('Waqfiyya') of Haseki Hürrem Sultan (TIEM 2192).jpg
Illuminated waqfiyyah (endowment deed) of Haseki Hürrem Sultan, Istanbul, 1556–57 (TIEM 2192).

Collecting practices outside Europe and the United States have deep and varied histories. In China, literati and imperial collectors regarded painting and calligraphy as open ended works; later owners added poems and seals directly to the scroll, turning each piece into a dialogue across generations.[27] These inscriptions document a work’s provenance and allow connoisseurs to trace its appreciation over centuries.[27] In Mughal India, cross cultural collecting flourished. Jesuit priests presented European prints and paintings to Emperors Akbar and Jahangir, and Jahangir avidly collected such works, asking the Jesuits to explain their iconography and commissioning albums that juxtaposed Mughal miniatures with European engravings; Mughal treasuries also held imported luxuries such as Chinese porcelain and Colombian emeralds.[28] Japan’s Shōsōin repository in Nara provides an intact example of early collecting. Built in the eighth century and largely unaltered, this cypress wood treasure house contains thousands of objects—manuscripts, musical instruments, textiles, ceramics and glass—from across Eurasia and is described as a “time capsule” of the Silk Road era.[29][29] In the Islamic world, collections were often supported by charitable endowments. A waqf is a registered income producing property dedicated in perpetuity to religious or charitable purposes under Islamic law; early modern waqfiyyah deeds list buildings and objects endowed to mosques, schools, lodges and libraries, creating communal treasuries rooted in piety and philanthropy.[30][31]

Motivations for collecting

Collectors’ motives range from aesthetic and scholarly enjoyment to social prestige and financial gain. Many connoisseurs take pleasure in studying art and engaging with cultural history; in Chinese literati circles, owners read inscriptions and seals as an “ongoing conversation” with past collectors.[27] Collecting can also be an act of stewardship or patronage, preserving heritage and supporting artists. Sociologists emphasise that collecting confers social and cultural capital. Pierre Bourdieu argued that taste is shaped by education and social class rather than being innate; those with high cultural capital set the norms of “good taste,” and artworks function as objectified forms of cultural capital.[32] Financial considerations also play a role. A cohort of buyers, often from private equity, real estate and technology, treat art as a “passion asset”; industry reporting suggests today’s collectors can be more financially driven than earlier cohorts, even as passion and philanthropy remain central motivations.[33][34]

Types of collectors

Private collectors

Private collections range from broad accumulations to tightly focused sets built around periods, media or artists. Some become the basis for loans, donations or museums.[35]

Institutional collectors

Museums, universities and foundations collect under governance policies that emphasize the public trust, documentation and access; their collecting is guided by collection development plans, provenance standards and deaccessioning rules.[36]

Corporate collections

Corporations in Europe and the United States have assembled significant collections for workplace display, identity and cultural engagement. Examples include the UBS Art Collection and the Deutsche Bank Collection; such collections may also lend to museums.[37][38][39]

Art market dynamics

Primary and secondary markets

Galleries and dealers place new works (the primary market) and resell works (the secondary market), often alongside auctions and private sales.[40][41]

Auctions and private sales

Public auctions provide widely reported prices; auction houses also conduct private treaty sales alongside public auctions.[42]

Art fairs

File:Art Basel 2025 - Hall 2.1 - Section N (005).jpg
Art Basel 2025, Messe Basel.
File:Liste Art Fair Basel 2025 01.jpg
Liste Art Fair Basel 2025, Basel.

Fairs act as market hubs, concentrating supply, demand and networking over short periods and across regions.[43][44]

Online channels

E commerce and hybrid sales have become a permanent feature of the market. Online art sales were estimated at US$11.8 billion in 2023 (about 18% of total turnover), rising 7% year on year; in 2024 they declined 11% to US$10.5 billion while retaining an 18% share.[45][46] Independent surveys track user behavior and platform consolidation.[47]

Economic and sociological perspectives

Scholars analyze collecting as a social practice embedded in networks of expertise and exchange, where value is co produced by artists, dealers, critics, curators and collectors, and where taste functions as a form of cultural capital.[2][48][41]

Legal and ethical frameworks

Provenance and restitution

Collectors and institutions are expected to establish provenance (ownership history) and avoid acquisitions that contravene cultural property law. The UNESCO 1970 Convention provides an international framework; the 1998 Washington Principles and subsequent best practice guidance encourage “just and fair solutions” to claims concerning Nazi era losses.[49][50][51]

Illicit trade and anti money laundering

Illicit excavation and trafficking of cultural property have prompted legal controls and compliance expectations for market intermediaries.[52] Several jurisdictions apply anti money laundering (AML) rules to certain high value transactions; in the United Kingdom, “art market participants” are subject to registration and customer due diligence obligations under HMRC supervision.[53]

Authentication and forgery

Authentication disputes and forgery scandals periodically affect both private and institutional collections. Standard practices include expert review, provenance research and technical analysis.[54]

Deaccessioning and professional standards

Deaccessioning (permanent removal of objects from a collection) is governed by professional standards emphasizing the public trust and the use of proceeds in line with policy (e.g., for acquisitions or defined “direct care”).[36]

Contemporary collecting and new media

The scope of collecting has widened to include photography, installation and time based media, as well as urban and street art, as these forms enter galleries and museums.[55][56][57] Digital collecting and new ownership models (including born digital art, NFTs and fractional ownership) have grown, although highly volatile segments contracted after the 2021 peak. Sales of art related NFTs on NFT platforms were estimated at US$1.2 billion in 2023 (−51% year on year).[58][59]

Notable collectors and collections (United States and Europe)

Historically influential collectors in Europe include dynastic houses that formed princely galleries and Kunstkammern; in the United States, Gilded Age and twentieth century collectors such as Henry Clay Frick, J. P. Morgan and Isabella Stewart Gardner shaped major public collections and museums through acquisitions and philanthropy.[60][61]

See also

• Art market • Provenance • Cultural property • Art fair • Auction • Private museum • Digital art • Street art

References

  1. ↑ Pearce, Susan M. (1992). Museums, Objects, and Collections: A Cultural Study. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 10–40. Search this book on
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Becker, Howard S. (1982). Art Worlds. University of California Press. Search this book on
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 "Art collection". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Koeppe, Wolfram (October 2002). "Collecting for the Kunstkammer". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Higonnet, Anne (2009). A Museum of One's Own: Private Collecting, Public Gift. New York: Periscope. Search this book on
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Press Kit: Château de Chantilly / Musée Condé" (PDF). Institut de France – Domaine de Chantilly. 2021. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Bailey, Martin (24 September 2019). "Where there's a will there's a way: the Wallace Collection lifts loan restrictions". The Art Newspaper. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  8. ↑ "Dealers". The Art Market. Art Basel & UBS. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  9. ↑ "The Art Market 2024". UBS. UBS Group AG. 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  10. ↑ "The Art Market 2025: Sales Fell to $57.5bn in 2024". Art Basel. 7 March 2025. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  11. ↑ Study of the Facilitation of Money Laundering and Terror Finance Through the Trade in Works of Art (PDF) (Report). U.S. Department of the Treasury. February 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  12. ↑ Dafoe, Taylor (29 June 2023). "The Met Is Hiring a New Team to Investigate the Provenance of Its Collection". Hyperallergic. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  13. ↑ Vogel, Carol (19 November 2011). "After 165 Years, a Famed Gallery Shuts Its Doors". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  14. ↑ "Professional Practices in Art Museums". Association of Art Museum Directors. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  15. ↑ "Towards a greener art world: baseline emission study". Gallery Climate Coalition. 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  16. ↑ "Money laundering supervision for art market participants". GOV.UK. HM Revenue & Customs. 6 August 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  17. ↑ "Commission". Tate. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  18. ↑ "Sponsor". Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  19. ↑ "Museum Definition". International Council of Museums. 24 August 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  20. ↑ "What is the point of corporate art collections?". Financial Times. 9 October 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  21. ↑ Fankhänel, Teresa (2024). "Architecture on Display". Livraisons de l'histoire de l'architecture. 46. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 "The precursors of museums". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  23. ↑ "Pinacotheca". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  24. ↑ "Peter Wilson: The man who invented modern auctioneering". The Art Newspaper. 14 March 2018. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  25. ↑ "Hollywood Comes to Bond Street as Sotheby's Invents the Gala Sale". Sotheby’s. 5 April 2019. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  26. ↑ "The 5 sales which made Christie's – No. 5: The first million pound picture". Country Life. 30 December 2016. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 "The Work of Art as a Dialogue with the Past: The Role of Owners and Connoisseurs". Asia for Educators. Columbia University. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  28. ↑ "European engravings and Christian symbols in the Mughal miniature painting tradition". Smarthistory. 9 November 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Gasparini, Mariachiara. "The Shōsōin Repository and its treasure". Smarthistory. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  30. ↑ "Waqf". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  31. ↑ Semerdjian, Elyse (29 February 2024). "The Waqf: Where Religion Meets Urbanity". Religion and Urbanity: Reciprocal Formations. Hypotheses.org. doi:10.58079/vxho. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  32. ↑ Bourdieu, Pierre (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Translated by Richard Nice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Search this book on
  33. ↑ Duray, Dan; Powelson, Noah; Cao, Sissi; Tremayne-Pengelly, Alexandra; Terry, Christa. "The Authorities Transforming Art as an Asset Class". Observer. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  34. ↑ "Art & Finance Report 2023 – 8th edition". Deloitte. 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  35. ↑ Pearce, Susan M. (1992). Museums, Objects, and Collections. Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 25–40. Search this book on
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Professional Practices in Art Museums (2011 ed., rev. 2022)" (PDF). Association of Art Museum Directors. 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  37. ↑ "UBS Art Collection and UBS Art Gallery". UBS. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  38. ↑ Kinsella, Eileen (21 August 2014). "Inside Deutsche Bank's Massive 57,000 Piece Art Collection". Artnet News. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  39. ↑ "UBS Doesn't Know What to Do With All the Art It Inherited From Credit Suisse". The Wall Street Journal. 5 April 2025. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  40. ↑ Adam, Georgina (2014). Big Bucks: The Explosion of the Art Market in the 21st Century. Lund Humphries. Search this book on
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Velthuis, Olav (2018). "Art Markets". Annual Review of Sociology. 44: 563–582. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053552 (inactive 9 August 2025).
  42. ↑ Thornton, Sarah (2008). Seven Days in the Art World. W. W. Norton & Company. Search this book on
  43. ↑ Adam, Georgina (2014). Big Bucks: The Explosion of the Art Market in the 21st Century. Lund Humphries. pp. 90–116. Search this book on
  44. ↑ Velthuis, Olav; Baia Curioni, Stefano (2015). Cosmopolitan Canvases: The Globalization of Markets for Contemporary Art. Oxford University Press. Search this book on
  45. ↑ "The Art Basel & UBS Art Market Report 2024 — Global Market (section 1.9)". Art Market. Art Basel & UBS. 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  46. ↑ "The Art Basel & UBS Art Market Report 2025 — Global Market (section 1.9)". Art Market. Art Basel & UBS. 2025. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  47. ↑ "Online Art Market Report 2024". ArtTactic. 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  48. ↑ Bourdieu, Pierre (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Translated by Richard Nice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 56–90. Search this book on
  49. ↑ "Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property (1970)". UNESCO. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  50. ↑ "Washington Conference Principles on Nazi Confiscated Art". U.S. Department of State. 3 December 1998. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  51. ↑ "Best Practices for the Washington Conference Principles on Nazi Confiscated Art". U.S. Department of State. 5 March 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  52. ↑ "Study of the Facilitation of Money Laundering and Terror Finance Through the Trade in Works of Art" (PDF). U.S. Department of the Treasury. February 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  53. ↑ "Money laundering supervision for art market participants". GOV.UK. HM Revenue & Customs. 6 August 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  54. ↑ Charney, Noah (2015). The Art of Forgery. Phaidon. Search this book on
  55. ↑ "Installation art". Tate. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  56. ↑ "Time based media". Tate. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  57. ↑ "Street art". Tate. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  58. ↑ "The Art Basel & UBS Art Market Report 2024 — Global Market (section 1.11)". Art Market. Art Basel & UBS. 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  59. ↑ "Art & Finance Report 2023 – 8th edition". Deloitte Switzerland. Deloitte. 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2025.
  60. ↑ Impey, Oliver; MacGregor, Arthur, eds. (1985). The Origins of Museums. Clarendon Press. Search this book on
  61. ↑ Saltzman, Cynthia (2008). Old Masters, New World. Viking. Search this book on

Category:Art market Category:Collecting Category:Museology


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