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Classic Period in Belize

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki

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Classic Period
250 AD – 900 AD
Including
  • Early (to 600 AD)
  • Late (to 800 AD)
  • Terminal (to 900 AD)
Preceded byPreclassic Period
Followed byPostclassic Period
Monarch(s)

The Classic Period of Belizean, Mayan, and Mesoamerican history began with the advent of Mayan monumental inscriptions in 250 AD, and ended with the decline of these inscriptions during the Classic Mayan Collapse in 900 AD.[note 1][note 2]

Geography[edit]

During the pre-Columbian era, Belize formed part of the Mayan Lowlands of the Mayan Region of Mesoamerica.[1][2] Traditionally, the first-order subdivisions of the latter follow cultural or political boundaries of Preclassic, Classic, or Postclassic civilisations, eg Mayans and Aztecs. The Mayan region of Mesoamerica is one such.[3] It, in turn, is further subdivided physiographically into at least three regions, ie the Mayan Lowlands, Highlands, and Pacific.[4] The first of these second-order subdivisions, which fully encompassed Belize, is still further subdivided into northern, central, and southern portions, called the Northern, Central, and Southern Lowlands.[5] Belizean territory north of Indian Creek ie Nim Li Punit is often included within the Central Lowlands, fully encompassing five of Belize's districts, and an upper portion of Toledo.[6] Territory south of Indian Creek, including Nim Li Punit, is often placed within the Southern Lowlands, encompassing the central and lower portions of Toledo.[7][note 3]

Climate[edit]

History[edit]

Early[edit]

Fall of El Mirador[edit]

The onset of the Classic Period in the Lowlands saw the completion of the fall and abandonment of El Mirador, which had begun in the Terminal Preclassic.[8] Having been the pre-eminent power across the central Lowlands during the Preclassic, its collapse is thought to have been felt across this sphere of influence, possibly leading to political, economic, or social distress in previously-subordinate centres, and certainly creating a power vacuum in the central Lowlands.[9]

Rise of Tikal[edit]

Tikal, and to a lesser extent various other Lowland states, promptly rose to prominence upon El Mirador's demise, with the former becoming 'the largest Classic city of the Peten region and among the largest of all Maya sites.'[10][note 4] Significantly, Tikal Stela 29, likely installed by Foliated Jaguar circa 8.12.14.8.15 (ie 6 July 292 Greg), is deemed a 'hallmark' or 'the best evidence of Tikal's emergence as the capital of an independent polity,' as it portrays the king donning various important regnal symbols, most notably a double-headed serpent bar and the capital's emblem glyph.[11]

Teotihuacan influence[edit]

Hiatus[edit]

The late Early Classic Hiatus was a stretch of sixty years in 534 – 593 ie 9.5.0.0.0 – 9.8.0.0.0 'when few dated monuments were erected' in cities across the Central Lowlands, but most especially in Tikal.[12]

Late[edit]

The Late Classic is traditionally deemed the 'apogee' of Mayan civilisation.[12]

Terminal[edit]

Collapse[edit]

Demographics[edit]

Classes[edit]

Classic Mayan societies are known to have been stratified into at least two classes, ie the elite and common ones, with 'somewhat fluid' distinctions between these defined by descent, occupation, wealth, and accomplishments, among other factors.[13] Most notably, elite status was typically signalled by wealth, privilege, and supernatural associations, though an emerging non-elite middle class may have later detracted from wealth as a status-marker.[13]

Technology[edit]

Astronomy[edit]

Main article: Mayan astronomy

Classic Mayan astronomy has been likened to that of the Babylonian civilisation, as contrasted with that of the likes of Kepler and Copernicus.[14] In particular, stars, moons, and planets were thought to embody deities, and their observation was believed to aid in prophesying.[14]

Celestial bodies studied[edit]

The sun, moon, Venus, and the North Star are known to have been heavily studied in the Classic Period.[15] There is some evidence to suggest that Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn may also have been studied or observed.[16][note 5]

Assigned and actual periods or revolutions of various celestial bodies studied by Classic Mayans in Belize.[17]
Body Assigned Period Actual Period Unit Notes
Sun 365.0000 365.2422 solar days discrepancy noticed but not corrected
Moon 29.53020 29.53059 solar days discrepancy possibly unnoticed
Venus 584.00 583.92 solar days discrepancy noticed and corrected
Mars c × 78 780 solar days possibly; where c = an integral constant
Jupiter – – solar days possibly

Instruments and practice[edit]

Classic Mayan astronomers employed 'long sight lines and horizontal markers that allowed accuracy to within less than a day in fixing the synodical or apparent revolution of many celestial bodies.'[18] Their naked-eye observatories are thought to have been placed atop elevated hills or buildings, with celestial movements noted with reference to some fixed feature on the horizon.[18][note 6] For instance, Copan Stela 10 (on an eastern hilltop) is thought to have formed part of an east-west sight line, with Stela 12 employed as the corresponding fixed feature on the western horizon, as these align with annual sunsets on 12 April.[19]

Time-keeping[edit]

Main article: Mayan calendar

Classic Mayan time-keeping has been described as 'a sophisticated system of arithmetic and a series of complex calendars' producing 'endless cycles of time' which were employed by aristicratic and priestly classes for 'both mystical and practical purposes.'[20][note 7]

Units[edit]

The basic calendrical unit employed was the k'in ie the solar day.[21] These were progressively composed, usually in vigesimal steps, into further calendrical units as follows.

Calendrical units of Classic Mayan time-keeping in Belize.[21][note 8]
Tally Unit Tally Unit Days
1 k'in – – 1
20 k'in 1 winal 20
18 winal 1 tun 360
20 tun 1 k'atun 7,200
20 k'atun 1 bak'tun 144,000
20 bak'tun 1 piktun 2,880,000
20 piktun 1 kalabtun 57,600,000
20 kalabtun 1 kinchiltun 1,152,000,000
20 kinchiltun 1 alawtun 23,040,000,000

Cycles[edit]

The various calendrical units were further composed into several cyclical counts, with the 260-day almanac, the 365-day year, and 52-year Calendar Round (all common to Mesoamerica) being the most popular during the Classic Period.[22]

Calendrical cycles or counts of Classic Mayan time-keeping in Belize.[23][note 9]
Name Native? Composition Days Notes
Almanac No 20 months × 13 days 260 for sacred, ceremonial, or prophetic use
Haab No 19 months × 20 days + 1 month × 5 days 365 approximated the solar year[note 10]
– Yes – 819 associated with four cardinal points
– Yes 5 synodical revolutions of Venus 2,920 for astronomy[note 11]
– Yes 149 lunar months 4,400 for astronomy[note 12]
Calendar Round No 1460 months × 13 days 18,980 formed from Almanac and Haab
Long Count Yes 13 bak'tuns 1,872,000 used for monumental inscriptions; start-date fixed to 0.0.0.0.0 (ie 11 Aug 3114 BC Greg); end-date fixed to 13.0.0.0.0 (ie AD 21 Dec 2012)[note 13]

Distance dates[edit]

Classic monumental inscriptions often record dates by giving a Long Count base-date and thereafter providing distance numbers ie the number of days to be counted forwards or backwards from said base-date so as to reach the desired date.[24] This is thought to have made chiselling easier, as a single (but cumbersome) Long Count date could thereby be used to easily furnish numerous other dates.[24][note 14] For instance, the Quirigua Monument 6 Stela F records a Long Count base-date of 9.16.10.0.0 (ie AD 15 March 761 Greg), and later provides a distance number in the form of an earlier Calendar Round date of 1 Ajaw 13 Yaxk'in, resulting in a well-specified date of over 90 million years ago without incurring the cost of chiselling a further Long Count date.[25]

Period-ending dates[edit]

Late Classic monumental inscriptions also record k'atun end-dates by providing only one-fifths of the Long Count date (ie the k'atun number) together with the full Calendar Round date.[26] For instance, the Long Count date of 9.16.0.0.0 (ie AD 7 May 751 Greg, marking the end-date of the sixteenth k'atun) might rather be inscribed as k'atun 16 2 Ajaw 13 Sek.[26]

Record-keeping[edit]

Main article: Mayan script

Classic Mayan record-keeping has been deemed 'the most detailed' out of all such Amerindian traditions, leading to an extant corpus that, though fragmented, 'is far and away the most extensive and data rich of any Native American society.'[27] Records were kept both on durable media, like stone and ceramic, and on non-durable media, like bark-paper.[28] Many examples of the former are extant and legible, while none the latter have survived in legible form.[28][note 15][note 16]

Contents of records[edit]

Until the late 20th century, most Mayanists thought Classic records 'were devoted entirely to astronomy, astrology, and calendrics, in spite of [Spanish] colonial accounts that spoke of pre-Columbian Maya histories, genealogies, medical texts, and treatises on plants and animals.'[29] With the decipherment of the Mayan script, epigraphists discovered Classic records dealing with historical events, including 'birth, death, establishment, conquest, destruction, and other fundamentals of individual and social existence,' similarly to Old World records.[30]

Language of records[edit]

Classic records from the Mayan Lowlands, which represent the bulk of the surviving corpus from the period, are widely thought to have been written 'in a courtly or prestigious form of Ch'olan,' the ancestral Mayan language of present-day Ch'olti' and Ch'orti' languages.[31][note 17]

Ceramics[edit]

The Preclassic–Classic transition in the ceramic traditions of the Lowlands and wider Mayan Region is traditionally marked by the widespread adoption of polychrome pottery, especially that decorated with red-and-black geometric motifs in bands laid over an orange or cream base.[32][note 18]

Economy[edit]

Society[edit]

Astrology[edit]

There is some evidence to suggest the Classic Period use of a zodiac of thirteen signs or houses, each embodied by an animal, ie those recorded in pages 23 and 24 of the Paris Codex.[33]

Cosmology[edit]

Religion[edit]

Main article: Mayan religion

Government[edit]

State[edit]

The size and nature of Classic states remain uncertain, with proposals ranging from a few regional-scale entities administered by centralised governments, to a multitude of small city-states with local government.[34][35]

The head of state and government of Classic city-states was the k'uhul ajaw or divine king, though these were sometimes beholden to foreign over- or high kings ie especially powerful patron kings in a patron–client relationship.[36][37][note 19] Sovereigns usually held absolute temporal authority, notably including authority to tax or claim tribute of subjects and subordinate states or settlements, to claim corvée labour, to conduct affairs with other states, to preside over ritual sacrifices of prisoners of war, and sometimes further including authority to regulate the production and distribution of certain commodities.[38][note 20] Further, a 'mantle of supernatural sanctions protected all of these powers,' as a sovereign's divine right to rule was commonly accepted and assiduously fostered by royal houses.[38] On the other hand, sovereigns were commonly held responsible for engaging and appeasing the many deities of the Mayan pantheon, as this was thought necessary for the good order and fortune of the state and the wider universe.[39]

A sovereign's court or privy council is thought to have almost always been constituted by members of the royal house or other elite families.[40] Candidates may have included the heir apparent, various lords and ladies, and other non-titled elites.[40][note 21]

Local[edit]

Warfare[edit]

Classic warfare is thought to have played an increasingly crucial role in the rise or fall of a state's wealth and power.[41] As in the Preclassic, warfare early in the Classic Period is thought to have been limited to small-scale raids undertaken for acquire booty, tribute, and captives for labour and sacrifice, with weaker states or settlements usually targetted (rather than stronger rival states).[42] However, as the Classic Period progressed, these limited raids morphed into large-scale, intense battles, with wars being increasingly waged for military prestige.[43] Some of the most destructive and bloodiest examples of the latter were star wars, waged by powerful states against a rival state with the aim of conquering it, often via the capture of its sovereign.[43]

Sites[edit]

Template:Classic Belize sites location map xxx

Prominent excavated sites in Belize with Classic artefacts, material, or structures.[44][45][46][47][48][note 22]
Emblem Name Location Size
– Actuncan Cayo Large
Altun Ha Belize Large
– Arenal Cayo Large
– Baking Pot Cayo Small
– Barton Ramie Cayo Small
– Bajo Hill xxx Small
– Buenavista Cayo Large
xxx Cahal Pech Cayo Large
– Caledonia Corozal Small
– Camelote Cayo Large
Caracol Cayo Very large
– Chac Balam Ambergris Caye Small
– Chau Hiix Belize Small
– Cuello Orange Walk Small
– Dos Hombres Orange Walk Large
– El Pilar Cayo Small
– Guaycamayo Cayo Large
??? La Milpa Orange Walk Large
xxx Lamanai Orange Walk Large
– Lubaantun xxx Small
– Maax Na Orange Walk Large
– Minanha Cayo Small
xxx Nim Li Punit Toledo Small
– Nohmul Orange Walk Small
– Pacbitun Cayo Large
– Pulltrouser Swamp Corozal Small
xxx Pusilha Toledo Small
– San Estevan Orange Walk Small
xxx Xunantunich Cayo Large

Timeline[edit]

Prominent Classic events in Belize or the Mayan Lowlands.[note 23]
Date Gregorian Date Julian Date Long Count Event Notes
6 July 292 (292-07-06) 6 July 292 (292-07-06) 8.12.14.8.15 Earliest Long Count date in the Lowlands ie on Tikal Stela 29; cfTemplate:Thinspace[49][50]
2 January 331 (331-01-02) – 1 January 350 (350-01-01) 1 January 331 (331-01-01) – 31 December 349 (349-12-31) 8.14.13.9.13 – 8.15.12.14.12 Reign of Te' K'ab Chaak of Caracol ie earliest known king in Belize; cfTemplate:Thinspace[51][note 24]
14 January 378 (378-01-14) 13 January 378 (378-01-13) 8.17.1.4.12 Arrival of entrada of Sihyaj K'ahk' and Spearthrower Owl of Teotihuacan to Tikal ie death of Chak Tok Ich'aak I of Tikal; cfTemplate:Thinspace[52]
11 September 379 (379-09-11) 10 September 379 (379-09-10) 8.17.2.16.17 Accession of Yax Nuun Ahiin I of Tikal cfTemplate:Thinspace[53]
11 April 484 (484-04-11) 10 April 484 (484-04-10) 9.2.9.0.16 Accession of Yajaw Te' K'inich I of Caracol ie earliest known accession in Belize; cfTemplate:Thinspace[51]
28 January 495 (495-01-28) 27 January 495 (495-01-27) 9.3.0.0.0 Earliest dedication of a Great Ajaw altar in Belize ie a Caracol altar; cfTemplate:Thinspace[54]
13 April 531 (531-04-13) 11 April 531 (531-04-11) 9.4.16.13.3 Accession of K'an I of Caracol ie earliest known accession in Belize presided by a foreign overlord; cfTemplate:Thinspace[55]
16 April 553 (553-04-16) 14 April 553 (553-04-14) 9.5.19.1.2 Caracol–Tikal axe war ie defeat of Caracol; cfTemplate:Thinspace[54]
29 April 562 (562-04-29) 27 April 562 (562-04-27) 9.6.8.4.2 Caracol–Tikal star war ie defeat of Tikal and onset of the Tikal Hiatus; cfTemplate:Thinspace[56][note 25]
xxx 1 September 584 (584-09-01) – 30 September 584 (584-09-30) xxx Arrival of Lady Batz' Ek' to Caracol ie earliest politically active queen mother in Belize; cfTemplate:Thinspace[57]
xxx 1 February 680 (680-02-01) – 29 February 680 (680-02-29) xxx Caracol–Naranjo star war ie defeat of Caracol and onset of Caracol Hiatus; cfTemplate:Thinspace[58]
13 March 830 (830-03-13) 9 March 830 (830-03-09) 10.0.0.0.0 Latest dedication of a Great Ajaw altar in Belize ie a Caracol altar; cfTemplate:Thinspace[54]
7 October 859 (859-10-07) 3 October 859 (859-10-03) 10.1.10.0.0 Latest Long Count date in Caracol ie on Caracol Stela 10; cfTemplate:Thinspace[59]
18 January 909 (909-01-18) 13 January 909 (909-01-13) 10.4.0.0.0 Latest Long Count date in the Lowlands ie on Tonina Monument 101; cfTemplate:Thinspace[49]

Scholarship[edit]

The earliest amateur work on Mayan sites in Belize, possibly Preclassic ones, is attributed to George Henderson, a Bayman, who in 1809 published 'a tantalisingly short description of mounds along the Belize River.'[60][61] Site-focussed excavations were begun by Thomas Gann in 1894, and presented to the Society of Antiquaries of London on 16 May 1895.[62][63] However, 'the rudimentary beginnings of archaeological research were not followed by similar efforts in Belize for a good many years,' ie until 1925–1939 work by the British Museum, the Carnegie Institution, Field Museum, and J. E. S. Thompson, among others.[64][note 26]

See also[edit]

Notes and references[edit]

Explanatory footnotes[edit]

  1. ↑ The Classic Period is variously dated in literature (see Periodisation of the history of Belize for further discussion). For instance, it is dated from 250 AD – 900 AD or 250 AD – 1100 AD by Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 98, 155, 250 AD – 909 AD by Martin & Grube 2008, p. 8, 150 AD – 900 AD or 300 AD – 650 AD by Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 11, and 150 AD – 900 AD by Martin 2020, p. 1. However, Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 205 later place the period in 250 AD – 900 AD ie between Long Count dates of 8.10.10.0.0 – 10.4.0.0.0, based on the 'most widely accepted' calendrical correlation which equates the 11.16.0.0.0 Long Count date to 12 November 1539 (1539-11-12) AD.
  2. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, p. 13 use the Goodman–Martinez–Thompson correlation with a two-day addition, ie GMT+2, to convert Mayan Long Count dates into Julian ones, given that said correlation 'best fits [various] diverse criteria, and is now almost universally accepted [in Mayan scholarship].' Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 279-284 follow the GMT correlation with a 584,283 correlation constant. A calculator is available from the Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies.
  3. ↑ However, alternative first-order subdivisions of the Mayan region (ie second-order subdivisions of Mesoamerica) are sometimes given, eg Martin & Grube 2008, p. 10 give these as Northern, Central, and Southern Areas, eg Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 200 give them as Northern Lowlands, Southern Lowlands, and Highlands (though later, in Adams & Macleod 2000a, pp. 203-204, give them as Lowlands and Highlands).
  4. ↑ Other emerging states included Blackman Eddy, Caracol, Pacbitun, Uaxactun, and Calakmul (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 317).
  5. ↑ Namely, (i) the Dresden Codex features Martian tables, (ii) several eigth-century events in Palenque are thought to have been deliberately timed 'to coincide with auspicious positions of Jupiter,' and (iii) an Classic inscription on the Dumbarton Oaks Relief Panel 1 references Saturn (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 117-118).
  6. ↑ Though actual sighting devices, apparently used during naked-eye observations, are not extant (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 118). Such devices are represented, for instance, in the Nuttall, Selden, and Bodleian Codices (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 120, fig. 3.12).
  7. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 102 note that the 'elite probably guarded the full knowledge of the Maya calendar, since it was a source of great power,' though they further add that one may assume 'that even the poorest farmer had some knowledge of the basic system [of time-keeping] to guide his family's daily life.'
  8. ↑ Classic Mayan names for calendrical units are only partially known (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 102).
  9. ↑ The Native? column notes whether the cycle or count as common across Classic Mesoamerica (ie was not native) or common only in the Mayan Region (ie was native). Various astronomical cycles or counts were possibly used in the Classic Period, but are poorly understood in literature, and so are ommitted here (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 117-118).
  10. ↑ Mayans are thought to have been aware of the Haab–solar year discrepancy of circa 0.2422 solar days, though there is no evidence showing that this was corrected (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 116).
  11. ↑ Resulting in a synodical period of circa 584.00 solar days, compared to the currently-accepted value of circa 583.92 solar days (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 117). However, Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 117 states that, though the Mayans set the period at 584 days, 'they knew that this value was a bit too long by eight-hundreths of a day' and accordingly accommodated or corrected for this discrepancy.
  12. ↑ Resulting in a lunar month of circa 29.53020 solar days, compared to the currently-accepted value of circa 29.53059 solar days (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 116).
  13. ↑ Though the earliest Long Count inscriptions date to the Late Preclassic Period (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 110).
  14. ↑ Long Count dates were usually recorded together with Calendar Round dates, thereby requiring the chiselling of ten glyphs, ie an introductory glyph, five Long Count glyphs, and four Calendar Round glyphs (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 110-112).
  15. ↑ All extant Mayan codices which are legible date to AD 1200 or later (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 120). The loss of earlier codices is often attributed, at least in part, to the Spanish conquest and subsequent inquisition, with the loss of remaining codices often blamed on neglect or the tropical environment (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 126).
  16. ↑ Though access to Classic Mayan records 'can still be a daunting task,' many or most of these are being collected and published by the Peabody Museum's Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 130).
  17. ↑ The courtly or prestigious form of Ch'olan used in Classic records is known as Classic Mayan (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 132). Yukatek was previously proposed as a language used in some Classic records, but the concensus now favours predominantly Ch'olan-derived Classic Mayan, with Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 132 noting that 'Ch'olan spellings, in contrast to Yukatekan, predominate in the Classic texts.'
  18. ↑ Including, for instance, Holmol I-style polychrome vessels introduced in circa AD 250 in northeastern Peten (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 294).
  19. ↑ Classic divine kings were styled k'uhul k'antumaak in Caracol, rather than k'uuhul ajaw (Martin & Grube 2008, p. 87). Overkings ie patron kings were sometimes styled kaloomte' , eg as in Tikal (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 299). Heirs to the throne, titled ch'ok ajaw or baah ch'ok, are thought to have 'acquired' divinity only upon ascension to the throne (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 148, 150).
  20. ↑ Patron kings, furthermore, held authority to preside over various state ceremonies in their client states, including accession ceremonies (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 299).
  21. ↑ The heir apparent was often a son or younger brother, though non-male junior members of the royal household were not barred from the throne (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 297). Lords and ladies held, ajaw and ix ajaw titles, respectively (Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 298). Subordinate offices of state may have included saja and yajaw, ie subordinate-lord and vassal-lord, respectively (Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 150, 298-299).
  22. ↑ Not including various unnamed or minor Classic sites.
  23. ↑ Dates correlated using the GMT correlation and a 584283 constant as per the FAMSI online calculator, unless otherwise noted.
  24. ↑ Upper and lower temporal bounds provided, as precise dates not available (Martin & Grube 2008, p. 86).
  25. ↑ The identity of the victor is uncertain, though Caracol, Calakmul ie the Snake kingdom ie the Snake polity, or both, have been suggested (Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 89-90).
  26. ↑ It has been suggested that Gann's work prompted the first legislative protections for antiquities in colonial Belize in 1894, and their subsequent strengthening in 1897, 1924, and 1927.(Wallace 2011, p. 25, Hammond 1983, p. 22). His 1894–1936 career has been described as 'more destructive than protective of evidence from beginning to end' (Pendergast 1993, p. 4). However, it has also been pointed out that his work, if judged by archaeological standards of his time, rather than by modern ones, would not be so harshly judged–though it would still be found wanting (Wallace 2011, pp. 24–26).

Short citations[edit]

  1. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 24, fig. 1.1.
  2. ↑ Adams & Macleod 2000a, pp. 6-10.
  3. ↑ Adams & Macleod 2000a, pp. 197-200.
  4. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 24, 30-31.
  5. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 24, 45-53.
  6. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 24, 46-48.
  7. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 24, 45-46.
  8. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 295.
  9. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 295, 301.
  10. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 301, 305, 317.
  11. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 310.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 220.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 296.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 116.
  15. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 116-117.
  16. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 117-118.
  17. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 116-118.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 118.
  19. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 118-119.
  20. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 99-100, 102.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 102.
  22. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 102-104.
  23. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 102-112, 116-117.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 112.
  25. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 112-113.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 113.
  27. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 99.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 120.
  29. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 125-126.
  30. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 126.
  31. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 130-132.
  32. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 288, 294.
  33. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 118, 122.
  34. ↑ Martin 2020, pp. 3-4.
  35. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 17-18.
  36. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 17, 19-21.
  37. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 148, 299.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 296-297.
  39. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 297.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 298-299.
  41. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 299.
  42. ↑ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp. 299-300.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 300.
  44. ↑ Witschey & Brown 2010.
  45. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, p. 19.
  46. ↑ Adams & Macleod 2000a, pp. 217, 223, 225-227.
  47. ↑ Tiesler 2022, pp. 169, 444-446.
  48. ↑ Martin 2020, pp. 2, 6.
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Adams & Macleod 2000a, p. 205.
  50. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, p. 13.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Martin & Grube 2008, p. 86.
  52. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 28-30.
  53. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, p. 32.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 Martin & Grube 2008, p. 89.
  55. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, p. 87.
  56. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 89-90.
  57. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, p. 91.
  58. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 94-95.
  59. ↑ Martin & Grube 2008, p. 99.
  60. ↑ Pendergast 1993, pp. 3-4.
  61. ↑ Henderson 1809, pp. 52-53.
  62. ↑ Pendergast 1993, p. 4.
  63. ↑ Gann 1895, p. 430.
  64. ↑ Pendergast 1993, pp. 4-6.

References[edit]

Journals[edit]

  1. Akers, Pete D.; Brook, George A.; Railsback, L. Bruce; Liang, Fuyuan; Iannone, Gyles; Webster, James W.; Reeder, Philip P.; Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R. Lawrence (1 October 2016). "An extended and higher-resolution record of climate and land use from stalagmite MC01 from Macal Chasm, Belize, revealing connections between major dry events, overall climate variability, and Maya sociopolitical changes". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 459: 268–288. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.07.007.
  2. Awe, Jaime J.; Ebert, Claire E.; Stemp, W. James; Brown, M. Kathryn; Sullivan, Lauren A.; Garber, James F. (2021). "Lowland Maya Genesis: The Late Archaic to Late Early Formative Transition in the Upper Belize River Valley". Ancient Mesoamerica. 32 (3): 519–544. doi:10.1017/S0956536121000420. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  3. Fox, A. H. Lane (1871). "Flint Implement from Honduras". Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Second Series. 5 (2): 93–95. doi:10.1017/S0950797300011616. hdl:2027/hvd.hw2a3c?urlappend=%3Bseq=109.
  4. Franks, A. W. (1877). "Remarks on Stone Implements from Honduras". Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 6: 37–40. doi:10.2307/2841243. hdl:2027/hvd.32044042253526?urlappend=%3Bseq=51. JSTOR 2841243.
  5. Gann, Thomas (1895). "On exploration of two mounds in British Honduras". Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Second Series. 15: 430–434. hdl:2027/uiug.30112118719803?urlappend=%3Bseq=458%3Bownerid=13510798903948353-462.
  6. Hammond, Norman (March 1983). "The development of Belizean archaeology". Antiquity. 57 (219): 19–27. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00054946. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  7. Hoggarth, Julie A.; Ebert, Claire E.; Castelazo-Calva, Victor E, Victor E. (2021). "MesoRAD: A New Radiocarbon Data Set for Archaeological Research in Mesoamerica". Journal of Open Archaeology Data. 9 (10): 1–9. doi:10.5334/joad.83. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  8. Inomata, Takeshi; MacLellan, Jessica; Burham, Melissa (2015). "The Construction of Public and Domestic Spheres in the Preclassic Maya Lowlands". American Anthropologist. 117 (3): 519–534. doi:10.1111/aman.12285.
  9. Inomata, Takeshi; Triadan, Daniela; Lopez, Veronica A. Vazquez; Fernandez-Diaz, Juan Carlos; Omori, Takayuki; Bauer, Maria Belen Mendez; Hernandez, Melina Garcia; Beach, Timothy; Cagnato, Clarissa; Aoyama, Kazuo; Nasu, Hiroo (25 June 2020). "Monumental architecture at Aguada Fenix and the rise of Maya civilization". Nature. 582 (7813): 530–533. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2343-4. PMID 32494009 Check |pmid= value (help). Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  10. Kennett, Douglas J.; Lipson, Mark; Prufer, Keith M.; Mora-Marin, David; George, Richard J.; Rohland, Nadin; Robinson, Mark; Trask, Willa R.; Edgar, Heather H. J.; Hill, Ethan C.; Ray, Erin E.; Lynch, Paige (22 March 2022). "South-to-north migration preceded the advent of intensive farming in the Maya region". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 1530. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-29158-y. PMC 8940966 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 35318319 Check |pmid= value (help).
  11. Lesure, Richard G.; Sinensky, R. J.; Schachner, Gregson; Wake, Thomas A.; Bishop, Katelyn J. (2021). "Large-Scale Patterns in the Agricultural Demographic Transition of Mesoamerica and Southwestern North America". American Antiquity, 2021-07, Vol.86 (3), P.593-612. 86 (3): 593–612. doi:10.1017/aaq.2021.23. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  12. Lohse, John C.; Awe, Jaime J.; Griffith, Cameron; Rosenswig, Robert M.; Valdez, Fred (2006). "Preceramic Occupations in Belize: Updating the Paleoindian and Archaic Record". Latin American Antiquity. 17 (2): 209–226. doi:10.2307/25063047. JSTOR 25063047. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  13. Metcalfe, Sarah E.; Holmes, Jonathan A.; Jones, Matthew D.; Gonzalez, Roger Medina; Primmer, Nicholas J.; Dyrzo, Haydar Martinez; Davies, Sarah J.; Leng, Melanie J. (15 April 2022). "Response of a low elevation carbonate lake in the Yucatan Peninsula (Mexico) to climatic and human forcings". Quaternary Science Reviews. 282: 1-17 of article no. 107445. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107445. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  14. Nielsen, Jasper; Andersen, Bente Jul (2004). "Collecting in Corozal : late Postclassic Maya Effigy Censers from Belize in the Danish National Museum (1860-1865)". Mayab (17): 84–98. ISSN 1130-6157.
  15. Pearson, Georges A. (3 July 2017). "Bridging the Gap: An Updated Overview of Clovis across Middle America and its Techno-Cultural Relation with Fluted Point Assemblages from South America". PaleoAmerica. 3 (3): 203–230. doi:10.1080/20555563.2017.1328953. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  16. Pendergast, David M. (March 1993). "The Center and the Edge: Archaeology in Belize, 1809–1992". Journal of World Prehistory. 7 (1): 1–33. doi:10.1007/BF00978219. JSTOR 25800626. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  17. Pollock, A. L.; Beynen, P. E. van; DeLong, K. L.; Polyak, V.; Asmerom, Y.; Reeder, P. P. (1 December 2016). "A mid-Holocene paleoprecipitation record from Belize". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 463: 103–111. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.09.021.
  18. Prufer, Keith M.; Alsgaard, Asia V.; Robinson, Mark; Meredith, Clayton R.; Culleton, Brendan J.; Dennehy, Timothy; Magee, Shelby; Huckell, Bruce B.; Stemp, W. James; Awe, Jaime J.; Capriles, Jose M.; Kennett, Douglas J. (18 July 2019). "Linking late paleoindian stone tool technologies and populations in North, Central and South America". PLOS ONE. 14 (7): 1-20 of article no. e0219812. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0219812. PMC 6638942 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 31318917.
  19. Prufer, Keith M.; Robinson, Mark; Kennett, Douglas J. (2021). "Terminal Pleistocene Through Middle Holocene Occupations in Southeastern Mesoamerica: Linking Ecology and Culture in the Context of Neotropical Foragers and Early Farmers". Ancient Mesoamerica. 32 (3): 439–460. doi:10.1017/S0956536121000195. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  20. Rice, Prudence M. (24 March 2020). "In Search of Middle Preclassic Lowland Maya Ideologies". Journal of Archaeological Research. 29 (1): 1–46. doi:10.1007/s10814-020-09144-y. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  21. Schmitt, Dominik; Gischler, Eberhard; Anselmetti, Flavio S.; Vogel, Hendrik (2020). "Caribbean cyclone activity: an annually-resolved Common Era record". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 1-17 of article no. 11780. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-68633-8. PMC 7367345 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 32678192 Check |pmid= value (help).
  22. Stemp, W. James; Awe, Jaime J.; Marcus, Joyce; Helmke, Christophe; Sullivan, Lauren A. (2021). "The Preceramic and Early Ceramic Periods in Belize and the Central Maya Lowlands". Ancient Mesoamerica. 32 (3): 416–438. doi:10.1017/S0956536121000444. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  23. Valdez, Fred ; Sullivan, Lauren A ; Buttles, Palma J ; Aebersold, Luisa, Fred; Sullivan, Lauren A.; Buttles, Palma J.; Aebersold, Luisa (2021). "The Origins and Identification of the Early Maya from Colha and Northern Belize". Ancient Mesoamerica. 32 (3): 502–518. doi:10.1017/S0956536121000468. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. Wallace, Colin (May 2011). "Reconnecting Thomas Gann with British Interest in the Archaeology of Mesoamerica: An Aspect of the Development of Archaeology as a University Subject". Bulletin of the History of Archaeology. 21 (1): 23. doi:10.5334/bha.2113.

Theses[edit]

  1. Awe, Jaime Jose (1992). Dawn in the land between the rivers : formative occupation at Cahal Pech, Belize and its implications for Preclassic development in the Maya lowlands (PhD). University College London.
  2. Bermingham, Adam (2020). Land Use Strategies of the Ancient Maya in Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest Ecosystems of the Yucatan Peninsula (PhD). University of Northumbria.
  3. Burns, Jeffrey M. (2018). Preceramic Cave Use in Belize (MA). Northern Arizona University. ProQuest 2050579408.
  4. Duncan, Lindsay May (2019). Archaeological deposits, environmental impact and local soil formation at Marco Gonzalez, Belize (PhD). University College London.
  5. Ebert, Claire Elizabeth Camilli (2017). Preclassic Maya Social Complexity and Origins of Inequality at Cahal Pech, Belize (PhD). Pennsylvania State University. ProQuest 2448339130.
  6. Hoffmeister, Kristen Keir (2019). The Relationship between Sociopolitical Transitions and Mortuary Behavior among the Maya in Northern Belize (PhD). Texas A&M University. ISBN 9798438733836.
  7. McLellan, Alec (2020). From Lamanai to Ka'kabish : human and environment interaction, settlement change, and urbanism in northern Belize (PhD). University College London.
  8. Moore, Tamara (2021). Creation During Abandonment: Researching the Hingston Group at Ka'Kabish, Belize (MA). Trent University. ProQuest 2477999560.
  9. Orsini, Stephanie R. (2016). From turkeys to tamales: Paleoindian to Preclassic period faunal use at Maya Hak Cab Pek rockshelter in southern Belize (MA). University of Mississippi. ProQuest 1809807534.
  10. Plumer, Hannah (2017). Health among the Maya : comparisons across sites in the northern Three Rivers Region, Belize (PhD). University of Sheffield.
  11. Pring, D. C. (1978). The Preclassic Ceramics of Northern Belize (PhD). University College London. EThOS ID uk.bl.ethos.469518.
  12. Porter, Mark Lawrence Bennefield (2020). Caching Aggrandizers: Ritual Caching Practices, Competitive Generosity, and the Rise of Inequality in the Preclassic Maya Lowlands (MA). Northern Arizona University. ProQuest 2415270983.
  13. Rawski, Zeo J. (2020). Constructing Power in the Preclassic: Monumental Architecture and Sociopolitical Inequality at Early Xunantunich, Belize (PhD). University of Texas. ProQuest 2415765388.
  14. Rushton, Elizabeth A. C. (2014). 'Under the shade I flourish' : an environmental history of northern Belize over the last three thousand five hundred years (PhD). University of Nottingham.
  15. Sparks-Stokes, Dominique (2019). The Impact of Ceramic Raw Materials on the Development of Hopewell and Preclassic Maya Pottery (PhD). University of Cincinnati. ProQuest 2272840805.

Print[edit]

  1. Adams, Richard E. W.; Macleod, Murdo J., eds. (2000a). Mesoamerica, Part 1. The Cambridge history of the native peoples of the Americas. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521351652. ISBN 9781139053778. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help) Search this book on
  2. Adams, Richard E. W.; Macleod, Murdo J., eds. (2000b). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge history of the native peoples of the Americas. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521652049. ISBN 9781139053464. Search this book on
  3. Henderson, George (1809). An account of the British settlement of Honduras; being a view of its commercial and agricultural resources, soil, climate, natural history, &c. London: Printed by and for C. and R. Baldwin, New Bridge-Street. hdl:2027/uc1.31175035187452. Search this book on
  4. Henderson, George (1811). An account of the British settlement of Honduras; being a view of its commercial and agricultural resources, soil, climate, natural history, &c. London: Printed for R. Baldwin, Paternoster Row. Unknown parameter |orig-date= ignored (help) Search this book on
  5. Martin, Simon (2020). Ancient Maya politics :a political anthropology of the classic period 150-900 CE. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108676694. OCLC 1104073524. Search this book on
  6. Martin, Simon; Grube, Nikolai (2008). Chronicle of the Maya kings and queens : deciphering the dynasties of the ancient Maya (2nd ed.). London & New York: Thames & Hudson. hdl:2027/uc1.32106019910212. OCLC 47358325. Unknown parameter |orig-date= ignored (help) Search this book on
  7. Pearsall, Deborah M., ed. (2008). Encyclopedia of Archaeology. San Diego, Calif.: Elsevier. OCLC 714030453. Search this book on
  8. Sharer, Robert J.; Traxler, Loa P., eds. (2006). The Ancient Maya (6th ed.). Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. hdl:2027/mdp.39015062626216. OCLC 57577446. Search this book on
  9. Tiesler, Vera, ed. (2022). The Routledge Handbook of Mesoamerican Bioarchaeology. London: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780429341618. ISBN 9780429341618. Search this book on

Other[edit]

  1. Witschey, Walter R. T.; Brown, Clifford T. (2010). The Electronic Atlas of Ancient Maya Sites (Map). [vars. scales]. Corvallis, Oreg.: Heidi Hausman & Conservation Biology Institute.

External links[edit]

Coordinates: 17°15′03″N 88°45′39″W / 17.250738316383107°N 88.76079882562227°W / 17.250738316383107; -88.76079882562227

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