Colonial Arkansas
Colonial Arkansas (1686-1804) was defined by French exploration and fur trading centered at Arkansas Post, the first European settlement, fostering deep interactions with the Quapaw, Caddo, Osage, and other Native American tribes, before passing to the Spanish Empire and back to the French colonial empire, ultimately becoming part of the Louisiana Purchase and later the U.S.. This era saw a unique mix of French, Spanish, Indigenous, and African cultures developing in a frontier trade economy focused on beaver pelts, leading to diverse social structures, even a mixed language, before the region became a U.S. territory
The first settlement was at Poste de Arkansea (Arkansas Post/Arkansas Post National Memorial) in Southeastern Arkansas, then locations like Cadron (now Conway) in central Arkansas, and Belle Pointe (now Fort Smith, Arkansas) in Western Arkansas, and even more remote locations in Arkansas. Poste de Arkansea, or Akansa or Aux Arc, become one fortified trading location along the Mississippi Creole Corridor along with Vincennes, Kaskaskia, Ste Genevieve, and Cahokia. From there smaller numbers travelled up the Mississippi River, Arkansas River, White River (Arkansas–Missouri), Cache River, Bayou des Arc, Little Red River, Black River, L'Anguille River, St. Francis River, Cossatot River, Saline River, Caddo River, Boeuf River, Antoine River, and Ouachita Rivers. Francophones also lent the names of the mountain ranges in Arkansas upon exploring them. Originally the Ozarks Mountains and Ouachita Mountains, both French names as well, were known as the Masserne or Mazern Mountains, possibly a derivative of the name Mont Cerne.[1]
Later 19th-century immigrants to Arkansas, such as Irish, Germans, and Italians, also married into the Creole group. Most of these immigrants were Catholic.
The expeditions of De Soto, Marquette and Joliet
The first European contact with Arkansas was the Spanish expedition led by Hernando de Soto in 1541. De Soto wandered among settlements, inquiring about gold and other valuable natural resources. He encountered the Casqui in northeast Arkansas, who sent him north around Devil's Elbow to the Pacaha, the traditional enemies of the Casqui. Upon arrival in the Pacaha village, the Casqui who had followed behind de Soto attacked and raided the village.[2] De Soto ultimately engaged the two tribes' chiefs in a peace treaty before continuing on across central Arkansas and into the Ozark Mountains in his search for riches. After finding nothing he considered of value and encountering native resistance the entire way; he and his soldiers returned to the Mississippi River where de Soto fell ill. He died the following day in what is believed to be the vicinity of modern-day McArthur in May 1542. Soto's body was weighted down with sand and he was consigned to a watery grave in the Mississippi River under cover of darkness.
De Soto had attempted to deceive the native population into thinking he was an immortal deity, sun of the sun, to forestall attack by outraged Native Americans on his by then weakened and bedraggled army. To keep the ruse up, his men informed the locals that de Soto had ascended into the sky. His will at the time of his death listed: "four Indian slaves, three horses and 700 hogs" which were auctioned off to his men. His starving men, who had been living off maize stolen from Native Americans and who had not been allowed to eat the enormous herd of hogs but had had to care for them, immediately started to butcher them. Later on his remaining men, now commanded by his aide de camp Moscoso, attempted an overland return to Mexico. They made it as far as Texas before running into territory too dry for maize farming and too thinly populated to sustain themselves by stealing food from the locals. The expedition promptly backtracked to Arkansas. After building a small fleet of boats they then headed down the Mississippi River and eventually on to Mexico by water.[3]
In 1673, French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet reached the Arkansas River on an expedition to map the Mississippi River. After a calumet with friendly Quapaw, the group suspected the Spanish to be nearby and returned north.[2]
First French period
French Arkansas
Robert La Salle entered Arkansas in 1681 as part of his quest to find the mouth of the Mississippi River, and thus claim the entire river for New France.[4] La Salle and his partner, Henri de Tonti, succeeded in this venture, claiming the river in April 1682. La Salle would return to France while dispatching de Tonti to wait for him and hold Fort St. Louis. On the king's orders, La Salle returned to colonize the Gulf of Mexico for the French, but ran aground in Matagorda Bay.[5] La Salle led three expeditions on foot searching for the Mississippi River, but his third party mutinied near Navasota, Texas, in 1687. de Tonti learned of La Salle's Texas expeditions and traveled south in an effort to locate him along the Mississippi River. Along with this journey south, de Tonti founded Arkansas Post as a waypoint for his searches in 1686.[6] La Salle's party, now led by his brother, stumbled upon the Post and were greeted kindly by Quapaw with fond memories of La Salle. The troupe thought it best to lie and say La Salle remained at his new coastal colony.[7]
The French colonization of the Mississippi Valley would end with the later destruction of Fort St. Louis were it not for de Tonti establishing the small trading stop, Arkansas Post.[8] The party originally led by La Salle would depart the Post and continue north to Montreal, where interest was spurred in explorers who had the knowledge that the French had a holding in the region.[9]
An estimated 7,000 European immigrants settled in La Louisiane in the 18th century, one percent of the French population present at the founding of the United States. There is record of the signing of constitutional agreements in prominent French Creole Plantation Homes. Colonial la Basse-(Lower) Louisiana attracted considerably more Frenchmen due to the presence of the Catholic Church. Most other regions were reached by Protestant missionaries instead.
After enduring a journey of over two months across the Atlantic Ocean, French colonists faced challenges upon reaching the Louisiana (New France) frontier. Living conditions were difficult: they had to face an often hostile environment, including a hot and humid climate and tropical diseases. Many died during the crossing or soon after arrival.
The Mississippi Delta suffered from periodic yellow fever epidemics. Additionally, Europeans introduced diseases like malaria and cholera, which flourished due to mosquitoes and poor sanitation. These challenging conditions hindered the colonization efforts. Furthermore, French settlements and forts could not always provide adequate protection from enemy assaults. Isolated colonists were also at risk from attacks by Indigenous peoples.
In the colonial period, men tended to marry after becoming financially established. French settlers often married Native American and African women, the latter as slaves were imported. Intermarriage created a large multiracial Creole population.
The first settlement: Arkansas Post
The first successful European settlement, "Poste de Akansea", was established by Henri de Tonti in 1686 on the Arkansas River.[10] The post disbanded for unknown reasons in 1699 but was reestablished in 1721 in the same location. Sited slightly upriver from the confluence of the Arkansas River and Mississippi River, the remote post was a center of trade and home base for fur trappers in the region to trade their wares.[10] The French settlers mingled and in some cases even intermarried with Quapaw natives, sharing a dislike of English and Chickasaw, who were allies at the time. A moratorium on furs imposed by Canada severely affected the post's economy, and many settlers began to move out of the Mississippi River Valley. Scottish banker John Law saw the struggling post and attempted to entice settlers to emigrate from Germany to start an agriculture settlement at Arkansas Post, but his efforts failed when Law-created Mississippi Bubble burst in 1720.[10]
The French maintained the post throughout this time mostly due to its strategic significance along the Mississippi River. The post was moved back further from the Mississippi River in 1749 after the English with their Chickasaw allies attacked, it was moved downriver in 1756 to be closer to a Qua-paw defensive line that had been established, and to serve, as a repent, or trading post, during the Seven Years' War and prevent attacks from the Spanish along the Mississippi.[11]
In 1762, the secret treaty of Fontainebleau transferred control of colonial Louisiana (including present-day Arkansas), to Spain in exchange for Florida. The Spanish showed little interest in Arkansas except for the land grants meant to inspire settlement around the post.[12] Afterward, the post was again moved upriver out of the floodplain in 1779.[13] Its position 4 miles (6.4 km) up the Arkansas River made it a hub for trappers to start their journeys, although it also served as a diplomatic center for relations between the Spanish and Quapaw.[14] Many that stopped at Arkansas Post were simply passing through on their way up or down river and needed supplies or rest.[15] Habitants included approximately ten merchants, some domestic slaves, and the wives and children of voyageurs.[16] A small detachment of the Louisiana Fixed Infantry Regiment lived inside the fort, tasked with protecting the village of Arkansas Post nearby. On April 17, 1783, present-day Arkansas experienced its only battle of the American Revolutionary War when Captain James Colbert of the 16th Regiment of Foot led a force of British partisans and Chickasaws against the Spanish village and fort.[17]
French Indians in Arkansas
New France wished to make Native Americans subjects of the king and good Christians, but the distance from Metropolitan France and the sparseness of French settlement intervened. In official rhetoric, the Native Americans were regarded as subjects of the Viceroyalty of New France, but in reality, they were largely autonomous due to their numerical superiority. The colonial authorities (governors, officers) did not have the human resources to establish French law and customs, and instead often compromised with the locals.
Indian tribes offered essential support for the French: they ensured the survival of New France's colonists, participated with them in the fur trade, and acted as expedition guides.
The French/Indian alliance provided mutual protection from hostile non-allied tribes and incursions on French and Indian land from enemy European powers. The alliance proved invaluable during the later French and Indian War against the New England colonies in 1753.[18]
The coureurs des bois and soldiers borrowed canoes and moccasins. Many ate native food, such as wild rice, bears, and dogs. The colonists were often dependent on Native Americans for food. Creole cuisine is the heir of these mutual influences: thus, sagamité, for example, is a mix of corn pulp, bear fat, and bacon. Gumbo consists primarily of a strongly flavored stock, meat or shellfish (or sometimes both), a thickener, and the Creole "holy trinity": celery, bell peppers, and onions. Today "jambalaya" refers to a number of different of recipes calling for spicy meat and rice. Sometimes medicine men succeeded in curing colonists thanks to traditional remedies, such as the application of fir tree gum on wounds and Royal Fern on rattlesnake bites.
By the 1750s in New France, the Native Americans came under the myth of the Noble Savage, holding that Indians were spiritually pure and played an important role in the New World's natural purity. Indian women were consistently considered to be good wives to foster trade and help create offspring. Their intermarriage created a large métis (mixed French Indian) population.[19]
In spite of disagreements (some Indians killed farmers' pigs, which devastated corn fields) and sometimes violent confrontations (Fox Wars, the relationship with Native Americans was relatively good in colonial Arkansas. French imperialism was expressed through wars and the enslavement of some Native Americans. But most of the time, the relationship was based on dialogue and negotiation.
John Law's Concession
Labor shortages were a pressing issue in French Louisiana. The Royal Indies Company held a monopoly over the slave trade in the area. Law's Company was formally known, first, as the Compagnie d'Occident (lit. Company of the West) from August 1717 to May 1719, then as the Compagnie des Indes (lit. Company of the Indies). It was also popularly referred to as the Compagnie du Mississippi (lit. Mississippi Company).
In 1717, John Law, the French Comptroller General of Finances, and his company decided to import African slaves there. His objective was to develop the plantation economy of Lower Louisiana. John Law's Company, founded in 1717 by Scottish economist and financier John Law, was a joint-stock company that occupies a unique place in French and European monetary history, as it was for a brief moment granted the entire revenue-raising capacity of the French state. It also absorbed all previous French chartered colonial companies and was popularly known as the Compagnie du Mississippi (Mississippi Company), even though under Law's leadership its overseas operations remained secondary to its domestic financial activity.
In February 1720, the company acquired John Law's Bank, which had been France's first central bank. The experiment was short-lived, and after a stock market collapse of the company's shares in the second half of 1720 (the Mississippi Bubble), the company was placed under government receivership in April 1721. It emerged from that process in 1723 as the French Indies Company, focused on what had been the overseas operations of Law's Company.
The Mississippi Company arranged ships to bring in 800 more settlers, who landed in Louisiana in 1718, doubling the European population. Law encouraged some German-speaking people, including Alsatians and Swiss, to emigrate.
Prisoners were deported from Paris to Mississippi beginning in September 1719, and encouraged by Law to marry young women recruited in hospitals.[20] In May 1720, after complaints from the Mississippi Company and the concessioners about this class of French immigrants, the French government prohibited such deportations. However, there was a third shipment of prisoners in 1721.[21]
The company was involved in the Atlantic slave trade, importing African slaves along the Mississippi River to points as far North as modern Illinois.[22]
The company was at the center of the broader monetary and fiscal scheme known as Law's System (Script error: The function "langx" does not exist.). Initially the System's main entity was Law's Bank, but the System and the Company became practically synonymous after the Bank was merged into the Company in February 1720.
The company was involved in the Atlantic slave trade, importing African slaves along the Mississippi River to points as far North as modern Illinois.[23]
The market price of company shares eventually reached the peak of 10,000 livres. As the shareholders were selling their shares, the money supply in France suddenly doubled, and inflation burgeoned. Inflation reached a monthly rate of 23% in January 1720.[24] The company further purchased the Banque Royale, in February 1720, and the Compagnie de Saint-Domingue and the monopoly on France's slave trade, in September 1720.[25]:17
The "bubble" burst at the end of 1720.[24] By September 1720 the price of shares in the company had fallen to 2,000 livres and to 1,000 by December. By September 1721 share prices had dropped to 500 livres, where they had been at the beginning.
By the end of 1720, Philippe d'Orléans had dismissed Law from his positions. Law then fled France for Brussels, eventually moving on to Venice, where his livelihood was gambling. He was buried in the church San Moisè in Venice.[26]
The Company, together with the bank it owned and managed, was placed in receivership in April 1721.[25]:36 It emerged from that process in March 1723,[25]:42, by which time all its operations were in Overseas trading and colonial development. As part of the restructuring, the French state paid the company an indemnity of 514 million livres to make it whole, and it kept its prior shareholders; its trading and navigation privileges were confirmed by a series of royal edicts in June 1725 which closed the restructuring.[27]:11 It kept operating as the French Indies Company until eventual liquidation in 1770.
Africans in Colonial Arkansas
During the French period about two-thirds of the enslaved Africans brought to Louisiana came from the area that is now Senegambia (which are the modern states of Senegal, Gambia, Mali, and Guinea, Guinea Bissau and Mauritania) . This original population creolized, mixing their African cultures with elements of the French and Spanish colonial society and quickly establishing a Creole culture that influenced every aspect of the new colony.[28]
Most enslaved Africans imported to Louisiana were from modern day Angola, Congo, Mali, and Senegal. The highest number were of Bakongo and Mbundu descent from Angola,[29][30] They were followed by the Mandinka people and Mina (believed to represent the Ewe and Akan peoples of Ghana).[31] Other ethnic groups imported during this period included members of the Bambara, Wolof, Igbo people, Chamba people, Bamileke, Tikar, and Nago people, a Yoruba subgroup.[30][31][32]
Spanish period
In the final stages of the global Seven Years' War, and North American French and Indian War with the British colonies, New France ceded Louisiana to Spain in the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762), and then formally with the Treaty of Paris (1763). The Spanish were reluctant to occupy the colony, however, and did not do so until 1769. That year, Spain abolished Native American slavery in New Spain. In addition, Spanish liberal manumission policies contributed to the population growth of Arkansas Creoles.
Spanish colonial Arkansas (1762-1803) was characterized by Spain's strategic control of the Louisiana territory, focusing on the vital Arkansas Post, serving as a diplomatic hub, managing complex relations with indigenous groups like the Quapaw, promoting fur trade and settlement, and acting as a military outpost (Fort Carlos), as a buffer against British expansion, all while dealing with French remnants and attracting new French inhabitants and Native Americans.
Spain maintained peace through trade, gifts, and diplomacy, particularly with the Quapaw, to secure the region, though tensions arose, notably during the Revolutionary War. The Spanish promoted the lucrative fur trade and agriculture, encouraging non-English immigration to bolster their claim against American encroachment. The era saw raids, like the 1783 British-Chickasaw attack on Arkansas Post, and complex efforts to manage French settlers and indigenous power.
Acadians in Spanish Louisiana
In 1765, during Spanish rule, several thousand Acadians from the French colony of Acadia (now Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island) made their way to French Louisiana after they were expelled from Acadia by the British government after the French and Indian War. They settled chiefly in the southwestern Louisiana region now called Acadiana. The governor Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga,[33] eager to gain more settlers, welcomed the Acadians, who became the ancestors of Louisiana's Cajuns. Handfuls of the refugees made their way to Southwestern Arkansas.[34]
2nd French period, the Sale of Louisiana
Spain ceded Louisiana back to France in 1800 through the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso and the Treaty of Aranjuez (1801), although it remained under nominal Spanish control until 1803. Weeks after reasserting control over the territory, Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in the wake of the defeat of his forces in Saint-Domingue. Napoleon had been trying to regain control of Saint-Domingue following its rebellion and subsequent Haitian Revolution. After the sale, Anglo-Americans migrated to Arkansas. Later European immigrants included Irish, Germans, and Italians.
American Colonization
Although the United States of America had gained separation from the British as a result of the Revolutionary War, Arkansas remained in Spanish hands after the conflict. Americans began moving west to Kentucky and Tennessee, and the United States wanted to guarantee these people that the Spanish possession of the Mississippi River would not disrupt commerce. Napoleon Bonaparte's conquest of Spain shortly after the American Revolution forced the Spanish to cede Louisiana, including Arkansas, to the French via the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800. England declared war on France in 1803, and Napoleon sold his land in the new world to the United States, today known as the Louisiana Purchase. The size of the country doubled with the purchase, and a stream of new White settlers led to a changed dynamic between Native Americans and the new Arkansans.[35] Prior to the Louisiana Purchase, the relationship between the two groups was a "middle ground" of give and take. These relationships would deteriorate all across the frontier, including in Arkansas.[36]
Refugees from Saint-Domingue in the Louisiana Territory
In the early 19th century, floods of Creole refugees fled Saint-Domingue and poured into the Mississippi Basin. Thousands of refugees, both white and Creole of color, arrived in French Louisiana, sometimes bringing slaves with them. As more refugees entered, those who had first gone to Cuba also arrived.[37] Officials in Cuba deported many of these refugees in retaliation for Bonapartist schemes in Spain.[38]
In the summer of 1809, a fleet of ships from the Spanish colony of Cuba landed in New Orleans with more than 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue aboard, having been expelled by the island's governor, Marqués de Someruelos.[39] Small numbers of these refugees made their way into the Arkansas Delta, settling as far up the river as La Petite Roche (now Little Rock) and Cadron (now Conway).
Further Reading
- Arnold, Morris S. Colonial Arkansas, 1686-1804: A Social and Cultural History. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1991.
- Arnold, Morris S. “The Métis People of Eighteenth-and Nineteenth-Century Arkansas,” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association 57, no. 3 (2016): 261–96.
- Arnold, Morris S. (2017). "Colonial Arkansas Women". The Arkansas Historical Quarterly. 76 (1): 1–3
- Bandy, Everett. “O-Ga-Xpa Ma-Zhon: Quapaw Country.” Informational Paper. Quapaw Nation (Oklahoma), 2020.
- Branner, John C. “Some Old French Place Names in the State of Arkansas.” Modern Language Notes 14, no. 2 (1899
- Central Arkansas Library System. 2024. “Nathan Marvin - Creole Arkansas: Revisiting Our Region’s French Connections | Legacies & Lunch.” YouTube. March 6, 2024. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c_4g9CjOHu0.
- Duval, Kathleen (2024). Native Nations: A Millennium in North American. Random House.
- Gitlin, Jay (2009). The Bourgeois Frontier: French Towns, French Traders, and American Expansion. Yale University
- Havard, Gilles (2003). Histoire de l'Amérique française. Paris: Flamarion.
- Key, Joseph (January 18, 2023). "Quapaw". Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Butler Center for Arkansas Studies at the Central Arkansas Library System. Retrieved February 1, 2023.
- Lancaster, Bob (1989). The Jungles of Arkansas. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press. ISBN 1557281084.
- McMichael, Francis Andrew (2008). Atlantic Loyalties: Americans in Spanish West Florida, 1785-1810. University of Georgia Press.
- Moen, Jon (October 2001). "John Law and the Mississippi Bubble: 1718–1720". Mississippi History Now.
- Morris, Robert Lee. “Ozark or Masserne.” The Arkansas Historical Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 1, 1943, pp. 39–42. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/40021457.
- Nuttall, Thomas. Travels into the Arkansas Territory, 1819. Vol. 13 of Early Western Travels, 1748–1846, edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites. Cleveland, OH: The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1905.
- Sutherlin, Dianne. The Arkansas Handbook. Little Rock: Fly-By-Night Press, 1996.
- "Treaty between the Quapaw Great Chief and the Commandant of the Arkansas Post, October 15, 1769" (Document). Louisiana State Museum. 1769.
References
- ↑ Morris, Robert Lee. “Ozark or Masserne.” The Arkansas Historical Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 1, 1943, pp. 39–42. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/40021457. Accessed 1 Dec. 2025.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Sabo III, George (December 12, 2008). "First Encounters, Hernando de Soto in the Mississippi Valley, 1541–42". Archived from the original on March 18, 2012. Retrieved May 3, 2012. Unknown parameter
|url-status=ignored (help) - ↑ Hudson, Charles M. (1997). Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun. University of Georgia Press. pp. 341–351. ISBN 9780820318882. Search this book on
- ↑ Fletcher 1989, p. 26.
- ↑ Mattison 1957, pp. 118–119.
- ↑ Mattison 1957, p. 119.
- ↑ Arnold et al 2002, p. 31.
- ↑ Mattison 1957, p. 120.
- ↑ Arnold et al 2002, p. 32
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Arnold 1992, p. 75.
- ↑ Arnold 1992, p. 79.
- ↑ Arnold ET AL 2002, p. 82.
- ↑ Arnold 1983, p. 324.
- ↑ Arnold 1983, pp. 319–320.
- ↑ Arnold 1983, p. 320
- ↑ Arnold 1992, p. 77.
- ↑ Din, Gilbert C. (Spring 1981). "Arkansas Post in the American Revolution". The Arkansas Historical Quarterly. Arkansas Historical Association. 40 (1): 17–28. doi:10.2307/40023280. JSTOR 40023280.
- ↑ Philip J. Deloria, Neal Salisbury (2004). A Companion to American Indian History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 60. Search this book on
- ↑ Alan Taylor (2019). Race and Ethnicity in America: From Pre-contact to the Present [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 81, 82. Search this book on
- ↑ Hardy, James D. Jr. (1966). "The Transportation of Convicts to Colonial Louisiana". The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association. 7 (3): 207–220. JSTOR 4230908.
- ↑ [1] Cat Island: The History of a Mississippi Gulf Coast Barrier Island, by John Cuevas
- ↑ Kleen, Michael (2017). Witchcraft in Illinois: A Cultural History. Arcadia. ISBN 9781625858764. Search this book on
- ↑ Kleen, Michael (2017). Witchcraft in Illinois: A Cultural History. Arcadia. ISBN 9781625858764. Search this book on
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Moen, Jon (October 2001). "John Law and the Mississippi Bubble: 1718–1720". Mississippi History Now. Archived from the original on 1 March 2016. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
Law devalued shares in the company in several stages during 1720, and the value of bank notes was reduced to 50 percent of their face value. ... The fall in the price of stock allowed Law's enemies to take control of the company by confiscating the shares of investors who could not prove they had actually paid for their shares with real assets rather than credit. This reduced investor shares, or shares outstanding, by two-thirds.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedVelde - ↑ Sheeran, Paul and Spain, Amber. The international political economy of investment bubbles, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, ISBN 978-0-7546-1997-0 Search this book on ., p. 95
- ↑ François R. Velde (2016), "What We Learn from a Sovereign Debt Restructuring in France in 1721", Economic Perspectives, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, 40 (5)
- ↑ Hall, Gwendolyn M. (1992). Africans in colonial Louisiana: the development of Afro-Creole culture in eighteenth-century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. p. 434. ISBN 9780807119990. Search this book on
- ↑ "West-Central Africa and the East Coast". Whitney Plantation. Archived from the original on 2023-08-20. Retrieved 2023-08-20.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo (2005). Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring the Links. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 43, 44, 154, 155. ISBN 978-0807858622. Search this book on
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 "Louisiana: most African diversity within the United States?". Tracing African Roots (in Nederlands). 2015-09-25. Retrieved 2017-09-27.
- ↑ Nwokeji, G. Ugo; Eltis, David (2002). "Characteristics of Captives Leaving the Cameroons for the Americas, 1822-37". The Journal of African History. 43 (2): 191–210. doi:10.1017/S0021853701008076. ISSN 0021-8537. JSTOR 4100505. Unknown parameter
|s2cid=ignored (help) - ↑ Cazorla-Granados, Francisco J. (2019). El gobernador Luis de Unzaga (1717–1793) : precursor en el nacimiento de los EE.UU. y en el liberalismo. Frank Cazorla, Rosa María García Baena, José David Polo Rubio. Málaga: Fundación Málaga. pp. 49, 52, 62, 74, 83, 90, 150, 207. ISBN 978-84-09-12410-7. OCLC 1224992294. Search this book on
- ↑ Brasseaux, Carl A. (1992). Acadian to Cajun: Transformation of a People, 1803-1877. Jackson : University Press of Mississippi. p. xiv. ISBN 978-0-87805-582-1. Search this book on
- ↑ Arnold et al 2002, p. 78.
- ↑ Arnold et al 2002, p. 79.
- ↑ Dodson, Howard; Diouf, Sylviane Anna (2004). In Motion: The African-American Migration Experience. National Geographic Society. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-7922-7385-1. Search this book on
- ↑ Gitlin, Jay (2009). The Bourgeois Frontier: French Towns, French Traders, and American Expansion. Yale University Press. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-300-15576-1. Search this book on
- ↑ Francis Andrew McMichael (2008). Atlantic Loyalties: Americans in Spanish West Florida, 1785-1810. University of Georgia Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-8203-3650-3. Search this book on
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