Dadupanth
| Dadupanth | |
|---|---|
| File:Naraina Dadu Dayal Temple.jpg Dadu Dham in Naraina, Rajasthan, India | |
| Type | Panth |
| Classification | Hinduism |
| Scripture | Dadu Vani |
| Headquarters | Dadu Dham in Naraina, Rajasthan, India |
| Founder | Dadu Dayal |
| Branched from | Sant Mat |
DÄdÅ«panth (meaning "path of DÄdÅ«") is a religious tradition or panth derived from the teachings of Dadu Dayal (1545? ā8 May 1603).[1][2] The religious tradition is based in Naraina, Rajasthan and is mostly found in Rajasthan.[2][3]
History
Dadu Dayal
Dadu was a figure of the later Sant Mat movement who was active in Rajasthan who was influenced by both Hinduism and Islam. He was born perhaps in around 1544ā1545 into the caste of cotton carders (PiƱjÄrÄ, DhuniyÄ).[1][2] As per one hagiography, he was born in Ahmedabad in Gujrat. In 1573, Dadu moved to Sambhar in Rajasthan. Dadu had four children, two sons, GarÄ«bdÄs and MaskÄ«ndÄs, and two daughters, HavÄ and BÄÄ«, all of whom were active in the early Dadupanth, with their father being viewed later as a sÄdhu, despite Dadu having the life of a house-holder with a family.[1]
Dadu was influenced by the Sant Mat (especially by Kabir), the NÄthyoga, and NizÄrÄ« IsmÄŹæÄ«lÄ« traditions. In a similar manner to other Sants of the Sant Mat, Dadu challenged prevailing orthodox views and advocated for a "middle away" although not rejecting alternative traditions while doing so but rather restoring what he believed had been their original intent. Dadu did not consider himself a Hindu or Muslim, instead he advocated for the middle-path known as madhya.[1] Dadu criticized six existing schools of religion in his hymns, which are known as the six darshanas, namely Yogis, Jangamas, Jains, Buddhists, Sanyasis, and Shaykhs:[4]
jogÄ« jaį¹gama sevaį¹e, bauddha saį¹nyÄsÄ« Åekha |
Yogis, jangamas, sevaras (Jains), Buddhists, sanyasis and shaykhsā |
Dadu differed from the other Sants as while they were part of the guru-shishya tradition, Dadu is believed to not have had a human guru. Rather, hagiography claims Dadu had a divine vision of a mystical guru twice in his life which revealed revelation, when he was 11-years-old and when he was 18-years-old, with this mystical guru being called bÄbÄ bÅ«įøhÄu (Old BÄbÄ). A first-hand account by Dadu of this mystical revelation is found in the first couplets of the DÄdÅ«vÄį¹Ä«. As per W. G. Orr, this guru was possibly the QÄdirÄ«ya Sufi figure Å ayįø« Buįøįøhan. Another view is that Dadu was a NizÄrÄ« IsmÄįæ¾Ä«lÄ« from Gujarat related to the cult of RÄmdev PÄ«r.[1] Dadu rejected many aspects of the orthodox society, such as social divisions like castes, which brought him into conflict with some sections of the contemporary society he lived in. Despite this, the Sant movement was mature by the time Dadu lived and his teachings were similar to his predecessors and thus were more readily received by the populace as a result. Dadu rejected the Vedas, the caste system, pilgrimages, and visiting temples.[2][1] Dadu also rejected idolatry, varį¹ÄÅrama rituals, austerities (tapas), and wearing religious signs on the body or religious garments.[1] He emphasized repetition of the divine's name (japa) and believed that the human soul was the bride of God. The Dadupanthis had a strong tradition of asceticism, with them being vegetarians and teetotlers.[2] Dadu considered the lifestyle of a sadhu to be superior to a house-holder, as he promoted the rejection of a worldly-life, viewing it as a hinderance to higher spirituality. Thus, he was seen as being detached from his family. Dadu and his followers likely practiced NÄth yoga, thus the Dadupanthis share some similarities with the Naths.[1]
In 1579, Dadu shifted to Amber (Amer) which was under the control of the Kachvaha raja BhagavantdÄs. As per the Dadupanthi tradition, Dadu in 1585 met Mughal emperor Akbar under the recommendation of BhagavantdÄs, which had an impact on Dadu. Dadu remained at Amber until 1593, with him moving to Karaį¹ÄlÄ (present-day Kalyanpur). In 1602, he moved to Naraina where he was given land by a Kachvaha astriocrat, with Dadu dying there on 8 May 1603.[1]
Immediate successors of Dadu (first three generations of leaders)
The immediate successors and early leaders of the sect came from the family of Dadu, such as his children. People from all religious and caste backgrounds became followers of Dadu. Dadu's follower BakhnÄ (died before 1637) was the first to use the term Dadupanthi to describe the followers whilst RÄghavdÄs' BhaktmÄl uses the term Dadupanth to describe the sect generally. Fifty-two chief disciples of Dadu are especially remembered by the sect (sometimes including Dadu's two daughters, as per the Bhaktmal), who are as follows along with the thambha (thÄmbhÄs, meaning "settlements" or "cantonments") they founded:[5][1]
- Garib Das (Naraina)
- Miskin Das (Naraina)
- Sundar Das (Ghatra)
- Sundar Das (Fatehpur)
- Rajjab (Sanganer)
- Dayal Das
- Mohan (Marot, Marwar)
- Mohan (Asom, Marwar)
- Mohan
- Mohan (Motiwara, Alwar)
- Jag Jiwan (Dausa)
- Jaggannath (Amber)
- Gopal
- Gopal
- Gopal
- Garib Das (Andhi)
- Durjan Das (Idwa, Marwar)
- Gharsi Das (Karail, Ajmer)
- Jai Mal (Sambhar)
- Jai Mal (Kalar, Marwar)
- Tejanand (Jodhpur, Marwar)
- Paramanand (Indogli, Marwar)
- Banwari Das (Ratiya, Hissar)
- Hari Das (Ranila, Hissar)
- Sadhu Ram (Mandota, Punjab)
- Hari Das
- Kapil Muni (Gundor)
- Chaturbhuj (Rampur, Bareilly)
- Chatur Das (Kaladera)
- Chatur Das (Singrawat, Marwar)
- Charan Das (Chhaondiya)
- Prayag Das (Didwana, Marwar)
- Chain Ram (Kanota)
- Chain Ram
- Prahlad Das (Ghatra, Alwar)
- Bakhna (tomb of Naraina)
- Jagga (Broach)
- Lal Das (Pranpitan, Gujarat)
- Makhu Das (Gangaicha, Kotah)
- Tila (Phumphliya)
- Chanda (Naraina)
- Hari Singh (Vidyad, Marwar)
- Narayan Das (Nagal)
- Jasa
- Jhanjhu (Jotwara)
- Banjhu (Jotwara)
- Sant Das
- Tiku Das (Nagal)
- Shyam Das (Jalana)
- Madhu Das (Gular, Marwar)
- Nagar (Tahatra)
- Nizam (Tahatra)
There first three generations of leaders of the Dadupanthis came from Dadu's immediate family. Gharib Das succeeded his father Dadu, with his installation as leader at Naraina likely being accepted by all lineages of the Dadupanthis at other places as well. A fore-head mark (tilak) was applied to Gharib Das to mark his succession. Since Naraina was the last place that Dadu lived and Gharib Das was installed as leader there, it became more esteemed than the other localities tied to the Dadupanthis. Gharib Das was given patronage by the Mughal emperor Jahangir. Gharib Das died in 1637, with the leadership of the sect being contested after his death. Gharib Das had nominated KevalrÄm to succeed him but he was deposed as leader after a short term of four years by the younger brother of Gharib Das, MaskÄ«ndÄs. Thus, the sect experienced a fissure, with the followers who remained loyal to KevalrÄm being known as the GarÄ«bdÄsot lineage. Dadu's two daughters also forfeited their power to their brother MaskÄ«ndÄs. MaskÄ«ndÄs died in 1648, which caused another succession controversy but was ultimately succeeded by his son FakÄ«rdÄs. FakÄ«rdÄs died in 1693, ending the leaders who were descended from Dadu. This caused issues as there was no worthy successor from among Dadu's descendants and some lineages had gone astray from the central seat in Naraina, instead venerating local sÄdhus. According to Monika Horstmann, whilst the first-generation of Dadupanthi disciples venerated Dadu, the second-generation of disciples often venerated instead their guru of the first-generation rather than Dadu himself and may have not necessarily considered themselves as Dadupanthis as a result. This is due to the fluid and porous nature of the Sant sects of the era.[1]
Fourth generation of leadership and beyond
The fourth leader of the sect, the first whom was not related to Dadu, was a Brahmin celibate named JaitrÄm (d. 1732), who became leader in 1693. His elevation was marked by a change where holders of the leadership of the sect were only sÄdhus rather than house-holders, as had been the case before amongst Dadu's relatives. In the early 18th century, the Kachvaha ruler SavÄÄ« Jaisingh mandated a rule that leaders of the sect could only be a celibate Brahmin, a rule which was observed until the early 21st century. The cohesive structure of the sect took shape and solidified under JaitrÄm's tenure as leader. To ensure Naraina remained the prime seat of the sect, all the other monastic branches based elsewhere paid loyalty to the Naraina seat during the annual melÄs of the sect. The term DÄdÅ«panth became synonymous with the monastic sub-tradition of the Dadupanthis. The arti practice of the Dadupanthis toward their scripture, the Dadu Vani, developed in the late 17th century. In 1827, a wealthy doctor of the UttarÄdhÄ monastic tradition constructed the central temple complex at Naraina.[1]
The 400th anniversary of Dadu was celebrated in 1945. In 2001, GopÄldÄs became the leader of the sect. He is the first leader of the sect in centuries to not belong to the Brahmin caste as he is a Jat.[1]
Beliefs and practices
The essence of the Dadupanthi tradition's teaching is expressed in the second sakhi found within the Dadu Vani: "The supreme being, immanent and transcendent, is my God NiraƱjana, Without form, pure ā DÄdÅ« makes reverence to him." (DÄVÄ. 1.2). Thus, the Dadupanthis believe that the human soul (atman) is the same essence as the supreme being. God, who can take human-shape, is referred to by the monikers RÄm, Hari, NiraƱjana, or satguru. If a person shifts their focus away from the temporal world and realizes the truth that their inner-being is the same as the divine, that is bhakti, which is only achieved through divine-grace rather than rituals. Any person can experience this inner truth if they attempt to do so and it is not limited to only some. Being together in a community of like-minded fellows with a similar aim (satsaį¹ g) can assist one trying to perform bhakti, which needs to be developed as a skill both individually and communally. The end-result is that a person achieves fully attains a state a bhakti, being completely united with the divine, and ends their rebirth cycle (saį¹sÄra). Unity can be experienced while alive but irreversible unity can only be achieved after death. Dadupanthis can be divided into two basic categories: renouncers (clergy) and householders (laity).[1][4] The renunciates blame the birth-death-rebirth cycle on women.[1]
Amongst rituals, Dadu rejected many of them during his life but some ritualized practices have been adopted or developed by the Dadupanth. Some rituals followed are the bhajan, katha or pravachan (discourses or sermons), and communal meals.[1][4] The scripture of the sect, the DÄdÅ«vÄį¹i, is venerated at temples or homes through the performance of an ÄrtÄ«. The codex of the Dadu Vani kept at the central Nariana site is taken out on processions. The cenotaphs of past gurus of the sect are venerated with veneration of them believed to have healing, wish-making, fertility-inducing, and miraculous properties. The veneration of cenotaphs may be due to Sufi influence. Similar to how meditation in caves was practiced by the Sants and Nath yogis, Dadupanthi cenotaphs may have a basement-chamber for that purpose. The past gurus of the sect are remembered in the form of a bas-relief of their feet on an inscribed slab. However, recently statues of the past gurus have been made as the Dadupanthi laity may engage in idolatry, which is not explicity criticized by the mahants but the clergy do not engage in the practice.[1]
Festival
The sect has an annual festival lasting from January-February to February-March, which begins in Amber on vasantpaƱcamÄ« and ends in Naraina on the occasion of Dadu's birthday on the eighth bright day of phÄlguna (known as the phÄg day), lasting a few weeks. Pilgrimages are conducted at the five sites associated with Dadu's life during this period. The festival is influenced by the Rajasthani holÄ« celebration. Another Dadupanthi festival falling in May-June is held on the date of Dadu's death on the eighth day of the dark half of the month of jyeį¹£į¹ha.[1]
Monastic order
The ideal lifestyle in the sect is that of a nomadic renunciate. There are four monastic branches associated with the sect but all have diminished in influence in recent-times:
- Viraktas (renouncers)
- UttarÄdhÄs (ānorthernersā)
- NÄgÄs
- TapasvÄ«s (ascetics) or khÄkÄ« viraktas (ash-smeared)
The different leaders of the sub-orders were arranged specifically for sectarian feasts and gatherings in a set-seating pattern. Dadupanthis of a monastic lineage associated with the central seat at Naraina are known as khÄlsÄ (derived from the Arabic word khÄliį¹£a, which was used by the Mughals as a revenue term to refer to "crown-land"), which is not to be confused with the Sikh term. Amongst the Dadupanthi renunciates, male monks are known as a sÄdhu or nÄgÄs while female monks are known as sÄdhvÄ«. The renunciates are associated with a particular maį¹h (monastery). However, the monastic order of the Dadupanthis has been shrinking demographically while the number of house-holding Dadupanthis increases. Their numbers have shrunk from 15,000 nÄgÄs in 1875, 5,499 in 1929; and between 3,000ā4,000 sÄdhus in 1945, with there being around 150 sÄdhus today and some sÄdhvÄ«s. Some sÄdhus have made claims on the property of the monastic sub-orders, leading to internal conflict within the Dadupanth. With the decline of the monastic order, the Dadupanthi laity are becoming increasingly prevalent and influential in the community.[1]
Viraktas
The Viraktas are nomadic monks and nuns that may live alone or as part of a community of monks that are based around a (mahÄ)maį¹įøaleÅvar responsible for a certain geographical area. They perform preaching and hold discourses for the general Dadupanthi laity.[1]
UttarÄdhÄs
The UttarÄdhÄs are a comparatively wealthy section of the Dadupanthis founded by Dadu's disciple BÄbÄ BanvÄrÄ«dÄs who settled in Ratia, Hissar district, Haryana, with the branches of the group being based in the region around Ratia. A unique aspect of this lineage is that it consists of gharbÄrÄ« sÄdhus who work and live in their own residences. In the local area of Narnaul, married sÄdhus can be found. They later made a back-migration from the north back to other parts of northern and central India, such as Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.[1]
NÄgÄs
They are Rajputised martial sÄdhus who adopted Rajput customs as seen in their literature, that were institutionalized in 1755. They were organized into various military units, known as jamÄts (regiments) and thÄmbhÄs (settlements, cantonments), based numerically upon the Vaiį¹£į¹ava nÄgÄs (bairÄgÄ«s) and saį¹nyÄsÄ«nÄgÄs. Their martial prowess allowed them to earn wealth, which they used for cultural, musical, literary, artistic, and architectural projects. They claim to originate from a supposed contemporary figure of Dadu named SundardÄs the Elder, who was a member of the Bikaner dynasty. Some early figures of the sub-tradition were PrahlÄddÄs of Ghatra and HÄpojÄ« (who was related to the Kachvahas of Amber). They initially did not recognize the authority of the central Dadupanthi seat of Nariana but under Jaitram's tenure as the mahant of Nariana, the Dadupanthi nÄgÄs started accepting its authority after it Rajputised. However, they later tried to remove Jaitram as mahant of Nariana and install their own pick. They had loose-connections with the Vaiį¹£į¹ava nÄgÄs, such as the RÄmÄnandÄ«s, RÄdhÄvallabas, GauįøÄ«yas, and NimbÄrkas. They were especially influenal during the decline of the Mughal empire in the 18th century. They served the Kachvaha kings of Jaipur, with them being responsible for manning outposts, quelling rebellions by tributaries, collecting tax, and other administrative functions. In 1938, the nÄgÄ battallion of Jaipur State was disbanded.[1]
TapasvÄ«s or khÄkÄ« viraktas
They live the idealized lifestyle of a solitary ascetic. They segregate themselves from the other Dadupanthis when at gatherings of the sect. They use cannabis as they believe it allows them to further their spiritual development and obtain spiritual insights. They maintain a sacred-fire, known as a dhūnī, whose ash they smear upon their body.[1]
Geographic distribution
Rajasthan is the Dadupanthi homeland but the sect's followers can also be found in culturally and linguistically contiguous areas of neighbouring areas and regions, such as Gujarat, but also in Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, and Bengal.[4]
Sites
The five places where Dadu lived, namely Sambhar, Amber, Kalyanpur, Bhairana, and Naraina, are considered sacred by the Dadupanthis and are incorporated in the sect's annual festive cycle. The Naraina site is held as the most esteemed amongst the five sites. The head of the Naraina site chooses the successors for the leadership of the other monastic sites but cannot interfere in their local operation or claim their property. Amongst the monastic order, there are various monasteries (known as a maį¹h), which vary in-size and grandness. The monastic tradition is especially strong in the Marwar region of Rajasthan, which are supported by daily begging tours to the surrounding localities. The monasteries have a resident mahant and some staff and are usually mostly empty throughout the year except during sectarian celebrations. The monasteries used to be renowned for their kitchen, where food was prepared for visitors in a tradition known as sadÄvrat.[1]
Scriptures and literature
DÄdÅ«vÄį¹i
Dadu composed poetry that consisted of aphorisms and devotional hymns. His works were compiled in a corpus known as the Bani ("poetic utterances", DÄdÅ«vÄį¹Ä«[1]), which consists of around 5,000 verses, consisting of distichs (sÄkhÄ«s) and songs (pads).[2][1] It also known as AnbhaivÄį¹Ä« ("words of experience"). The works of Dadu started being collected and compiled while he was alive and the DÄdÅ«vÄį¹Ä« was compiled shortly after Dadu's death by his followers (with two direct followers of Dadu attesting to them) utilizing oral traditions from popular verses and by religious singers. The scripture was written in Western Hindi with influences from Rajasthani and other regional lects and also Persian owing to Sufi influences. The earliest manuscript of the scripture is from 1614 while another dates to 1636. The DÄdÅ«vÄį¹Ä« was edited by RÄghavdÄs and his scribe MohandÄs DaftarÄ« by inserting thirty-seven chapters of distichs and 27 chapters of songs into the scripture, with the chapters being assigned a musical mode (rÄg). After the song chapters, the scripture closes with the five ÄrtÄ«s of Dadu to be chanted and not sung included in the rÄgdhanÄsarÄ« chapter. The work was further edited by MohandÄs DaftarÄ« with assistance from Dadu's disciples Rajjab and JagjÄ«vandÄs. MÄdhavdÄs of Guler claims the scripture when it was completed was installed and venerated a month after Dadu's death in 1603 but this is likely a claim that arose to rival the Äd Granth (later Guru Granth Sahib) of the Sikhs, which had been installed at Amritsar on 16 August 1604.[1] One of the earliest versions of the Dadupanthi scripture is the Pancvani (PaƱcvÄį¹Ä«, meaning "the words of the five"), which is a collection of the works of Dadu and other sants such as Kabir, Namdev, Ravidas, and Haridas.[2][1] There exists variant recensions of the PaƱcvÄį¹Ä«. The Dadu Vani is kept at a temple's shrine or in a private home installed on a special niche.[1]
Other texts
RÄghavdÄs authored a work known as the BhaktmÄl, where he equates Dadu to being among the four founders of the nirguį¹a-sampradÄyas, namely NÄnak, KabÄ«r, DÄdÅ«, and JagannÄth (who was the first mahant of the NiraƱjanÄ« sect of Sant Mat, not to be confused with the DaÅanÄmÄ« NiraƱjanÄ«s). Another Dadupanthi writer was JangopÄl. In the late 17th century, the Dadupanth was seen as being degraded and degenerating, thus a series of treatises were written aiming to formulize the monkhood and nunhood.[1]
Artwork
An image of Dadu is usually found near the Dadu Vani at their sites. Most of the current portraits and idealized depictions of Dadu date to the 20th century. Common stories from Dadu's life that are depicted is his encounter with his mystical guru or his meeting with Akbar. The sect creates relief works of footprints to represent its gurus. Recently, statues have been created of past gurus.[1] A depiction of a Dadupanthi can be found in the chapter on Vaishnava sects from the c. 1800 Silsilah-i jogiyÄn or FuqarÄ-yi Hind (BL IO Islamic 3087) by SÄ«tal Singh.[6]
Leaders
The mahants (translated to "abbot", also known as a svÄmÄ« or ÄcÄrya[1]) of the Dadupanthi establishment at Naraina are as follows:[7]
| No. | Name | Date of death (Vikrami and Gregorian) |
|---|---|---|
| 1. | Garib Das | V.S. 1693 / 1636 C.E. |
| 2. | Miskin Das | V.S. 1705 / 1648 C.E. |
| 3. | Faqir Das | V.S. 1750 / 1693 C.E. |
| 4. | Jait Ram | V.S. 1789 / 1732 C.E. |
| 5. | Kishan Dev | V.S. 1810 / 1753 C.E. |
| 6. | Chain Ram | V.S. 1837 / 1780 C.E. |
| 7. | Nirbhay Ram | V.S. 1871 / 1814 C.E. |
| 8. | Jiwan Das | V.S. 1877 / 1820 C.E. |
| 9. | Dalai Ram | V.S. 1897 / 1840 C.E. |
| 10. | Prem Das | V.S. 1901 / 1844 C.E. |
| 11. | Narayan Das | V.S. 1912 / 1855 C.E. |
| 12. | Udai Ram | V.S. 1931 / 1874 C.E. |
| 13. | Gulab Das | V.S. 1948 / 1891 C.E. |
| 14. | Harji Ram | V.S. 1955 / 1898 C.E. |
| 15. | Daya Ram | V.S. 1988 / 1931 C.E. |
| 16. | Ram Lal | V.S. 2001 / 1944 C.E. |
| 17. | Prakash Das | ? |
| ? | Gopal Das | ? |
See also
References
- ā 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 Horstmann, Monika. "DÄdÅ« DayÄl". K. A. Jacobsen (ed.), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Online. Brill, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1163/2212-5019_beh_COM_9000000105 Web. Retrieved on 7 May 2026 from: https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/ENHI/COM-9000000105.xml
- ā 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Stefon, Matt; Lotha, Gloria; Sampaolo, Marco (1 January 2025). "Dadu". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 8 May 2026.
- ā Sabhapathy, Sriram; Khetarpal, Kartikay. "Sustaining Faith: Text and Tradition in the Dadu Panth". Sahapedia. Retrieved 8 May 2026.
- ā 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Horstmann, Monika (10 January 2015). "Tellings and Texts: Dadupanthi Homiletics in North India". Brewminate (originally published in 'Tellings and Texts: Music, Literature, and Performance in North India'). Retrieved 9 May 2026.
- ā Orr, W. G. (1947). "Appendix A: THE FIFTY-TWO DISCIPLES OF DADU". A Sixteenth-Century Indian Mystic: Dadu and His Followers (PDF). Great Britain: Lutterworth Press. pp. 234ā235. Search this book on
- ā Sims-Williams, Ursula (29 August 2017). "A Hindu munshi's 'Chain of Yogis': a Persian manuscript in the Mackenzie Collection". British Library. Archived from the original on 18 May 2025. Retrieved 26 May 2026. Unknown parameter
|url-status=ignored (help) - ā 7.0 7.1 Orr, W. G. (1947). "Appendix B: MAHANTS OF NARAINA". A Sixteenth-Century Indian Mystic: Dadu and His Followers (PDF). Great Britain: Lutterworth Press. p. 236. Search this book on
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