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Democratic schools

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki





Part of the Politics series on
Students' rights
A discussion class at Shimer College, a democratic college in Chicago

A Democratic school is a democratically run alternative school, where classes are voluntary. Learning is self-directed and takes place without a curriculum. As many aspects of school life as possible are regulated on a democratic basis, with students and teachers each having one vote. Students can move freely at school as long as they do not violate the rules set up by the community.

The term was first used by the Democratic School of Hadera in 1987.[1]

Definition

There is no common definition of Democratic Schools. Democratic Schools all share the claim not to impose any obligations or unrequested assessment on the learning process of their students, i.e. to enable self-directed learning and to organise the school in a democratic manner. As a rule, this is done through a School Assembly.[2]

The European umbrella organisation EUDEC defines schools as Democratic Schools if they fulfill three core characteristics::[1]

  1. Firm foundations in a values culture of equality and shared responsibility;
  2. Collective decision-making where all members of the community, regardless of age or status, have an equal say over significant decisions such as school rules, curricula, projects, the hiring of staff and even budgetary matters;
  3. Self-directed discovery; Learners choose what they learn, when, how and with whom they learn it. Learning can happen inside or outside the classroom, through play as well as conventional study. The key is that the learning is following the student's intrinsic motivation and pursuing their interests.

Typical features of Democratic Schools

  • No grades or externally determined assessment;
  • Age mix across the whole spectrum of the student body;
  • No general or compulsory curriculum;
  • Classes are voluntary;
  • Self-regulation through democratic bodies such as the School Assembly and the Dispute Committee; upholding human rights, especially the equality between teachers and students;
  • Positive attitude towards the heterogeneity of students;
  • Regularly convening School Assembly as the school's highest authority;
  • Freedom of movement on the entire school grounds;
  • Comprised of 15 to 150 students, in exceptional cases even more
  • Play is regarded as positive in all age groups[3][4][5]

School assembly

Most Democratic Schools have weekly meetings of the School Assembly open to all children and adults; in some schools the School Assembly meets without a fixed rhythm as soon as there is a need for it. All kinds of matters concerning the school are decided together – from the hiring of new staff to the introduction or abolition of rules, from finances to what will happen during the school day. Everyone, regardless of their age, has an equal vote. The meeting is usually chaired by a student; attendance is usually voluntary.[6]

The School Assembly is the highest decision-making body in the school.[7] Some Democratic Schools have founders or principals who put themselves over the School Assembly in individual cases. Also, not every School Assembly may decide on financial issues or safety rules.[8] In most schools, especially Sudbury Schools, decisions require a simple majority of those present, in some schools a qualified majority is required. Other schools such as Sociocratic Schools[9] and some Agile Learning Centres try to achieve consent.[10] In the School Assembly, a student's vote counts as much as a teacher's.[11] The underlying principle of a School Assembly is the idea that "those who are affected by the decision make the decision". Thus, parents at Sudbury Valley School have a say in deciding on school fees. However, parents have no power to decide on pedagogic, because it does not directly affect them.[12]

Larger schools and Sudbury Schools often delegate the powers of the School Assembly to committees, i.e. workgroups set up by the School Assembly.[13]

Classes

Classes at Democratic Schools are voluntary. At Sudbury Valley School, even attendance on the school premises is voluntary.[14]

Preparation for diplomas varies greatly from country to country. Summerhill and the Kapriole school in Freiburg (Germany), help their students prepare for nationally recognised qualifications so that the path to apprenticeship or university is open to them.[15][2]

Sudbury schools have no curriculum at all. Classes and courses play a smaller role here than in other schools. There is no subject that is considered so important that it is offered as standard. Courses are only set up on the initiative of students and by teachers who think someone might be interested in the subject.[16] In other schools, learning is largely not student-initiated, i.e. the school offers various classes and courses according to traditional school subjects in which students can, but do not have to, participate.[17] Usually, teachers (and less often students) offer other courses or projects on topics that interest them. This can be basically any topic.[14]

Free play and informal learning play an important role in all schools.[18]

When it comes to everyday school life and how freedom to learn is practiced, there are clear differences between the various schools.[14][19][17]

In practice

Play

A striking feature of democratic schools is the ubiquity of play. Students of all ages—but especially the younger ones—often spend most of their time either in free play, or playing games (electronic or otherwise). All attempts to limit, control or direct play must be democratically approved before being implemented.[20] Play is seen as activity every bit as worthy as academic pursuits, often even more valuable. Play is considered essential for learning, particularly in fostering creativity.[21]

Reading, writing and arithmetic

Interest in learning to read happens at a wide variety of ages.[22] Progressive educators emphasise students' choice in reading selections, as well as topics for writing. In addition, Stephen Krashen[23] and other proponents of democratic education emphasise the role of libraries in promoting democratic education. Others, such as children's author Judy Blume, have spoken out against censorship as antagonistic to democratic education. [24]

History

Since the emergence of democratic state systems, there have been schools and children's republics experimenting with student democracy. Among the better-known cases are Léonard Bourdon's boarding school for war orphans Société des jeunes Français (1791-1795)[25], Heinrich Stephani's student jurisdiction in Germany (1826-1834)[26], Leo Tolstoy's peasant children's school in Jasnaja Poljana (1859-1862) south of Moscow[27] and the George Junior Republic (1895-?) in the State of New York.

The oldest, still existing school with a very extensive student democracy is the boarding school Summerhill located in Leiston (Suffolk, England), which was founded in Germany in 1921 by the Scottish educationalist A. S. Neill, moved to England, and still exists today.[28] Summerhill strongly influenced the Sudbury Valley School (since 1968), numerous alternative schools throughout the world and the Democratic School of Hadera (since 1987), so that the vast majority of Democratic Schools existing today can be directly or indirectly traced back to Summerhill.[29]

Independent of Summerhill, Kees Boecke developed his consensus Democratic School Werkplaats Kindergemeenschap in Bilthoven, the Netherlands, in 1929[30], leading to the emergence of Sociocracy and Sociocratic Schools[31], and Janusz Korczak opened the grassroots democratic Warsaw orphanage Dom Sierot (1911-1942), where children could also attend school classes.[32]

The Sudbury Valley School was founded in 1968 by Daniel and Hanna Greenberg, among others.[33] Supported by the Greenbergs' numerous publications about their school, which reached a relatively high circulation, at least 40 schools were founded based on the Sudbury Valley School concept, mostly in the USA.[34] This makes the Sudbury Valley Schools the largest Democratic Schools type sharing a specific name.[29]

The '68 generation founded numerous alternative schools with grassroots democratic elements in the Western world. In the USA, where it is legally easier to found free schools, hundreds of schools have probably been founded during the 1970s and 1980s.[35] At the same time, the anti-authoritarian movement in Germany and the Éducation Nouvelle in France were discussing Neill's ideas.[36]

Subsequently, during the reform period under François Mitterand, two democratic state schools, the Lycée experimental de Saint-Nazaire and the Lycée autogéré de Paris, were founded in 1982 and still exist today.[37]

The first official alternative school in Germany was the Demokratische Freie Schule Frankfurt. It was founded in 1975, existed illegally until 1986 and was subsequently legalised by the new red-green government of Hesse.[38]

As early as 1972, students of a Berlin school for second-chance education occupied their school in protest against poor room and learning conditions. After two evictions by the police and strikes of solidarising teachers, most of the students and a quarter of the teachers were dismissed. Thereupon some of the dismissed teachers and students founded the Schule für Erwachsenenbildung (School for Adult Education). In the beginning, the school organised itself with an equal delegate system of the two status groups, students and teachers. Afterwards, a School Assembly was appointed as the governing body, in which every student and every teacher has a vote. Since the foundation of the school there has been no compulsory attendance.[39]

In 1987 Yaacov Hecht founded the Democratic School of Hadera. It was the first Democratic School to use the term Democratic School. In 1993, the first International Democratic Education Conference (IDEC) took place here. Since then, the IDEC has been held annually at different Democratic Schools and has contributed significantly to the democratisation of alternative education schools and the founding of new Democratic Schools.[40][41]

There are at least 200 Democratic Schools worldwide.[42]

Most of these are to be found in the USA, Japan, France and Israel. Relative to their population size, the Netherlands are also significant with 19 schools (as of 2019). Others are in Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Costa Rica, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Ireland, India, Japan, New Zealand, Peru, Poland, Puerto Rico, Romania, Slovakia, South Africa, South Korea, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Ukraine and the UK.[2]

The world's largest ever existed Democratic School was probably the Schule für Erwachsenenbildung Berlin (School for Adult Education), with about 800 students in 1981. Today, the school has shrunk to about 300 students (as of 2019).[43]

The International Democratic Education Conference (IDEC) has been held annually since 1993. The European Democratic Education Community (EUDEC) exists since 2008.[44]

In Israel, there is an Institute for Democratic Education[45] and the company Education Cities. Both emerged from the environment of the Democratic School of Hadera and have committed themselves to support the democratisation and innovation of education, educational processes and schools.[46]

The first Democratic State Schools were probably Lycée experimental de Saint-Nazaire and the Lycée autogéré de Paris (1982 until today). In the 1990s, Democratic State Schools also emerged in Israel.[47]

Concepts of Democratic schools

All Democratic Schools are based on a fundamental respect for children. However, there are clear differences between the various schools in the concrete design of freedom of learning and democratic decision-making structures, as well as in everyday school life.[48][49]

The exact number of Democratic Schools is unknown. Depending on the definition, hundreds to thousands of schools exist worldwide, mainly in democratic countries. They are particularly widespread in Israel, the USA, France, Japan, Germany and the Netherlands (as of 2019).[2]

Summerhill

Summerhill is the most famous, first and oldest (founded in 1921) Democratic School. Summerhill's fame significantly influenced the alternative school movement and most Democratic Schools in their conception.[29] Summerhill is a boarding school. Almost all rules are made jointly by teachers, “the houseparents” and students, classes are optional, and students are allowed a great deal of self-determination.[50]

The headmaster and founder of the school, A. S. Neill, was an advocate of free sexuality from the very beginning. He saw many of the problems of children and society as being caused by its suppression. Coeducation was also the norm from the beginning of the school.[51] Swearing children, bathing naked on the school grounds were therefore not unusual in Neill's time.[50] The discussion of sexuality was one of the special features of Summerhill, along with the use of paradoxical sanctions, i.e. the rewarding of serious offences.[51]

Zoë Readhead, the current headteacher and Neill's daughter, noted in 2014: „Summerhill often now finds itself in a disciplinarian role because many children today don't have boundaries set in their homes.“, alluding to the fact that Summerhill's challenges have changed. In the past, she said, it was often about teaching scared children to trust, but now it's more about getting children to respect the rules of the community.[52]

Sudbury Valley School

Founded in 1968, the Sudbury Valley School in Framingham (Massachusetts, USA) is influenced by Summerhill, but lives an even more radical concept of freedom to learn. Classes and other forms of formal instruction are only offered when students explicitly ask for them. Teachers therefore take a more passive role than in other Democratic Schools.[53] Meanwhile, various other schools worldwide adopted the concept oft he Sudbury Valley school. There are currently more than 40 Sudbuy Schools, most of which are in the USA.[54]

Sociocratic Schools

Most Sociocratic Schools are based in the Netherlands and refer to Gerard Endenburg's Sociocratic Method.[55] Endenburg also developed his method through his experiences at the consensus-oriented Quaker school Werkplaats Kindergemeenschap.[30] Decisions in sociocracy are made by consent, a weak form of consensus where decisions are reached by accepting proposals once nobody has a justified "serious objection".[31]

Small schools have only one decision-making circle, larger schools organise themselves in learning communities (similar to a school class). The individual learning communities are organised in circles and are linked to the Students' Circle, i.e. one or two students/teachers sit in both circles and transmit information and decisions. The Students' Circle in turn is linked to the School Circle (the highest body), as are the Teachers' Circle, the Parents' Circle and the Supporters' Circle, which in turn is the higher-level circle of some working groups. All delegates are bound by the decisions of their respective circle. Learning is basically self-directed. However, more importance is attached to formal learning than in Sudbury Schools.[55]

Schools that call themselves sociocratically organised are not necessarily Democratic Schools, but may have a sociocratic organisation of the teaching staff and possibly the parents or the support association, but without (relevant) student participation.[56]

Other schools

There are also other concepts that fulfil the criteria of Democratic Schools, but do not call themselves such. These include Agile Learning Centres,[57] the state schools Lycée Experimental de Saint-Nazaire and Lycée autogéré de Paris in France,[58] the Schule für Erwachsenenbildung (School for Adult Education) in Berlin, Methodos e.V. in Freiburg, as well as some anarchist schools, like Paideia school (Spain) and schools occupied by students. Historically, the orphanage Dom Sierot and its offshoot Nasz Dom by Janusz Korczak as well as Kees Boecke's Werkplaats Kindergemeenschap (in the early years) also count as Democratic Schools.[2]

Research into democratic education

Graduates of Democratic Schools

Gray and Chanoff, in their study about Sudbury graduates, as well as Bernstein in his survey of Summerhill graduates, come to the conclusion that the graduates see no problem for themselves in dealing with authority and rate themselves better than their environment in this respect.[59][60]

In retrospect, according to a 1985 survey (85% of all alumni were interviewed), Sudbury alumni are very glad (81%) or glad (16%) to have attended the Sudbury Valley School. No alumni surveyed were dissatisfied.[60]

The graduates of Emmanuel Bernstein's 1968 Summerhill study were generally very positive about Summerhill. Bernstein's two most frequent criticisms were the weak academic support and the insufficient(ly) (enthusiastic) teachers. Margit Zellinger (1996) confirms this in her study of Summerhill graduates.[61]

Both points of criticism were presumably also mentioned based on Bernstein's 1968 study[59] in Summerhill and the 1999 Inspector's Report. According to the Inspector's Report at least the weak academic support is now a thing of the past.[62]

Among the positive aspects of Summerhill according to alumni, the following were mentioned in a 1968 survey (sorted from frequent to less frequent):[59]

  • fostering a healthy relationship with sex and the opposite sex;
  • the opportunity to develop a healthy self-confidence and a normal way of dealing with authority;
  • a space where children could develop naturally and explore their interests and abilities;
  • children could act out their play instinct and engage in academic learning at a time they felt appropriate without being coerced;
  • Summerhill was a help in understanding one's own children better and in bringing them up in a healthy way

Asked about the satisfaction in their current life, 15% of Sudbury graduates in the Pursuit of Happiness study answered "No", with the majority expecting a change for the better, 25% answered “satisfied” and 60% responded “very satisfied”.[63]

In response to the open question in Pursuit of Happiness, what the alumni liked about their jobs, 55% said being able to help others, which was by far the most frequently mentioned response category. 29% saw a spiritual or ethical purpose in their job. Equal numbers cited activism and financial reasons (14% each).[64]

Although family income within the Democratic Circle School alumni group is positively correlated with the graduate's likelihood of attending college, the likelihood of attending university is significantly higher for Circle School graduates in every income group than for the national average. This was the result of a survey conducted by Circle School itself.[65]

The percentage of graduates who attended or had attended college or university varies from 47% at Summerhill in 1999[61] over 58% at Sudbury in 1985[60] up to 84% for students who had spent at least 4 years at Circle School.[65]

All Sudbury Valley School students surveyed in 1985 felt they had an advantage over their peers in terms of their attitudes towards academic studies. Not a single one said they had problems with the formal structure. 82% of the students said that Sudbury Valley had helped them regarding their university studies. The two most frequently cited reasons were "ease of dealing with authority" and the opinion that Sudbury Valley was closer to university than mainstream schools in terms of self-organised learning.[66]

Other results

  • A study of 12 schools in the United Kingdom by a former school inspector indicates that democratic schooling produces greater motivation to learn and self-esteem among students.[67]
  • A study done in Israel indicates that the decline in interest in science that occurs regularly in conventional schools did not occur in democratic schools.[68]
  • Sands School in the United Kingdom was inspected in 2013 by Ofsted was found to be ‘Good’ overall with a number of ‘Outstanding’ features. No area of the provision was found to be less than "good’ and all the Statutory regulations (the school "Standards") were met in full. This is the same outcome as the previous inspection in 2010. Ofsted observed that taking part in the decision-making process developed "exceptional qualities of thoughtfulness and the ability to offer balanced arguments". Good pupil achievements were found to be a "consequence of the democratic structures". Personal development was deemed to be "outstanding" because of the exceptional impact of the democratic principles. The inspector was particularly impressed with pupils’ behaviour, noting that "lessons took place in an atmosphere of mutual respect" and that "visitors were greeted with interest and impeccable manners".
  • Alia College in Melbourne, Australia was in the top 5 Year 9 NAPLAN for Australian schools in Reading, Writing, Grammar and Punctuation abilities.
  • Albany Free School, in Albany, United States, has treated students with ADHD far better than surrounding schools, giving them enough play time to render medication unnecessary.[69]
  • The Schule für Erwachsenenbildung in Berlin (Germany) achieved the second place in the highly respected ranking of the German School Price (Deutscher Schulpreis).[70]

Associations and institutions

The rapid spread of Democratic Schools since the 1990s and 2000s has been largely driven by the International Democratic Education Conference (IDEC).

In addition, the following associations and lobby organisations exist[71]

  • APDEC: IDEC branch in the Asia and Pacific region
  • AERO: Association from the USA
  • EUDEC: European Association of Democratic Schools
  • Schools of Trust: German lobby organisation for democratic education

Education in a democratic society

Democratic schools are also seen in the context of democratic education and civic education and see themselves as schools preparing for a democratic education for a democratic state.[72]

As English aristocracy was giving way to democracy, Matthew Arnold investigated popular education in France and other countries to determine what form of education suited a democratic age.[73] Arnold wrote that "the spirit of democracy" is part of "human nature itself", which engages in "the effort to affirm one's own essence...to develop one's own existence fully and freely."[74]

During the industrial age, John Dewey argued that children should not all be given the same pre-determined curriculum. In Democracy and Education he develops a philosophy of education based on democracy. He argues that while children should be active participants in the creation of their education, and while children must experience democracy to learn democracy, they need adult guidance to develop into responsible adults.[75]

Amy Gutmann argues in Democratic Education that in a democratic society, there is a role for everyone in the education of children. These roles are best agreed upon through deliberative democracy.[76]

The journal Democracy and Education investigates "the conceptual foundations, social policies, institutional structures, and teaching/learning practices associated with democratic education." By "democratic education" they mean "educating youth...for active participation in a democratic society."[77]

Yaacov Hecht claims that the Democratic Education, being an education that prepares for life in a democratic culture, it is the missing piece in the intricate puzzle which is the democratic state.[78]

Training programs

Israel's Institute for Democratic Education and Kibbutzim College in Tel Aviv collaborate to offer a Bachelor of Education (B. Ed.) degree with a Specialization Certificate in Democratic Education. Student teaching placements are in both regular schools and democratic schools.[79]

The Necessary Teacher Taining College in Ulfborg in Danmark trains teachers for a self-directed learning environoment.[80]

Legal issues

The United Nations

United Nations agreements both support and place restrictions on education options, including democratic education:

Article 26(3) of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children."[81] While this in itself may allow parents the right to choose democratic education, Articles 28 and 29 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child place requirements on educational programs: Primary education is compulsory, all aspects of each student must be developed to their full potential, and education must include the development of respect for things such as national values and the natural environment, in a spirit of friendship among all peoples.[82]

Furthermore, while Article 12(1) of the Convention mandates that children be able to have input on all matters that affect them, their input will have limited weight, "due weight in accordance with the age and maturity of the child."[82]

Summerhill

In 1999, Summerhill received a 'notice of complaint' over its policy of non-compulsory lessons, a procedure which would usually have led to closure; Summerhill contested the notice[83] and went before a special educational tribunal. Summerhill was represented by a noted human rights lawyer, Geoffrey Robertson QC. The government's case soon collapsed, and a settlement was offered. This offer was discussed and agreed at a formal school meeting which had been hastily convened in the courtroom from a quorum of pupils and teachers who were present in court. The settlement guaranteed that future inspections of Summerhill would be consistent with Summerhill's educational philosophy.[84]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "What is Democratic Education? – EUDEC". Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule (1. Auflage ed.). Leipzig. ISBN 978-3-937797-90-8. OCLC 1259333894. Search this book on
  3. ↑ "How a democratic school works, and how it improves society". blogs.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  4. ↑ "What is democratic education?". www.idenetwork.org. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  5. ↑ "What is Democratic Education? – EUDEC". Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  6. ↑ "What is a democratic school". REDAQ. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  7. ↑ [1]
  8. ↑ Neill, Alexander Sutherland (1960). A radical approach to child rearing. New York. p. 315. Search this book on
  9. ↑ Shread, Charlie; Osorio, Marianne (2018). School Circles. Every Voice Matters. Search this book on
  10. ↑ "An Agile Approach to Education | Cutter Consortium". www.cutter.com. Retrieved 2021-08-02.
  11. ↑ EUDEC. "How EUDEC Defines Democratic Education". Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  12. ↑ Greenberg, Daniel. A Clearer View. p. 75. Search this book on
  13. ↑ Greenberg, Daniel. Free at last. p. 115. Search this book on
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Greenberg, Daniel (1991). Free at last. Framingham: Sudbury Valley School Press. p. 98. Search this book on
  15. ↑ Inspector Grenyer (1999). Ofsted Report: Summerhill School Westward HO Leiston Suffolk. Ofsted. Search this book on
  16. ↑ Greenberg, Daniel (1991). Free at last. Framingham: Sudbury Valley Press. p. 98. Search this book on
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Neill, Alexander Sutherland (1960). A Radical Approach to Child Rearing. pp. 30, 31. Search this book on
  18. ↑ Lieckenbrock, Kerstin (2002). Selbstregulation. Ein Erziehungsmodell, basierend auf den psychoanalytischen, naturwissenschaftlichen und soziologischen Thesen Wilhelm Reichs (Self regulation. An educational model based on Wilhelm Reich's psychoanalytical, scientific and sociological theses. Universität Mannheim. pp. Chapter 4.5.3.2. Search this book on
  19. ↑ Oulton, Abby. "An Agile Approach to Education". Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  20. ↑ "Kid Politics". thisamericanlife.org. 14 January 2011. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
  21. ↑ http://www.unseelie.org/, Design by Chris Bird http://cbirdesign.com/, maintenance and programming by Scott David Gray. "Sudbury Valley School • Online Library. Underlying Ideas". sudval.org. Archived from the original on 2017-12-27. Retrieved 27 December 2017. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  22. ↑ Mario Montessori, in conversation with A.S. Neill, Redbook Magazine, Dec 1964, reprinted as "Radical Private Schools" in This Magazine is About Schools 1(1), Apr 1966, p17
  23. ↑ "Stephen Krashen 2014 /The Common Core: A Disaster for Libraries, A Disaster for Language Arts, a Disaster for American Education Knowledge Quest 42(3): 37–45 (2014)
  24. ↑ Censorship, Index on (23 September 2013). "Judy Blume on being banned".
  25. ↑ Vauthier, Gabriel (1912). "Léonard Bourdon et la Société des Jeunes Français". Annales Révolutionnaires: 313–343 – via JSTOR.
  26. ↑ Kamp, Johannes-Martin (1994). Kinderrepubliken. Geschichte, Praxis und Theorie radikaler Selbstregierung in Kinder- und Jugendheimen. University of Essen. p. 199. Search this book on
  27. ↑ Tolstoy, Lev N.; Leo Wiener; translator and editor (1904). The School at Yasnaya Polyana – The Complete Works of Count Tolstoy: Pedagogical Articles. Linen-Measurer, Volume IV. Dana Estes & Company. p. 227., Lev (1904). Wiener, Leo, ed. The School at Yasnaya Polyana – The Complete Works of Count Tolstoy. Dana Estes & Company. p. 227.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) Search this book on
  28. ↑ Kamp, Johannes-Martin (1997). Kinderrepubliken. Geschichte, Praxis und Theorie radikaler Selbstregierung in Kinder- und Jugendheimen. Essen: University of Essen. p. 155. Search this book on
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule (History of Democratic Schools). Leipzig: tologo. p. 110. Search this book on
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Rawson, Wyatt Trevelyan (1957). The Werkplaats Adventure. Vincent Stuart. Search this book on
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Koch-Gonzalez, Jerry; Rau, Ted J. (2018). Many Voices One Song: Shared Power with Sociocracy. Institute for Peaceable Communities. ISBN 978-1949183009. Search this book on
  32. ↑ Engel, Liba H. (2013). "The Democratic School and the Pedagogy of Janusz Korczak: Twentieth Century Reform in Modern Israel". International Journal of Progressive Education. 9 (1): 119.
  33. ↑ Gray, Peter (2013). Free to learn : why unleashing the instinct to play will make our children happier, more self-reliant, and better students for life. New York. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-465-02599-2. OCLC 815835659. Search this book on
  34. ↑ [hvsudburyschool.com "List of Schools Similar to HVSS"] Check |url= value (help). Hudson Valley Sudbury School. March 4, 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  35. ↑ Kavner, Lucas (August 12, 2021). "At Brooklyn Free School - A Movement Reborn With Liberty And No Testing For All". Huffington Post. Retrieved August 12, 2021.
  36. ↑ Kühn, Axel (2002). A. S. Neill und Summerhill: Eine Rezeptions- und Wirkungsanalyse. Tübingen: Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen. p. 72. Search this book on
  37. ↑ Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule. Leipzig: tologo. p. 183. ISBN 9783937797908. Search this book on
  38. ↑ Wilke, Martin. Freiheit und Demokratie an Freien Alternativschulen. Berlin: Freie Universität Berlin. pp. 7–10. Search this book on
  39. ↑ Nitsche, Rainer; Rothaus, Ulli; Bauer, Mense (1981). Offene Türen und andere Hindernisse. Erfahrungen in einer selbstverwalteten Schule für Erwachsene. Darmstadt: Luchterhand. pp. 12–18. Search this book on
  40. ↑ Hecht, Yaacov (2010). Democratic Education. A beginning of a story. Innovation Cube. p. 325. Search this book on
  41. ↑ Hecht, Yaacov (2010). Democratic education : a beginning of a story. [Place of publication not identified]: Innovation Culture. p. 325. ISBN 978-0-9745252-9-7. OCLC 801521367. Search this book on
  42. ↑ Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule (1. Auflage ed.). Leipzig. p. 241. ISBN 978-3-937797-90-8. OCLC 1259333894. Search this book on
  43. ↑ Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule (1. Auflage ed.). Leipzig. p. 168. ISBN 978-3-937797-90-8. OCLC 1259333894. Search this book on
  44. ↑ "Schools and Start-Ups". EUDEC. Retrieved 24 November 2019. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  45. ↑ Hecht, Yaacov (2010). Democratic education : a beginning of a story. [Place of publication not identified]: Innovation Culture. p. 250. ISBN 978-0-9745252-9-7. OCLC 801521367. Search this book on
  46. ↑ Hecht, Yaacov (9 March 2020). "Startpage". Education Cities. Retrieved 12 August 2021. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  47. ↑ Hecht, Yaacov (2010). Democratic education : a beginning of a story. Innovation Culture. pp. 253–266. ISBN 978-0-9745252-9-7. OCLC 801521367.CS1 maint: Date and year (link) Search this book on
  48. ↑ Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule (1. Auflage ed.). Leipzig. pp. 20–25. ISBN 978-3-937797-90-8. OCLC 1259333894. Search this book on
  49. ↑ 13th International Democratic Education Conference (IDEC) (12 August 2021). "Documentation - IDEC 2005 Resolution". International Democratic Education Conference (IDEC). Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Popenoe, Joshua (1970). Inside Summerhill. New York: Hart Pub. Co. pp. 81, 82. ISBN 0-8055-0112-6. OCLC 139505.CS1 maint: Date and year (link) Search this book on
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Neill, Alexander Sutherland (1960). Summerhill: A Radical Approach to Child Rearing. Hart. pp. 51, 197. Search this book on
  52. ↑ Wilby, Peter (27 May 2013). "Summerhill school: these days surprisingly strict". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 August 2021. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  53. ↑ Gray, Peter (2013). Free to learn : why unleashing the instinct to play will make our children happier, more self-reliant, and better students for life. New York. pp. 78–80. ISBN 978-0-465-02599-2. OCLC 815835659. Search this book on
  54. ↑ "Self-Directed Democratic Schools - An unofficial list of schools that self-identify as democratic or Sudbury". Democratic Schools. 12 August 2021. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Geller, Karl (2021). Geschichte der Demokratischen Schule (1. Auflage ed.). Leipzig. p. 146. ISBN 978-3-937797-90-8. OCLC 1259333894. Search this book on
  56. ↑ Strauch, Barbara (2018). Soziokratie Kreisstrukturen als Organisationsprinzip zur Stärkung der Mitverantwortung des Einzelnen. Annewiek Reijmer, Verlag Franz Vahlen GmbH (1. Auflage ed.). München. p. 150. ISBN 978-3-8006-5417-8. OCLC 1029734218.CS1 maint: Date and year (link) Search this book on
  57. ↑ Oulton, Abby (22 April 2019). "An Agile Approach to Education". Cutter Business Technology Journal.
  58. ↑ "CARTE DES ÉCOLES OUVERTES ET DES PROJETS". EUDEC France. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 Bernstein, Emmanuel (1968). "Summerhill: A Follow-Up Study of its Students". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. Saranac Lake, New York. 8 (2): 131. doi:10.1177/002216786800800205. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 Gray, Peter; Chanoff, David (February 1986). "Democratic schooling: What happens to young people who have charge of their own education? A follow-up study of the graduates of the Sudbury Valley School, a democratically administered primary and secondary school that supports Self-Directed Education". American Journal of Education. 94: 207. doi:10.1086/443842. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Zellinger, Margit (1996). [paed.com Summerhill today. What has become of Neill's educational experiment and what of former students?] Check |url= value (help). Salzburg: University of Salzburg. Search this book on
  62. ↑ Wilby, Peter (27 May 2013). "Summerhill school: these days surprisingly strict". The Guardian.
  63. ↑ Greenberg, Daniel; Sadofsky, Mimsy; Lempka, Jason (2005). Pursuit of Happiness. The lives of Sudbury Valley alumni. Framingham: Sudbury Valley School Press. p. 342. Search this book on
  64. ↑ Greenberg, Daniel; Sadofsky, Mimsy; Lempka, Jason (2005). Pursuit of Happiness. The lives of Sudbury Valley alumni. Framingham: Sudbury Valley School Press. p. 81. Search this book on
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 "Circle School Graduates in 2015. College Attendance, Academic Degrees, and Occupations" (PDF). Circle School Homepage. Circle School Harrisburg. 2015. p. 7. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  66. ↑ Gray, Peter; Chanoff, David (February 1986). "Democratic schooling: What happens to young people who have charge of their own education? A follow-up study of the graduates of the Sudbury Valley School, a democratically administered primary and secondary school that supports Self-Directed Education". American Journal of Education. 94: 199. doi:10.1086/443842. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  67. ↑ "The Hannam Report" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-06-16. Retrieved 2021-09-11.
  68. ↑ Vedder‐Weiss, Dana; Fortus, David (2011). "Adolescents' Declining Motivation to Learn Science: Inevitable or Not?". Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 48 (2): 199–216. Bibcode:2011JRScT..48..199V. doi:10.1002/tea.20398. ISSN 1098-2736.
  69. ↑ Gelderloos, Peter (2010). Anarchy Works. Search this book on
  70. ↑ "Schule für Erwachsenenbildung e.V. Berlin (SFE) Berlin Preisträger 2016". Deutscher Schulpreis. 2016. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  71. ↑ Hecht, Yaacov (2010). Democratic education : a beginning of a story. [Place of publication not identified]: Innovation Culture. p. 250. ISBN 978-0-9745252-9-7. OCLC 801521367. Search this book on
  72. ↑ "Education 2.0: From a pyramid paradigm to a network paradigm". education-cities.com. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
  73. ↑ Kirk, Russell (1962). "Matthew Arnold: Democratic Education reviewed by Russell Kirk". Teachers College Record. 63 (8): 661. Retrieved May 20, 2013.
  74. ↑ Matthew Arnold (1962). Democratic education. University of Michigan Press. pp. 7–. ISBN 978-0-472-11652-2. Retrieved 20 May 2013. Search this book on
  75. ↑ John Dewey (2010). Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education. Indo-European Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60444-120-8. Retrieved 20 May 2013. Search this book on
  76. ↑ Amy Gutmann (29 March 1999). Democratic Education. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2291-1. Retrieved 20 May 2013. Search this book on
  77. ↑ "Democracy & Education journal – Lewis and Clark Graduate School of Education and Counseling". democracyeducationjournal.org. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
  78. ↑ "Education 2.0: From a pyramid paradigm to a network paradigm". education-cities.com. Retrieved 27 December 2015.
  79. ↑ The Institute for Democratic Education at Kibbutzim College
  80. ↑ "The Necessary Teacher Training College Program". The Necessary Teacher Training College. 2021. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  81. ↑ "Universal Declaration of Human Rights". United Nations. 10 Dec 1948. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 United Nations General Assembly (Nov 20, 1989). "Text of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child". ohchr.org. UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved May 11, 2013.
  83. ↑ "Summerhill on trial". BBC News. 20 March 2000. Retrieved 2008-01-28.
  84. ↑ "Summerhill closure threat lifted". BBC News. BBC. 23 March 2000.


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