Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
Coordinates: 52°05′N 4°18′E / 52.083°N 4.300°E
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Савезна Република Југославија (Serbian)Savezna Republika Jugoslavija | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1992–2003 | |||||||||
.svg) Flag
 Coat of arms
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 Federal Republic of Yugoslavia | |||||||||
| Capital | Belgrade | ||||||||
| Official languages | Serbian..[1] | ||||||||
| Religion | Serbian Orthodox | ||||||||
| Government | Federal Republic | ||||||||
| President | |||||||||
• 1992–1993 (first) | Dobrica Ćosić | ||||||||
• 2000–2003 (last) | Vojislav Koštunica | ||||||||
| Prime Minister | |||||||||
• 1992–1993 (first) | Milan Panić | ||||||||
• 2001–2003 (last) | Dragiša Pešić | ||||||||
| Historical era | Yugoslav Wars Post-Cold War era | ||||||||
| 1992 | |||||||||
| 1992-1995 | |||||||||
| 1995 | |||||||||
| 1998-1999 | |||||||||
| 2000 | |||||||||
| 2003 | |||||||||
| Area | |||||||||
| 2003 | 102,350 km2 (39,520 sq mi) | ||||||||
| Population | |||||||||
• 2003 | 10,832,545 | ||||||||
| Currency | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Today part of |  Serbia[4] Montenegro | ||||||||
The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbian:Савезна Република Југославија / Savezna Republika Jugoslavija), also known as FR Yugoslavia, was the state which claimed successor status to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, following the Breakup of Yugoslavia, comprising of the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of Montenegro, the two last remaining republics of SFR Yugoslavia.
Its aspirations to be the sole legal successor state to Yugoslavia were not recognised by the United Nations, following the passing of United Nations Security Council Resolution 777,[5] which affirmed that the Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia had ceased to exist, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not the sole legal successor state, but merely a breakaway state. However, the Government of Slobodan Milošević opposed any such claims, and continued to claim FR Yugoslavia was the legal successor to SFR Yugoslavia. After his government was overthrown in 2000, Yugoslavia was finally admitted to the United Nations and treated as a breakaway state of SFR Yugoslavia.[6]
Throughout its existence, FR Yugoslavia would enjoy a tedious relationship with the International Community, as economic sanctions[7] were issued against the state during the course of the Yugoslav Wars and Kosovo War. This also resulted in hyperinflation between 1992-1994.[8]
FR Yugoslavia's involvement in the Yugoslav Wars ended with the Dayton Agreement, which recognised the independence of the Republics of Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as establishing diplomatic relationships between the states, and a guaranteed role of the Serbian population within Bosnian politics.[9] However, peace would not last, as growing separatism within the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija, a region of Serbia heavily populated by Albanians, resulted in an insurrection by the Kosovo Liberation Army, an Albanian terrorist group[10][11] The outbreak of the Kosovo War reintroduced Western Sanctions, as well as eventual Western involvement in the conflict. The conflict ended with the adoption of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244, which guaranteed economic and political separation of Kosovo from FR Yugoslavia, to be placed under UN Administration.[12]
Economic hardship and war resulted in growing discontent with the Government of Slobodan Milosevic and his allies, who ran both Serbia and Montenegro as an effective dictatorship.[13] The eventual Bulldozer Revolution saw his Government overthrown, and replaced with a more moderate one, led by Vojislav Koštunica, which allowed for membership in the United Nations[14][6]
The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia would come to an untimely end, after the Federal Assembly of Yugoslavia decided to enact the Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro, which established the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. As such, Yugoslavia was confined to history.[15] Growing separatism in Montenegro, led by Milo Đukanović[16] meant that the Constitution of Serbia and Montenegro included a stanza allowing for a Referendum on the Question of Montenegrin Independence,[17] after a period of three years had passed. In 2006, the referendum was called, and passed,[18] by a narrow margin, leading to the dissolution of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, and the establishment of independent republics of Serbia and Montenegro. This can be considered the last act which finalised the dissolution of Yugoslavia.[19]
Name[edit]
The Official name of the country was the "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" (Савезна Република Југославија / Savezna Republika Jugoslavija), or "Yugoslavia" for short. The name Yugoslavia, an Anglicised transcription of Jugoslavija, is a composite word made up of jug ('yug') (with the 'j' pronounced like an English 'y') and slavija. The Slavic word jug means 'south', while slavija ('Slavia") denotes a 'land of the Slavs'. Thus, a translation of "Jugoslavija" would be 'South-Slavia' or 'South Slav Land'. This is because the initial idea of 'Yugoslavia,' was a state of Southern Slavs which could protect themselves from foreign empires.[20]
History[edit]
After the collapse of SFR Yugoslavia in the 1990s, the two Serb majority republics, Serbia and Montenegro, agreed to remain as Yugoslavia, and established a new Constitution in 1992, which established the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as essential rump state, comprising only of Serbs. As Communism had collapsed in the Eastern Bloc, the new state also abandoned its Communist legacy: the Red Star was removed from the national flag, and the Communist Coat of Arms was replaced by a new Coat of Arms representing Serbia and Montenegro. The new state also established the office of the president, held by a single person, initially appointed with the consent of the republics of Serbia and Montenegro until 1997 after which the president was democratically elected. The President of Yugoslavia acted alongside the Presidents of the republics of Serbia and Montenegro. Initially, all three offices were dominated by allies of Slobodan Milosevic[21] and his Socialist Party of Serbia.
Foundation[edit]
On 26 December 1991, Serbia, Montenegro, and the Serb rebel-held territories in Croatia agreed that they would form a new "third Yugoslavia".[22] Efforts were also made in 1991 to include SR Bosnia and Herzegovina within the federation, with negotiations between Miloševic, Bosnia's Serbian Democratic Party, and the Bosniak proponent of union – Bosnia's Vice-President Adil Zulfikarpašić taking place on this matter.[23] Zulfikarpašić believed that Bosnia could benefit from a union with Serbia, Montenegro, and Krajina, thus he supported a union which would secure the unity of Serbs and Bosniaks.[23] Miloševic continued negotiations with Zulfikarpašić to include Bosnia within a new Yugoslavia, however efforts to include the whole of Bosnia within a new Yugoslavia effectively terminated by late 1991 as Izetbegović planned to hold a referendum on independence while the Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats formed autonomous territories.[23] Thus, FR Yugoslavia was restricted to the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, and became closely associated with breakaway Serbian republics during the Yugoslav Wars.
Yugoslav Wars[edit]
The FRY was suspended from a number of international institutions.[24] This was due to the ongoing Yugoslav wars during the 1990s, which had prevented agreement being reached on the disposition of federal assets and liabilities, particularly the national debt. The Government of Yugoslavia supported Croatian and Bosnian Serbs in the wars from 1992 to 1995. Because of that, the country was under economic and political sanctions, which resulted in economic disaster that forced thousands of its young citizens to emigrate from the country.
FR Yugoslavia acted to support Serbian separatist movements in breakaway states, including the Republic of Serbian Krajina and the Republika Srpska, and sought to establish them as independent Serbian republics, with potential eventual reintegration with FR Yugoslvia.[25][26] However, the Government of FR Yugoslavia would treat these republics as seperate entities, and gave unofficial, rather than active, aid by transferring control of units from the JNA to the secessionist movements.[27] In this way, FR Yugoslavia avoided potential accusation of committing acts of aggression against the breakaway republics, which has been recogisned by the International Community.[28][29]
Following the transfer of Yugoslav Army units, the state of FR Yugoslavia ceased to play an important military role in the Yugoslav Wars, barring conflicts on the border with Croatia, such as the Siege of Dubrovnik. It instead provided economic and political aid,[30] to avoid provoking the International Community further, and to preserve FR Yugoslavia as the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, rather than 'Greater Serbia.'[31]
In 1995, following Operation Storm, an offensive by the Croatian Army, and NATO involvement in the Bosnian War, President Slobodan Milosevic agreed to negotiate. Under threat of economically crippling the Republika Srpska, he took over negotiating powers for all Serbian secessionist movements, as well as FR Yugoslavia.[32] The ensuing Dayton Agreements, signed between representatives from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Croatia, resulted in each state being recognised as sovereign states. It also provided recognition for Serbian institutions and a rotating Presidency, within Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Serbian populated areas of the former Socialist Republic of Bosnia were absorbed into Bosnia and Herzegovina.[9][33][34] Thus the Yugoslav Wars ended, and Western Sanctions on FR Yugoslavia were lifted.[35] However, Slobodan Milosevic would not achieve his dreams of admitting FR Yugoslavia to the United Nations as the successor state of SFR Yugoslavia, as an 'outer wall' of Western sanctions prohibited this.[35][36]
Economic Collapse during Yugoslav Wars[edit]
Following the adoption of economic sanctions by the International Community, against FR Yugoslavia, its economy experienced a collapse. Sanctions on fuel supply meant that fuel stations across the country ran out of petrol[37] as well as foreign assets seized. The average income of inhabitants of FR Yugoslavia halved, from $3,000, to $1,500.[7] An estimated 3 million Serbs lived below the poverty line[7] Suicide rates increased by 22%[38] and hospitals lacked basic equipment. Along with this, the cutting of supply links that the Yugoslav economy could not grow, and imports or exports needed for industries could not be obtained, forcing them to close.[39] The crippled state of the Yugoslav economy also affected its ability to wage war, and after 1992, Yugoslavia had an extremely limited military role within the Yugoslav Wars, due to the JNA units being unable to operate without oil or munitions.[40][41]
On top of this, starting in 1992 and until 1994, the Yugoslav Dinar experienced a major hyperinflation, leading to inflation reaching 313 million%,[42] the second Worst hyperinflation in history. Many parts of FR Yugoslavia, including all of Montenegro, adopted the Deutsche Mark and Euro currencies instead of the Yugoslav Dinar.[43] As such, the Western sanctions crippled the Yugoslav economy, and prevented it from playing an active role in aiding Serb breakaway republics. Following the Dayton Agreement, the UN Security Council voted to lift most sanctions, but they were reissued following the outbreak of an Albanian insurgency in Kosovo. The lasting economic impact can be attributed to the eventual downfall of FR Yugoslavia and Slobodan Milosevic's government, as well as a deeper desire in Montenegro, to leave FR Yugoslavia.[44]
Kosovo War[edit]
In the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija, a growing desire for independence emerged, among the Albanian majority population. Already, an unrecognised Republic of Kosova had emerged, with underground institutions.[45] In 1996, the Kosovo Liberation Army, an Albanian milita promoting Kosovar independence, launched attacks against Serbian Police Stations, killing atleast ten Serbian policemen in direct attacks between 1996 and 1998.[46][47] The low level Insurgency quickly escalated. After Slobodan Milosevic was elected President of Yugoslavia in 1997, after serving two terms as President of Yugoslavia, he ordered JNA units to move into Kosovo to aid in the suppression of the insurrection. The Governments of FR Yugoslavia and the USA declared the Kosovo Liberation Army a terrorist organisation, following repeated deadly attacks against Yugoslav Law Enforcement agencies.[48][49][50] US intelligence also mentioned illegal arms sources of the Kosovo Liberation Army, including conducting raids during the course of the Albanian Civil War, and drug dealing.[51][10] Despite this, substantial evidence now shows that the CIA had aided in training units of the KLA[52] although not necessarily providing them with arms and funding.
In 1998, the Kosovo War began, following increased open combat with Yugoslav Police and JNA units deployed by Slobodan Milosevic. The KLA found itself heavily outnumbered and outgunned in open combat, and had to use guerrilla tactics.[53] Serbian Police and JNA units attacked KLA outposts, attempting to destroy them, as KLA units attempted to avoid direct confrontation and use terrorist attacks, including bombings and ambushes, to weaken Yugoslav control.[54] Although unable to gain a strategic advantage, Yugoslav Army units found themselves in a tactical advantage, against KLA units which lacked proper training. JNA units themselves lacked morale, and attacks were often directed against civilian targets rather than military targets.[55][56] Throughout the course of the war, nearly 1,000,000 Albanian civilians were displaced, representing over 90% of the Kosovar Albanian population, either to other parts of Kosovo, or nearby countries. On top of this, 8,692 Albanian civilians were killed, some possibly attributed to KLA attacks,[57] and 2,500 Serbian civilians were estimated to be killed by the KLA[58]
The International Community was quick to respond, issuing a peace proposal to Yugoslavia in 1999. The agreement was seen as an essential ultimatum[59][60] by NATO to Yugoslavia, and this rejected by the Yugoslav Government. NATO responded, in March 1999, by ordering airstrikes against Yugoslav military targets and infrastructure, including roads, railroads, administrative buildings and the headquarters of Radio Television Serbia.[61] NATO's bombing campaign was not approved by the UN Security Council, for fear of a veto by Russia, which would cause controversy as to their legality.[62][63] The UN Security Council adopted United Nations Security Council Resolution 1160, renewing arms and oil sanctions against FR Yugoslavia, and thus crippling its economy. The effects of continuous aerial bombardment and sanctions cost the Yugoslav economy hundreds of billions of USD[64] and eventually forced the Government of Slobodan Milosevic to comply with an agreement put forward by an International Delegation. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 led to substantial autonomy for Kosovo, and the establishment of a UN mission to Kosovo, as well as the complete withdrawal of units of the Yugoslav National Army.[65][66] As such, Kosovo remained an Autonomous Province of Serbia, but politically and economically independent. The damage to FR Yugoslavia was immense, with the Government estimating $100 billion in infrastructure damage,[64] as well as 1,200 Serbian and Albanian civilians or soldiers confirmed dead. Economists have estimated atleast $29 billion in direct damages caused by the bombings[67]
Bulldozer Revolution[edit]
The string of defeats, as well as a complete collapse of the Yugoslav economy, led to mass unpopularity of the essential dictatorship of Slobodan Milosevic and his allies in the Socialist Party of Serbia. In 1999
References[edit]
- ↑ Hungarian and Albanian were recongised regional languages
- ↑ "Yugoslavia: Montenegro Adopts German Mark As Currency -- But With Risks". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.
- ↑ Used during hyperinflation, especially in Montenegro.
- ↑ Although the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija declared independence in 2008, as Kosovo, this claim has yet to be recongised by Serbia
- ↑ Murphy, Sean D. (2002). United States Practice in International Law: 1999–2001, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-521-75070-7 Search this book on
..
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Press, The Associated (2 November 2000). "A Different Yugoslavia, 8 Years Later, Takes Its Seat at the U.N." The New York Times.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Lewis, Paul (29 October 1992). "Yugoslavs Face Hard Winter as the Blockade Bites". The New York Times.
- ↑ "The World's Greatest Unreported Hyperinflation". Cato Institute. 7 May 2007.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Summary of the Dayton Peace Agreement on Bosnia-Herzegovina". hrlibrary.umn.edu.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Ozerdem, Alpaslan (27 July 2003). "From a 'terrorist' group to a 'civil defence' corps: The 'transformation' of the Kosovo Liberation Army". International Peacekeeping. pureportal.coventry.ac.uk. 10 (3): 79–101. doi:10.1080/13533310308559337. Unknown parameter
|s2cid=ignored (help) - ↑ "Kosovo Liberation Army | History & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ↑ "S/RES/1244(1999) - E - S/RES/1244(1999)". undocs.org.
- ↑ "Slobodan Milosevic – The Dictator". 5 October 2010.
- ↑ Sudetic, Chuck (24 September 1992). "U.N. Expulsion of Yugoslavia Breeds Defiance and Finger-Pointing". The New York Times.
- ↑ "Yugoslavia consigned to history". BBC News. 4 February 2003.
- ↑ https://www.vreme.com/cms/view.php?id=1061276
- ↑ "Министарство спољних послова Републике Србије". www.mfa.gov.rs.
- ↑ "Montenegro declares independence". BBC News. 4 June 2006.
- ↑ "Recount call in Montenegro vote". BBC News. 22 May 2006.
- ↑ "Yugoslavia | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1)". encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net.
- ↑ Press, Central European University (1 January 2000). The Road to War in Serbia: Trauma and Catharsis. Central European University Press. ISBN 9789639116566 – via Google Books. Search this book on
- ↑ Sabrina P. Ramet. Serbia Since 1989: Politics and Society Under Milošević and After. University of Washington Press, 2005. pp. 55–56.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Steven L. Burg, Paul S. Shoup. The War in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Ethnic Conflict and International Intervention. Armonk, New York, US: M.E. Sharpe, 2000. ISBN 9781563243097 Search this book on . pp. 72–73.
- ↑ "UN suspends former Yugoslavia". The Independent. 23 September 1992.
- ↑ "Bosnian war News, Research and Analysis". The Conversation.
- ↑ Engelberg, Stephen (1 September 1991). "Carving Out a Greater Serbia". The New York Times.
- ↑ Kifner, John (27 January 1994). "Yugoslav Army Reported Fighting In Bosnia to Help Serbian Forces (Published 1994)" – via NYTimes.com.
- ↑ https://www.aph.gov.au/binaries/library/pubs/rp/1995-96/96rp15.pdf
- ↑ Binder, David (8 April 1992). "U.S. Recognizes 3 Yugoslav Republics as Independent". The New York Times.
- ↑ "Bosnian War | Facts, Summary, & War Crimes". Encyclopedia Britannica.
- ↑ "Greater Serbia: Myth or Plan?". Institute for War and Peace Reporting.
- ↑ https://www.brookings.edu/articles/decision-to-intervene-how-the-war-in-bosnia-ended/
- ↑ Borger, Julian (10 November 2015). "Bosnia's bitter, flawed peace deal, 20 years on". The Guardian.
- ↑ "Dayton Peace Agreement". www.osce.org.
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Economic Sanctions as a Foreign Policy Tool: The Case of Yugoslavia - Milica Delvic". www.gmu.edu.
- ↑ "Security Council Denies Yugoslavia Its U.N. Seat". Los Angeles Times. 20 September 1992.
- ↑ Bonner, Raymond (25 May 1999). "CRISIS IN THE BALKANS: FUEL; Oil Flowing to Yugoslavia Despite NATO's Exertions". The New York Times.
- ↑ Cohen, Roger (30 May 1994). "Embargo Leaves Serbia Thriving". The New York Times.
- ↑ "Đukanovićeva strategija za pripajanje Srpske - Vijesti.me". 12 January 2018. Archived from the original on 12 January 2018.
- ↑ Lewis, Paul (31 May 1992). "U.n. Votes 13-0 for Embargo on Trade with Yugoslavia; Air Travel and Oil Curbed". The New York Times.
- ↑ "SECURITY COUNCIL DECIDES ON PHASED LIFTING OF ARMS EMBARGO AGAINST FORMER YUGOSLAVIA BY VOTE OF 14 TO NONE, WITH RUSSIAN FEDERATION ABSTAINING | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases". www.un.org.
- ↑ "The World's Greatest Unreported Hyperinflation". Cato Institute. 7 May 2007.
- ↑ "German currency leaves its mark across the Balkans". The Christian Science Monitor. 2 March 2000.
- ↑ "Washingtonpost.com: Montenegro Easing Away From Serb Ally". The Washington Post.
- ↑ "Keshilli i Ministrave". 16 March 2012. Archived from the original on 16 March 2012.
- ↑ "Unknown Albanian 'liberation army' claims attacks". Agence France Presse. 17 February 1996.
- ↑ Shay, Shaul (12 July 2017). Islamic Terror and the Balkans. Routledge. ISBN 9781351511384 – via Google Books. Search this book on
- ↑ Abrahams, Fred; Andersen, Elizabeth (27 July 1998). Humanitarian Law Violations in Kosovo. Human Rights Watch. ISBN 9781564321947 – via Google Books. Search this book on
- ↑ Perritt, Henry H. (1 October 2010). Kosovo Liberation Army: The Inside Story of an Insurgency. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252092138 – via Google Books. Search this book on
- ↑ "12/13/00 Committee on the Judiciary - Mutschke Testimony". 26 February 2005. Archived from the original on 26 February 2005.
- ↑ "Articles on KLA-Kosovo-Drugs-Mafia and Fundraising". www.kosovo.net.
- ↑ "CIA Aided Kosovo Guerrilla Army All Along". www.globalpolicy.org.
- ↑ "KLA : From Guerilla Wars to Party Plenums". 14 December 2010.
- ↑ https://www.bundesheer.at/pdf_pool/publikationen/01_kse1_02_tck.pdf
- ↑ Judah, Tim (27 July 2000). The Serbs: History, Myth, and the Destruction of Yugoslavia. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300085079 – via Google Books. Search this book on
- ↑ The KLA had limited active members, as such Yugoslav units could often not find any KLA units throughout their stay in Kosovo
- ↑ "Kosovo Memory Book 1998-2000". 3 June 2012. Archived from the original on 3 June 2012.
- ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). 11 January 2019. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2019.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
- ↑ Bancroft, Ian (24 March 2009). "Ian Bancroft: Nato's bombardment of Serbia was an important precursor to the invasion of Iraq". The Guardian.
- ↑ Clark, Christopher (2012). The Sleepwalkers. How Europe Went To War In 1914 (2012 ed.). London: Allen Lane. pp. 456–457. ISBN 978-0-713-99942-6 Search this book on ..
- ↑ Gidron, Claudio Cordone & Avner (1 July 2000). "Was the Serbian TV station really a legitimate target?". Le Monde diplomatique.
- ↑ Erlanger, Steven (8 June 2000). "Rights Group Says NATO Bombing in Yugoslavia Violated Law". The New York Times.
- ↑ "ZNet Commentary". webarchive.loc.gov.
- ↑ 64.0 64.1 Wren, Christopher S. (29 September 1999). "Yugoslavia Gives NATO $100 Billion Damage Bill". The New York Times.
- ↑ "Opinion | The Kosovo Peace Plan". The New York Times. 4 June 1999.
- ↑ "Washingtonpost.com: Text of Kosovo Peace Plan". The Washington Post.
- ↑ "Seven years since end of NATO bombing". B92.net.
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