Gothic churches
Gothic churches are Christian liturgical buildings built in the Gothic style. Mediaeval western Europeans began to build churches in the Gothic style in the twelfth century AD, and Gothic was the prevailing architectural style of Western Christianity in the Late Middle Ages. First built in France and England, mediaeval Gothic churches were built throughout Europe for the Catholic Church's institutions and adherents. The urban cathedral churches, major monastic churches, and royal chapels were the most elaborate examples, but parish churches were by far the most numerous. Gothic architecture developed as an ecclesiastical architecture and master builders, itinerant stonemasons, and other artists disseminated Gothic design principles and building techniques across Europe. The largest vaulted Gothic churches, built of stone or brick, took decades or centuries to complete. Many existing large churches were rebuilt or part-rebuilt in the Gothic period and afterwards, leaving many with a composite character incorporating multiple phases of construction in different styles.
Gothic church-building is characterized above all by its arches; in contrast with the ancient trabeate classical orders, Gothic is an arcuated architectural language, like Romanesque. The employment of pointed arches distinguished Gothic churches both from Romanesque buildings of earlier centuries and from the standing examples of Ancient Roman and Byzantine architecture, which all used semicircular rounded arches. Gothic churches are recognized by their pointed arch arcades and window lights, often in combination with large exterior buttresses or flying buttresses, rib vaults, and unprecedentedly large windows with tracery and stained glass.
Gothic churches were built in many styles and materials, with various stylistic types and chronological phases identified by modern scholars. Many regional styles of Gothic church existed and co-existed with international fashions, and there were a variety of different types of church for which the Gothic style was adapted. Generally though, Gothic churches were built both longer and taller than they were broad, often to a cruciform floor plan. Like other churches, Gothic churches' altars were normally at the east end and the entrance at the west; the two (or more) transepts on either side of the nave extending towards the north and south. Since the entrance was usually at the west end, that front became the most highly elaborated side, with decorative or sculptural ornamentation often richest on the west front, where monumental doorways and towers typically were. Great height was accentuated with the spires, steeples, pinnacles, and flèches that adorned the roofs and skylines of many Gothic buildings. The spire of Lincoln Cathedral made it the tallest human construction yet, the first ever to exceed the Great Pyramid of Giza, but it was later destroyed; from the 16th century until the completion of the Washington Monument the spires of various churches marked the tallest buildings in the world.
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History
Netherlands
From the beginning of the 11th century until the twelfth century the Netherlands broadly followed Germany's architecture. Later, a regional variation on the French Gothic style emerged, as well as a distinct tradition of building with brick for less distinguished buildings and stone for churches and major civic constructions.[1] Politically, the Netherlands was spilt between the Kingdom of France's County of Flanders and the Holy Roman Empire's Duchy of Brabant; the river Scheldt divided the two.[2]
The four-storey elevation of the early 12th century Romanesque nave of the cathedral at Tournai influenced the early Gothic churches of France in the twelfth century; in the later 12th century additions to Tournai Cathedral were influenced by the rounded transepts of Noyon Cathedral, with which Tournai shared a diocesan bishop until 1146.[3] In the thirteenth century (1242-1255) its chancel was rebuilt in the French Gothic style; the best example in the region.[3] Tournai's quarries produced both decorative and building stone, which was exported in a ready-carved form as far as England by the 12th century; numerous architectural features like columns and capitals were exported prefabricated.[3] Tournai fonts exist in many churches of northwestern Europe.
The Scheldt Gothic style was also exported from Tournai, spreading to Ghent and along the coast.[4] Scheldt Gothic was intermediate between Romanesque and Gothic, lacking vertical accents, and while the arcade was of pointed arches, the triforium of was of rounded ones. Towers over their crossings were usually octagonal, while a passage run around the exterior of the clerestory. Small towers or turrets containing stairs flanked the roof gable at the church end.[4] Saint Nicholas Church, Ghent is a major 12th and 13th century example, as is the Church of Our Lady of Pamele at Oudenaarde, begun in 1234.[4] Two major abbeys existed at Ghent, one of these, St Bavo's, is now the cathedral church of Ghent.[5] It demonstrates the mixed brick and stone construction typical of the Netherlands.
In the north Netherlands, brick was reintroduced as a building material for churches in the later twelfth century, and brick architecture was characteristic of churches in Groningen, Friesland and East Frisia.[6] Large bricks were produced in imitation of the blocks of Eifel tuff imported by the Romans for the fortifications of the limes Germanicus and used as spolia thereafter; the Romans had earlier faced the same paucity of building stone that drove the move towards brick in the twelfth century. Later, bricks were made of a more manageable size.[6] The church of Loosduinen Abbey, close to The Hague, was once a funerary church of the Counts of Holland; only its Gothic tower and nave survive. Earlier churches connected with the counts no longer survive: Rijnsburg Abbey and Egmond Abbey.[6] Churches in the Meuse valley were often comparable with the examples in northern Italy and the Rhineland.[5] The Gothic Munsterkerk in Roermond was a Cicstercian nunnery's church where Gerard III, Count of Guelders and his wife were buried.[6]
After the destruction of the 11th century Romanesque cathedral at Utrecht in a fire in 1253, the St Martin's Cathedral was reconstructed in a grand Gothic style with sculptural decoration recalling contemporary 13th century France.[7] The cathedral's tower (1321-1380) was the most influential feature, but the cathedral's design was not imitated locally, taking a long time to complete.[7] In Zeeland and Holland, Scheldt Gothic was the prevailing style.[8]
In the mid-14th century, the Duchy of Brabant produced a number of important churches influenced by Rheims and Amiens cathedrals; Brabant also produced finished stone carvings from the Brabant quarries, including column, capitals, and whole façades.[8] St Rumbold's Church at Mechlin, now St Rumbold's Cathedral, was begun in the 13th century but acquired its Brabantine Gothic aspect between the 14th and 16th centuries, while the Church of Our Lady, Antwerp - now a cathedral - was also built during same period as a parish church. During the fourteenth century, the Church of St John the Evangelist, 's-Hertogenbosch - also now a cathedral - was extended and took on a rich Gothic appearance, finishing in around 1530.[8]
Crusader States
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After the First Crusade, the "Franks" - the Western European Crusaders - established the Crusader States, known as Outremer. Franks tended to settle in areas already inhabited predominantly by local Christians, including areas populated by Melkites and Jacobites, Armenians, Georgians, Copts, Maronites, or Byzantine Greeks. Most Crusader churches are accordingly in these areas. In the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the population was mainly Christian around Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and western Galilee, and majority Muslim around Nablus and Tyre.[9] 900-901 Five hundred different Latin Church churches were built or altered in the Kingdom of Jerusalem, including chapels, parish churches, cathedrals, canonries, friaries, and monasteries.[10] The military orders of Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller were also patrons of many building works, both in Outremer and in western Europe.[10] The churches' forms were influenced by the architectural forms of the Franks' home nations.[11]
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Gothic influence is most visible in the 12th century and was particularly evident in the 13th.[12] In the 11th century the usual style in Europe was Romanesque, characterised by round arches. In 1099 when the Crusader States were established, the local variation of Islamic architecture was recognisable by its pointed arches; accordingly crusader churches were "invariably" built with pointed arches.[13] Sometimes they were roofed with domes carried on pendentives and imported decorative features from Syrian-Byzantine and early Islamic architecture, but most were western European in style, though Byzantine painting and mosaics were common.[13]
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was given a Gothic rib-vault in the 1160s-70s, contemporary with the Cathedral of Sebastia, whose ruins are now in the Nabi Yahya Mosque.[12] The ruined crusader Church of the Saviour at Jacob's Well was also a Gothic construction of the later 12th century.[12] 13th century remains from the Kingdom of Jerusalem's capital at Acre after the fall of Jerusalem, and from Sidon and Atlit show that complicated Gothic stonework was employed in the building of large traceried windows and ribbed vaults resting on pilasters composed of "triplet" shafts and crocket capitals.[12] The 13th century cathedral at Nicosia (1209-) and the 14th century cathedral of St Nicholas at Famagusta (begun c.1300) on Cyprus both echoed the blend of Syrian and European styles seen in the other Crusader States.[12] Two other churches in Famagusta are notable crusader Gothic examples: Church of Sts Peter and Paul and Church of St Nicholas of the Greeks.[12]
The interior of St Nicholas Cathedral was austere, as on the Syrian mainland but the west front's tracery was copied from the example of Cologne Cathedral.[14] Construction halted between 1308 and 1311, when six aisle bays were finished; eighteen more were constructed in the early 14th century and work ceased altogether about 1350.[14] The aisle windows' and the clerestory's tracery is of French Rayonnant style and the east end is polygonal, like a Continental chevet. By the time of the west front's construction and the beginning of its towers, the inspiration was taken taken instead from late 15th century Rhineland examples at the cathedrals at Cologne and Strasbourg.[15]
In the 12th century the building traditions of most of Outremer was dominated by masonry and flat roofs, owing to a scarcity of timber in the region. Most masonry structures were of limestone, with a hard pinkish limestone from Bethlehem used in place of marble. In western Galilee and Syria black basalt was available and sometimes set against the paler limestone for contrast. On the coast, local marine sandstone (kurkar) was employed. Marble and granite spolia from Roman and Byzantine buildings were also reused; otherwise fine stone or marble was little built with.[10]
Importance of cathedrals and great churches
While many secular buildings exist from the Late Middle Ages, it is in the buildings of cathedrals and great churches that Gothic architecture displays its pertinent structures and characteristics to the fullest advantage.[citation needed] A Gothic cathedral or abbey was, prior to the 20th century, generally the landmark building in its town, rising high above all the domestic structures and often surmounted by one or more towers and pinnacles and perhaps tall spires.[16][page needed][17][page needed] Each cathedral served as a regional religious centre for its surrounding diocese, and with the large town churches, was a focus of community and civic pride.[citation needed]
It is in the architecture of these grand Gothic churches that a unique combination of existing technologies established a new building style. Those technologies were the pointed arch, the ribbed vault, and the buttress.[citation needed]
Interior
Chancel screen
In the Late Middle Ages, the chancel was usually separated from the rest of the church by a chancel screen. This excluded lay worshippers from the area of the high altar, at the liturgical east end, from the nave to the west and mostly blocked the view of the chancel (or choir). Often elaborately decorated with painting, carving, tracery, lattice-work (cancelli), brattishing, and other ornaments. Some carried galleries accessible by stairs.[20] Sometimes a pulpitum - a large stone screen - was present instead, particularly in monastic churches, or as well as a chancel-screen.[21] The choir-stalls were typically immediately to the east of the chancel screen and invisible from most of the nave. Only the high altar was typically visible through the screen, for the congregants to participate in the adoration of the host.[citation needed] On the Iberian peninsula, a metalwork grille - a reja - also divided the laypeople from the choir and clergy in the chancel.[citation needed]
A rood screen was also often present, as well as, or instead of, a chancel screen. These could be elaborate carved screens or a simpler rood beam; their purpose was to support a large crucifix, called a rood. Like the pulpitum typical of larger churches, rood screens often had galleries or rood-lofts accessed by stairs and were used for readings and recitations. Sometimes a rood-altar visible from the nave was attached, like in Glasgow Cathedral's stone pulpitum. Tracery, painted panelling, projecting coving, and a central rood-arch comprised the timber rood-screens, while atop them was the scene of the Crucifixion, with the Virgin mother and St John the Divine on either side.[22]
Like the iconostasis screen of Byzantine architecture, (where usually St John the Baptist and the Theotokos flanked a Christ Pantocrator) the rood- and chancel-screens were often richly decorated with depictions of the saints and Apostles.[citation needed] The elements of the interior most visible to the lay congregants, the chancel-screens were often the most elaborate features of the Gothic church. Just below the crossing at the centre of the church, the rood sometimes gave its name to the crossing's tower, spire, or flèche above.[22] The chancel-arch - the arch of the crossing above the chancel-screen - was often decorated on the side facing the nave and the lay worshippers. The Doom was a common subject, depicting the Last Judgement, a theme also found in altarpieces and stained glass.[20] These murals typically showed a Christ in judgement at the apex of the arch with the elect on the proper right - the north side of the arch - and the damned to the left (south).[23] Often, on the roof above the chancel arch was a gable where the height of the roof changed from the nave's roof to the chancel's; here the Sancte-cote was often positioned, a bell-cote containing the sanctus bell, rung during the Eucharistic liturgy.[20][24]
In larger churches, the chancel's screen was pierced by doors at each side, leading to a pair of chancel-aisles, running parallel to the choir, which joined together behind the altar to form an ambulatory, from which opened side-chapels or feretories - spaces for altars containing relics (fereters).[20][25] This allowed lay pilgrims and worshippers to access the ambulatory chapels at the far east end without entering the choir and sanctuary around the high altar.
Plan, elevation and parts of a Gothic Cathedral
Plan
Most large Gothic churches and many smaller parish churches are of the Latin cross (or "cruciform") plan, with a long nave making the body of the church, a transverse arm called the transept and, beyond it, an extension which may be called the choir, chancel or presbytery. There are several regional variations on this plan. The area where the nave and transept meet is called the crossing, and in England is often surmounted by a stone tower, as at Salisbury Cathedral and York Minster, visible on a ground-plan by the sturdy piers that support the tower.[citation needed] (see below)
The nave is generally flanked on either side by aisles, usually single as at York Minster and Florence Cathedral but sometimes double as at Bourges and Cologne Cathedrals.[citation needed] (see plans below). Aisles may extend along the sides of the transepts as well, as at Cologne, Amiens Cathedral and York Minster.(see plans) In the South of France there is often a single wide nave and no aisles, as at Saint-Bertrand-de-Comminges and Albi Cathedrals.[citation needed]
In some churches with double aisles, or additional rows of chapels between the buttresses as at Notre-Dame de Paris, the transept does not project beyond the aisles (See plan).[citation needed] In English cathedrals, transepts tend to project boldly and there may be two of them, as at Salisbury and Lincoln Cathedrals. The double transepts are to provide extra chapels, in lieu of the apsidal chapels found in French cathedrals (See Salisbury plan).[citation needed]
The eastern arm shows considerable diversity. In France and Germany, the eastern end is generally polygonal and surrounded by a continuation of the choir aisle called an ambulatory. Surrounding the ambulatory may be a ring of chapels called a "chevet".[citation needed] In England the eastern arm is generally long and may have two distinct sections- choir and presbytery. It is almost always square ended with a cliff-like exterior face. Often there is a projecting Lady Chapel, dedicated to the Virgin Mary, as at Salisbury.[26][page needed][27][page needed][28][page needed] In Italy, the eastern projection beyond the transept is usually a shallow chapel or sometimes an apse.[citation needed]. See section below
The ground-plans of the cathedrals show not only the larger parts of the building, developed for Catholic liturgy - the nave, aisles, transept, choir and chapels - but also reveal that each building contains a pattern of regular divisions called "bays". These bays or compartments are square, rectangular and sometimes trapezoidal, and are defined by the positions of the piers, columns and attached shafts that support the arcades and the overhead vaults. While internally the divisions are created by the locations of the vertical members, externally, the bays can be determined by the positions of the buttresses.[29]
Other elements that are visible on the plans are the locations of towers on the west fronts, porches such as those at Bourges and Salisbury, and the octagonal Chapter House at York Minster.
Rouen Cathedral
Dunblane Cathedral
Elevation
The most common elevation for a Gothic cathedral or large abbey church is that of the architectural form known as the "basilica". This term, used architecturally, does not have any ecclesiastical or spiritual significance such as is associated with Catholic basilicas that have been designated by the pope as a church of great significance, e.g. the Basilica of St Peter, in Rome, or the Basilica of Our Lady of the Rosary at Lourdes. (see Papal Basilica and Minor Basilica)[citation needed]
Architecturally, a basilica is a church that has a longitudinal nave, with a lower aisle on each side, separated by rows of columns or piers, and generally with windows let into that part of the nave that rises above the outer roof of the aisles. This upper section is called the clerestory. This architectural form is so named because it was commonly used by ancient Roman builders as the structure for secular basilicas used as halls for meetings, markets and as places of justice. Early Christian churches such as Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, and San Apollinare in Classe have this form, which was adopted by Romanesque builders for their great abbeys and cathedrals, across Europe, such as Durham Cathedral, Saint-Etienne, Caen, and Monreale Cathedral.[citation needed]
During the Gothic period, most cathedrals were built with a single aisle on each side of the nave, such as Salisbury Cathedral, but some had double aisles with the outer lower than the inner, such as Bourges Cathedral. In the South of France cathedrals are sometimes just a single high, wide hall, with tall windows but no aisles, and the lower stage giving a robust fortified appearance, such as Albi Cathedral. Gothic churches of the Germanic tradition, like St Stephen of Vienna, often have nave and aisles of similar height, without clerestory, and are called Hallenkirche.[citation needed]
Internally, the nave and choir are usually divided horizontally into three stages, the arcade, the triforium gallery and the clerestorey.[citation needed] This arrangement is usual in England where it can be seen at Salisbury, Lincoln, and Ely.[citation needed]
In some French Cathedrals, such as Laon and the nave of Rouen, there is a fourth stage, a shallow tribune gallery between the triforium and the clerestory.[citation needed] In the transepts of Notre-Dame, the wall above the triforium gallery is pierced with rose windows. In later Gothic cathedrals and abbey churches, the vertical members in the tracery of galleries and clerestory may merge into a single decorative unit where the stages are present but not clearly defined, as at Saint-Ouen at Rouen and the choir of Gloucester Cathedral in England. [citation needed]
In the Gothic cathedrals and abbey churches of Italy, triforium galleries are most often found in churches influenced by the architecture of Normandy, and were used at abbeys of women, as a space for the nuns to attend services.[citation needed] Elsewhere, many churches such as Florence Cathedral and the Abbey Church of Santa Maria Novella, had an interior elevation of two stages, the arcade and clerestory. [citation needed]
West front
The façade of a large church or cathedral, properly referred to as the West Front, is generally designed to create a powerful impression on the approaching worshipper, demonstrating both the might of God and the might of the institution that it represents. One of the best known and most typical of such west fronts is that of Notre-Dame de Paris.[citation needed] To emphasise its importance, the west front may be of a powerful design, with towers, imposing portals, jutting buttresses, gables, windows and an array of sculpture.[citation needed]
Central to the west front is the main portal, often flanked by additional doors, after the manner of Suger's west front at the Basilica of Saint-Denis.[citation needed] In England, the lateral doors may be present but relatively insignificant. In the arch of the central door, particularly in France, the tympanum, is often a significant piece of sculpture, most frequently Christ in Majesty or the Last Judgment.[citation needed] If there is a central doorjamb or a trumeau, then it frequently bears a statue of Jesus or the Madonna and Child if the dedication is to Mary.[citation needed] Figures in niches set into the mouldings around the portals.
Above the main portal there is a large window which lights the nave. In France and Spain this is generally a rose window as at Notre-Dame de Paris and Burgos Cathedral.[citation needed] In Italy there is generally an untraceried ocular window as at Santa Maria Novella.[citation needed] In England, rose windows are rare and the west end is generally dominated by a single very large traceried window as at York Minster and Canterbury, while some Early English fronts retain rows of lancet windows as at Salisbury and Ripon Cathedrals.[citation needed]
The west front of most French cathedrals and many English, Spanish and German cathedrals have two towers, which, particularly in France, express an enormous diversity of form and decoration.[26][30][page needed] In Germany and Eastern Europe there may be a single tall tower at the western end as at Freiburg Münster.[citation needed] In England, where the principle tower is usually over the crossing, the west front may be framed by large turrets,[citation needed]
In Italy, with the exception of Milan Cathedral, the form of a Gothic west front is less strongly architectonic and sculptural than in other parts of Europe.[citation needed] The underlying structure may be brick, rather than stone, overlaid with a veneer of polychrome marble, and ornamented with marble sculpture and coloured mosaics as at Siena and Orvieto Cathedrals.[citation needed]
East end
The eastern end of Gothic cathedrals and great churches shows significant regional variation. See ground-plans, above.
In France the eastern end is generally polygonal and surrounded by a continuation of the choir aisle called an ambulatory. Surrounding the ambulatory may be a ring of chapels called a "chevet".[citation needed] In many cases the chevet comprises projecting apses, as at the Abbey St Denis and Amiens Cathedral where there are seven.[citation needed] This is also the case at Cologne Cathedral in Germany and Prague Cathedral in the Czech Republic, while Chartres Cathedral has three and the Basilica of Saint Anthony, Padua, had nine radiating square chapels.[citation needed]
In England the eastern arm is generally long and may have two distinct sections - choir and presbytery. The building usually terminates in a square and a cliff-like exterior face as at York Minster and Lincoln Cathedral.[citation needed] Often there is a projecting Lady Chapel, dedicated to the Virgin Mary, as at Salisbury, Wells, and Ripon Cathedrals.[26][page needed][27][page needed][28][page needed]
In Italy, the eastern projection beyond the transept is usually a shallow chapel, as at Santa Maria Novella. At Florence Cathedral there is a polygonal apse, identical in size and shape to the transepts, radiating from the dome. Milan Cathedral has a polygonal east end. The Gothic cathedrals at Siena and Orvieto are both constrained by their mountainous sites to have square ends.[citation needed].
Towers and spires
Great churches, abbeys and cathedrals of the Gothic period generally have towers.[citation needed] The position, construction and height of these towers is as subject to variety as the nature of the west front, and was already well established by the beginning of the Gothic period.[citation needed]
In many parts of Europe, the location of twin towers on the west front of cathedrals and abbey churches was usual in the Romanesque period and may be seen at Abbaye les Hommes, Caen; Southwell Cathedral, England; Lisbon Cathedral, Portugal; Magdeburg Cathedral, Germany; Cefalu Cathedral, Sicily, and Lébény Abbey Church, Hungary.[citation needed] Romanesque churches in the Rhineland often had many towers of different shapes, as did the Abbey Church of Cluny.[citation needed] In mainland Italy, churches generally had one tower and that was freestanding from the building, sometimes at a distance, as at Pisa Cathedral.[citation needed] In Norman England, the crossing of large churches was often marked by a large tower, while abbey churches and cathedrals might have western towers as well.[citation needed] Smaller churches, across Europe often had a single tower at the west.[citation needed] The various configurations of church and tower of the Romanesque period continued into the Gothic, but with a greater emphasis on height.
In France, the plan for the Basilica of Saint-Denis called for two towers of equal height on the west front, and this plan was copied during the Gothic era at Notre-Dame de Paris, with towers of 69 meters (226 ft) in height, and at other cathedrals of northern France such as Laon, Reims and Amiens.[31] Some of these churches were given towers over the crossing and transepts as well, with Rouen having three large towers, Laon having five, and the Romanesque Abbaey les Hommes, Caen, receiving additional towers during the Gothic period, until they numbered nine.[citation needed] French Gothic towers are sometimes topped with spires. Chartres Cathedral has two on the western towers, of different dates and very different construction.[citation needed] That on the south is the tallest masonry spire of the 12th century, while that on the north is a highly elaborate Flamboyant design.[citation needed] The irregularity seen at Chartres also occurs at Rouen where there is a central tower in addition to the western towers. This tower displays another distinctly French feature, a delicate openwork flèche made of wood covered with lead.[citation needed]
Openwork spires of stone, sometimes of great height, were popular in the Flamboyant period, occurring singly at Strasbourg Cathedral, Burgos Cathedral, Freiburg Cathedral, Stefansdom, Vienna; and also at Cologne Cathedral and Ulm Minster, both designed in the mediaeval period but not realised until the late 19th century.[citation needed]
In England, during the Gothic era, there was a continuing fashion for three towers, with the largest being that over the crossing. This arrangement is seen at Canterbury, Wells, Lincoln, York, Lichfield. and Durham Cathedrals.[citation needed] In England, wherever the ground was considered stable, the central tower was surmounted by a spire. Like the south spire of Chartres Cathedral, English spires are often constructed of masonry. The earliest is the comparatively small spire at Oxford Cathedral.[citation needed] The tallest mediaeval masonry spire is that built in the 13th century at Salisbury Cathedral (123 m - 404 ft).[citation needed] Others exist at Norwich and Chichester Cathedrals, while Lichfield Cathedral has three. Other cathedrals had tall spires of wooden construction sheathed with lead or copper. Two of these, on the central towers of Lincoln Cathedral and Old St Paul's Cathedral surpassed 550 feet in height and were the tallest structures prior to the 19th century.[citation needed]
England's Gothic parish churches and collegiate churches generally have a single western tower.[citation needed] A number of the finest churches have masonry spires, with those of St James Church, Louth; St Wulfram's Church, Grantham; St Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, and St Michael's, Coventry, all exceeding 85 metres (280 feet) in height.[32][page needed]
In mainland Italy, the tower, if present, is sometimes detached from the building, as at Florence Cathedral, or projects from the side of the building as at the Basilica of Santa Croce. In Italy there is no defined stylistic break between Romanesque and Gothic, as the architects had a seemingly pragmatic approach to the use of round and pointed arches.[citation needed] Towers of apparently Romanesque form often appear in conjunction with otherwise Gothic structures.[citation needed] They tend to have graded series of openings in the Romanesque manner like the tower of the Badia Fiorentina. Some, like the tower at Santa Croce, have large openings of Gothic form and are surmounted by spires.[citation needed]
In addition to towers and spires, great mediaeval churches, may have several other architectural forms, rising above the roof-line, particularly over the crossing. These include the octagonal tower at Burgos Cathedral, the wooden octagonal tower at Ely Cathedral and the octagonal dome of Florence Cathedral, conceived in the late Gothic period and engineered by the Renaissance architect, Filippo Brunelleschi.[citation needed]
Portals and the tympanum
Early Gothic Cathedrals traditionally have their main entrance at the western end of the church, opposite the choir.[citation needed] Based on the model of the Basilica of Saint-Denis and Notre-Dame de Paris, there are usually three doorways with pointed arches.[citation needed] During the Romanesque period cathedral and abbey portals were enriched by sculpture, and a carved figure often occupied the central jamb of the door.[citation needed] The main pictorial representation occupied the tympanum, the panel between the arch and the lintel of the door.[citation needed] The subject was usually the Last Judgement.[citation needed] This arrangement continued into the Gothic era.[citation needed]
One of the earliest portals of the Gothic period was that at Chartres Cathedral, where the three portals of the west front show three different aspects of the Life of Christ.[citation needed] At Amiens, the tympanum over the central portal depicted the Last Judgement, the right portal showed the Coronation of the Virgin, and the left portal showed the lives of saints who were important in the diocese. This set a pattern of complex iconography which was followed at other cathedrals.[33]
The iconography of the sculptural decoration on the façade was not left to the artists. An edict of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 had set the rules: "The composition of religious images is not to be left to the inspiration of artists; it is derived from the principles put in place by the Catholic Church and religious tradition. Only the art belongs to the artist; the composition belongs to the Fathers."[34]
In France, the transept fronts were often elaborately treated like the west fronts, having rose windows and significant portals, sometimes, as at Chartres Cathedral, with large porches.[citation needed]
The portals and interiors were much more colourful than they are today.[citation needed] Each sculpture on the tympanum and in the interior was painted by the peintre imagier, or image painter, following a system of colours codified in the 12th century; yellow, called gold, symbolized intelligence, grandeur and virtue; white, called argent, symbolized purity, wisdom, and correctness; black, or sable, meant sadness, but also will; green, or sinople, represented hope, liberty and joy; red or gueules (see gules) meant charity or victory; blue or azure symbolized the sky, faithfulness and perseverance; and violet, or pourpre, was the colour of royalty and sovereignty.[35]
Architectural character
Height
A characteristic of Gothic church architecture is its height, both absolute and in proportion to its width, the verticality suggesting an aspiration to Heaven.[citation needed] A section of the main body of a Gothic church usually shows the nave as considerably taller than it is wide.[citation needed] In England the proportion is sometimes greater than 2:1, while the greatest proportional difference achieved is at Cologne Cathedral with a ratio of 3.6:1.[citation needed] The highest internal vault is at Beauvais Cathedral at 48 metres (157 ft).[26]
Externally, towers and spires are characteristic of Gothic churches both great and small, the number and positioning being one of the greatest variables in Gothic architecture. In Italy, the tower, if present, is almost always detached from the building, as at Florence Cathedral, and is often from an earlier structure. In France and Spain, two towers on the front is the norm. In England, Germany and Scandinavia this is often the arrangement, but an English cathedral may also be surmounted by an enormous tower at the crossing. Smaller churches usually have just one tower, but this may also be the case at larger buildings, such as Salisbury Cathedral or Ulm Minster, which has the tallest spire in the world,[36] slightly exceeding that of Lincoln Cathedral, the tallest which was actually completed during the mediaeval period, at 160 metres (520 ft).
Vertical emphasis
The pointed arch lends itself to a suggestion of height. This appearance is characteristically further enhanced by both the architectural features and the decoration of the building.[28][page needed]
On the exterior, the verticality is emphasised in a major way by the towers and spires and in a lesser way by strongly projecting vertical buttresses, by narrow half-columns called attached shafts which often pass through several storeys of the building, by long narrow windows, vertical mouldings around doors and figurative sculpture which emphasises the vertical and is often attenuated.[citation needed] The roof-line, gable ends, buttresses and other parts of the building are often terminated by small pinnacles, Milan Cathedral being an extreme example in the use of this form of decoration.[citation needed]
On the interior of the building attached shafts often sweep unbroken from floor to ceiling and meet the ribs of the vault, like a tall tree spreading into branches. The verticals are generally repeated in the treatment of the windows and wall surfaces. In many Gothic churches, particularly in France, and in the Perpendicular period of English Gothic architecture, the treatment of vertical elements in gallery and window tracery creates a strongly unifying feature that counteracts the horizontal divisions of the interior structure.[28][page needed]
Light
Expansive interior light has been a feature of Gothic cathedrals since the first structure was opened.[citation needed] The metaphysics of light in the Middle Ages led to clerical belief in its divinity and the importance of its display in holy settings. Much of this belief was based on the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius, a sixth-century mystic whose book De Coelesti Hierarchia was popular among monks in France.[citation needed] Pseudo-Dionysius held that all light, even light reflected from metals or streamed through windows, was divine.[citation needed] To promote such faith, the abbot in charge of the Saint-Denis church on the north edge of Paris, the Abbot Suger, encouraged architects remodelling the building to make the interior as bright as possible.[citation needed]
Ever since the remodelled Basilica of Saint-Denis opened in 1144, Gothic architecture has featured expansive windows, such as at Sainte-Chapelle, York Minster, Gloucester Cathedral. The increase in size between windows of the Romanesque and Gothic periods is related to the use of the ribbed vault, and in particular, the pointed ribbed vault which channelled the weight to a supporting shaft with less outward thrust than a semi-circular vault. Walls did not need to be so weighty.[27][page needed][28][page needed]
A further development was the flying buttress which arched externally from the springing of the vault across the roof of the aisle to a large buttress pier projecting well beyond the line of the external wall.[citation needed] These piers were often surmounted by a pinnacle or statue, further adding to the downward weight, and counteracting the outward thrust of the vault and buttress arch as well as stress from wind loading.[citation needed]
The internal columns of the arcade with their attached shafts, the ribs of the vault and the flying buttresses, with their associated vertical buttresses jutting at right-angles to the building, created a stone skeleton. Between these parts, the walls and the infill of the vaults could be of lighter construction. Between the narrow buttresses, the walls could be opened up into large windows.[26][page needed]
Through the Gothic period, thanks to the versatility of the pointed arch, the structure of Gothic windows developed from simple openings to immensely rich and decorative sculptural designs. The windows were very often filled with stained glass which added a dimension of colour to the light within the building, as well as providing a medium for figurative and narrative art.[28][page needed]
Evolving styles
Between the dedication of the choir at the Abbey of St Denis, Paris, in 1144 and the completion of Henry VII's Chapel at Westminster Abbey in 1519, there were nearly 400 years of stylistic development in Gothic architecture. Nowhere was this more manifest that in the building of cathedrals and the great churches of abbeys, colleges and prosperous towns.[citation needed]
While the plan and elevation of the various types of Gothic ecclesiastical architecture remained consistently linked to purpose and to regional preferences, all the other elements developed, generally towards greater complexity, over the decades.[citation needed] The piers, the arcades, the galleries, the vaults and the portals, all evolved. The evolution was largely linked to and dependent upon the structural and ornamental flexibility of the pointed arch.[citation needed]
This development is traditionally divided into periods or styles according to the system of the 19th century French archaeologist Arcisse de Caumont.[37] The periods are generally called Early Gothic (1137-1180), High Gothic (1180-1230), Rayonnant Gothic (1230-1350 and Flamboyant Gothic (1350-1530). These terms apply to the Gothic architecture of France and to those countries where the influence of French Gothic spread. These styles did not, however, progress at the same rate, or in the same way in every country.
In England, the reconstruction of Westminster Abbey and the east end of Canterbury Cathedral were both influenced by French Gothic, with the architect at Canterbury being William of Sens.[citation needed] Wells Cathedral, however, takes a completely different direction to French Gothic, introducing an unprecedented use of fluted mouldings, and other decorative innovations.[citation needed] Salisbury Cathedral and the nave of Lincoln are also very different to the French prototypes.[citation needed] Hence, the styles of English Gothic are referred to as Early English (or Lancet) Gothic (c. 1180–1275), Geometric Decorated and Flamboyant Decorated Gothic, (c. 1275–1380); and Perpendicular Gothic, (c. 1380–1520), after the system proposed by Thomas Rickman.[38][page needed]
One of the indicators of style is the nature of the windows and doors, and their decorative treatment.[citation needed] This is strongly associated with and affected by the type of arches used within the particular building. The Gothic styles, Lancet, Geometric, Rayonnant, Flamboyant and Perpendicular, affected all the various forms of architectonic decoration within the church - arcading, niches, shrines, wooden panelling, furniture of all sorts, reliquaries, vessels, and vestments.[citation needed]
Arches, windows and tracery
Early or Lancet Gothic
The simplest shape of a Gothic window is a long opening with a pointed arch known in England as the lancet. Lancet windows may be used singly, as in the nave of Lincoln Cathedral, or grouped, as in the nave of Salisbury Cathedral where they are in two in the aisles and threes in the clerestory. Because large lancet windows, such as those lighting the aisles of a cathedral, may be wide in comparison to a single light in a traceried window, they often have armatures of wood or iron to support the glass. The arch of a lancet opening is often equilateral, but sometimes is much more acute, and when employed in the arcade of a choir apse, such as at Westminster Abbey, adds to the emphasis of height.[citation needed]
The simple shape of the lancet arch may appear in Early Gothic buildings on openings of all types, doorways, niches, arcades, including galleries; and belfry openings.[citation needed]
The use of lancet windows is found in the Early Gothic architecture of France, at the Abbey of St Denis, Sens and Senlis cathedrals. At Chartres and Laon Cathedrals lancet windows are grouped beneath the rose windows. Tall narrow lancets are also found in radiating groups in the chancel apses of some cathedrals, such as Chartres.[citation needed] It is common in France for lancet windows to be used in smaller, narrower spaces, such as the chapels of a chevet, while traceries windows are used in the clerestory.[citation needed]
The style Lancet Gothic is known in England as Early English Gothic, with Salisbury Cathedral being the prime example. York Minster has a group of lancet windows each fifty feet high and still containing ancient glass. They are known as the Five Sisters.[26][page needed][39][page needed] Wells Cathedral is notable for the continuous rows of lancet openings that make up the triforiun galleries. Lancet windows are used extensively in the Gothic churches of Italy, including Florence Cathedral and in the Brick Gothic churches of Germany and Poland.[citation needed]
Geometric Gothic (England)
The Equilateral Arch lends itself to filling with tracery of simple equilateral, circular and semi-circular forms. In France, windows of clerestorys, and other larger windows were commonly divided into two lights, with some simple Geometric tracery above, a circle or a cinquefoil or sexfoil. This style of window remained popular without great change until after 1300.[citation needed]
In England there was a much greater variation in the design of tracery that evolved to fill these spaces. The style is known as Geometric Decorated Gothic and can be seen to splendid effect at many English cathedrals and abbey churches, where both the eastern and the western terminations of the building may be occupied by a single large window such as the east window at Lincoln and the west window at Worcester Cathedral. Windows of complex design and of three or more lights or vertical sections, are often designed by overlapping two or more equilateral arches springing from the vertical mullions.[39][page needed]
Rayonnant Gothic
Rayonnant Gothic is the term used particularly to described the style that produced the great rose windows of France. These windows deck not only the west fronts of cathedrals, but often, as at Notre-Dame de Paris, the transept gables as well. It is common that although the transepts of French Cathedrals do not project strongly, they are given visual importance almost equal to the west front, including large decorated portals and a rose window. Particularly fine examples are at Notre-Dame and Chartres Cathedral.[citation needed]
Flamboyant Gothic
The Flamboyant Arch is one that is drafted from four points, the upper part of each main arc turning upwards into a smaller arc and meeting at a sharp, flame-like point.[dubious ] These arches create a rich and lively effect when used for window tracery and surface decoration. The form is structurally weak and has very rarely been used for large openings except when contained within a larger and more stable arch. It is not employed at all for vaulting.[26][page needed]
Some of the most beautiful and famous traceried windows of Europe employ this type of tracery. It can be seen at St Stephen's Vienna, Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, at the Cathedrals of Limoges and Rouen in France. In England the most famous examples are the West Window of York Minster with its design based on the Sacred Heart, the extraordinarily rich nine-light East Window at Carlisle Cathedral and the exquisite East window of Selby Abbey.[39][page needed][27][page needed]
Doorways surmounted by Flamboyant mouldings are very common in both ecclesiastical and domestic architecture in France. They are much rarer in England. A notable example is the doorway to the Chapter Room at Rochester Cathedral.[26][page needed][39][page needed]
The style was much used in England for wall arcading and niches. Prime examples in are in the Lady Chapel at Ely, the Screen at Lincoln and externally on the façade of Exeter Cathedral. In German and Spanish Gothic architecture it often appears as openwork screens on the exterior of buildings. The style was used to rich and sometimes extraordinary effect in both these countries, notably on the famous pulpit in Vienna Cathedral.[30][page needed]
Perpendicular Gothic (England)
The depressed or four-centred arch is much wider than its height and gives the visual effect of having been flattened under pressure. Its structure is achieved by drafting two arcs which rise steeply from each springing point on a small radius and then turn into two arches with a wide radius and much lower springing point.[26][page needed]
This type of arch, when employed as a window opening, lends itself to very wide spaces, provided it is adequately supported by many narrow vertical shafts. These are often further braced by horizontal transoms. The overall effect produces a grid-like appearance of regular, delicate, rectangular forms with an emphasis on the perpendicular. It is also employed as a wall decoration in which arcade and window openings form part of the whole decorative surface.[citation needed]
The style, known as Perpendicular, that evolved from this treatment is specific to England, although very similar to contemporary Spanish style in particular, and was employed to great effect through the 15th century and first half of the 16th as Renaissance styles were much slower to arrive in England than in Italy and France.[26][page needed]
It can be seen notably at the East End of Gloucester Cathedral where the East Window is said to be as large as a tennis court. There are three very famous royal chapels and one chapel-like Abbey which show the style at its most elaborate: King's College Chapel, Cambridge; St George's Chapel, Windsor; Henry VII's Chapel at Westminster Abbey and Bath Abbey.[39][page needed] However very many simpler buildings, especially churches built during the wool boom in East Anglia, are fine examples of the style.[citation needed]
Columns and piers
In France, tall untapered columns were common in the Romanesque period.[citation needed] The use of columns of this type was rare in Norman England, where at Durham, Gloucester and Hereford there were massive circular piers built of masonry, and at Durham, alternating with rectangular piers.[citation needed]
In Early French Gothic architecture, the columns became much more Classical in shape, proportion and the nature of the capital, which was often a modification of the Corinthian capital. Columns of this type were used at the Abbey of Saint-Denis, at Sens, at Notre-Dame and at Canterbury in England. In buildings with sexpartite vaults, they sometimes alternated with piers.[citation needed]
In the Brabantine Gothic architecture of the Holland and Belgium, columns remained part of the style into the 15th century, and have capitals of cabbage leaf foliage.[citation needed]
In France, the column developed in complexity by having a cluster of circular shafts grouped around the central circular core. This is seen a Reims, Amiens and Bourges Cathedrals, and also at Westminster Abbey and Salisbury Cathedral and in Spain at Burgos Cathedral.[citation needed]
The rectangular piers also developed, with attached shafts and mouldings which continue up the wall to support the vault, or into the decorative mouldings of the chancel arch, in a manner that had previously been utilised to decorate the arches of Romanesque portals. The eastern end of the Abbey of Saint-Etienne, Caen, was rebuilt from 1166, with clustered piers. From 1176, Wells Cathedral was constructed with clustered piers throughout. Between the two buildings there is a great difference in the handling of the two. At Caen, the pier remains a decorated rectangular pier, set parallel to the wall surface. The shafts themselves maintain a circular, and classicising form. At Well, the core of the pier appears to have been rotated, and become a lozenge, angle-on to the lie of the arcade. The clusters of shafts are fluting. The capitals are of what is known as "stiff-leaf" foliage, and has a vitality of form different to any other foliage carving of that date.[citation needed]
Complex clustered columns and fluted and shafted piers were subsequently widely adopted, and became part of the vertical visual character of Gothic cathedrals.
Developments in ribbed vaulting
In France the vaults over the high spaces of nave and clerestory, in the Early Gothic period, was sexpartite, spanning two bays of the nave. This resulted in the vaulted space being almost square, and to diagoal ribs being semi-circular. Only the arches of the transverse ribs were pointed. This is the case at Sens, at Notre-Dame de Paris and the Nave of Laon Cathedral.[citation needed]
At Chartres Cathedral, and the choir of Laon Cathedral, however, the vault is in four parts, spans a single bay, is rectangular, and all the ribs are pointed. The quadripartite proved much easier to build because it required less centring. It is also stronger as the compartments are smaller. The quadripartite vault is used in the Early English cathedrals of Salisbury and Wells. It became the standard form of vault which leant itself to further development and elaboration.[citation needed]
In the nave of Lincoln Cathedral the vault acquired extra ribs known as "tiercerons" which meet at a central "ridge rib" running the length of the nave. An additional elaboration, to span the wide nave, was the introduction of intermediate ribs which do not reach the centre of the vault, but join two small "lierne" ribs projecting from the ridge. Other cathedrals with tierceron vaulting are Norwich, and Exeter.[citation needed]
Lierne ribs became a feature of later Gothic design, as at Bristol Cathedral and led the way to elaborate patterns within the vault, including net or "reticular" vaulting and "stellar" vaulting. Stellar vaulting was particularly fashionable in Germany, Eastern Europe and Spain. The use of short ribs lent itself to the introduction of curved and ogee shaped ribs, in the Flamboyant style. Flamboynt vaulting is particularly prevalent in Spain.[citation needed]
In England there are a number of chapter house, notably at Wells, Lincoln and Westminster abbey, where the vault is supported by a single central column from which many ribs radiate in every direction like a palm tree. This also occurs at the high vault behind the altar at Jacobins Church, Toulouse, in France.[citation needed]
A further development was many shallow ribs radiating in a fan shape, so that visually, the appearance of the structural ribs is minimised, and the emphasis is upon the curving surfaces. These fan vaults were used successfully for narrower and lower structures such as the cloister at Gloucester Cathedral and the retrochoir at Peterborough, before being employed on the high vaults at the Chapel of Kings College Cambridge, and even even more elaborate form with pendant lanterns attached, at Henry VII's Chapel at Westminster Abbey.[citation needed]
Stained glass windows
-
Abbey of Saint-Denis, Abbot Suger represented at feet of Virgin Mary (12th century) -
South transept rose window of Chartres Cathedral (1221–1230) -
Detail of the Apocalypse window, Bourges Cathedral, early 13th century -
South Oculus of Canterbury Cathedral. It contains fourteen of the original glass sections from the 12th century -
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One of the most prominent features of Gothic architecture was the use of stained glass window, which steadily grew in height and size and filled cathedrals with light and colour. Historians including Viollet-le-Duc, Focillon, Aubert, and Max Dvořák contended that this is one of the most universal features of the Gothic style.[40]
Religious teachings in the Middle Ages, particularly the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius, a 6th-century mystic whose book, De Coelesti Hierarchia, was popular among monks in France, taught that all light was divine.[41]} When the Abbot Suger ordered the reconstruction of choir of the Basilica of Saint-Denis, he had the builders create seventy windows, admitting sa much light as possible, as the means by which the faithful could be elevated from the material world to the immaterial world.[42]
Many earlier Romanesque churches had stained glass windows, and many had round windows, called oculi, but these windows were necessarily small, due to the thickness of the walls. The primary interior decorations of Romanesque cathedrals were painted murals. In the Gothic period, the improvements in rib vaults and flying buttresses allowed cathedral walls to be higher, thinner and stronger, and windows were consequently considerably larger, The windows of churches in the late Gothic period, such as Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, filled the entire wall between the ribs of stone. Enormous windows were also an important element of York Minster and Gloucester Cathedral.[28][page needed]
The main threat to cathedral windows was the wind; frames had to be extremely strong. The early windows were fit into openings cut into the stone. The small pieces of glass were coloured, and then had the color fixed by baking in an oven. Details such as faces were painted when the glass was cold. The pieces were joined together within lead frames into panels, which were then combined in larger and stronger lead frames. Then the finished window was set into the stone opening. Thin vertical and horizontal bars of iron, called vergettes or barlotierres, were placed inside the window to reinforce the glass against the wind.[43]
The stories told in the glass were usually episodes from the Bible, but they also sometimes illustrated the professions of the guilds which had funded the windows, such as the drapers, stonemasons or the barrel-makers.[44]
Much of the stained glass in Gothic cathedrals today dates from later restorations, but a few cathedrals, notably Chartres Cathedral and Bourges Cathedral, still have many of their original windows.[44]
Sculpture and decoration
The exteriors and interiors of Gothic cathedrals, particularly in France, were lavishly ornamented with sculpture and decoration on religious themes, designed for the great majority of parishioners who could not read. They were described as "Books for the poor."[citation needed] To add to the effect, all of the sculpture on the façades was originally painted and gilded.[45][page needed]
Each feature of the Cathedral had a symbolic meaning. The main portals at Notre-Dame de Paris, for instance, represented the entrance to paradise, with the Last Judgement depicted on the tympanum over the doors, showing Christ surrounded by the apostles, and by the signs of the zodiac, representing the movements of the heavens. The columns below the tympanum are in the form of statues of saints, literally reprinting them as "the pillars of the church."[46] Each saint had his own symbol: a winged lion stood for Saint Mark, an eagle with four wings meant Saint John the Apostle, and a winged bull symbolized Saint Luke. Sculpted angels had specific functions, sometimes as heralds, blowing trumpets, or holding up columns, as guardian angels; or holding crowns of thorns or crosses, as symbols of the crucifixion of Christ, or waving a container with incense, to illustrate their function at the throne of God. Floral and vegetal decoration was also very common, representing the Garden of Eden; grapes represented the wines of Eucharist.[46]
The tympanum over the central portal on the west façade of Notre-Dame de Paris vividly illustrates the Last Judgement, with figures of sinners being led off to hell, and good Christians taken to heaven. The sculpture of the right portal shows the coronation of the Virgin Mary, and the left portal shows the lives of saints who were important to Parisians, particularly Saint Anne, the mother of the Virgin Mary.[33]
The exteriors of cathedrals and other Gothic churches were also decorated with sculptures of a variety of fabulous and frightening grotesques or monsters. These included the chimera, a mythical hybrid creature which usually had the body of a lion and the head of a goat, and the strix or stryge, a creature resembling an owl or bat, which was said to eat human flesh. The strix appeared in classical Roman literature; it was described by the Roman poet Ovid, who was widely read in the Middle Ages, as a large-headed bird with transfixed eyes, rapacious beak, and greyish white wings.[47] They were part of the visual message for the illiterate worshippers, symbols of the evil and danger that threatened those who did not follow the teachings of the church.[48]
The gargoyles, which were added to Notre-Dame in about 1240, had a more practical purpose. They were the rain spouts of the cathedral, designed to divide the torrent of water which poured from the roof after rain, and to project it outwards as far as possible from the buttresses and the walls and windows so that it would not erode the mortar binding the stone. To produce many thin streams rather than a torrent of water, a large number of gargoyles were used, so they were also designed to be a decorative element of the architecture. The rainwater ran from the roof into lead gutters, then down channels on the flying buttresses, then along a channel cut in the back of the gargoyle and out of the mouth away from the cathedral.[45][page needed]
Many of the statues, particularly the grotesques, were removed from the façade in the 17th and 18th century, or were destroyed during the French Revolution.[citation needed] They were replaced with figures in the Gothic style, designed by Eugene Viollet-le-Duc during the 19th-century restoration.[citation needed] Similar figures appear on the other Gothic cathedrals of France.
Another common feature of Gothic cathedrals in France was a labyrinth or maze on the floor of the nave near the choir, which symbolized the difficult and often complicated journey of a Christian life before attaining paradise. Most labyrinths were removed by the 18th century, but a few, like the one at Amiens Cathedral, have been reconstructed, and the labyrinth at Chartres Cathedral still exists essentially in its original form.[49]
References
- ↑ den Hartog, Elizabeth (2019). "The Low Countries, 1000–1430". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. I (21st ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 994. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.049. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ den Hartog, Elizabeth (2019). "The Low Countries, 1000–1430". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. I (21st ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 993. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.049. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 den Hartog, Elizabeth (2019). "The Low Countries, 1000–1430". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. I (21st ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 995. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.049. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 den Hartog, Elizabeth (2019). "The Low Countries, 1000–1430". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. I (21st ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 995. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.049. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 den Hartog, Elizabeth (2019). "The Low Countries, 1000–1430". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. I (21st ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 996. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.049. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 den Hartog, Elizabeth (2019). "The Low Countries, 1000–1430". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. I (21st ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 997. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.049. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 den Hartog, Elizabeth (2019). "The Low Countries, 1000–1430". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. I (21st ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 998. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.049. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 den Hartog, Elizabeth (2019). "The Low Countries, 1000–1430". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. I (21st ed.). London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 999. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.049. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ Pringle, Denys (2019). "The Holy Land (Israel/Palestine/Lebanon/Jordan) and Crusader States, 1095–1489". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. pp. 900–901. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.044. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Pringle, Denys (2019). "The Holy Land (Israel/Palestine/Lebanon/Jordan) and Crusader States, 1095–1489". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 902. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.044. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ Pringle, Denys (2019). "The Holy Land (Israel/Palestine/Lebanon/Jordan) and Crusader States, 1095–1489". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 903. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.044. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Pringle, Denys (2019). "The Holy Land (Israel/Palestine/Lebanon/Jordan) and Crusader States, 1095–1489". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 904. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.044. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 Pringle, Denys (2019). "The Holy Land (Israel/Palestine/Lebanon/Jordan) and Crusader States, 1095–1489". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 903. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.044. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Pringle, Denys (2019). "The Holy Land (Israel/Palestine/Lebanon/Jordan) and Crusader States, 1095–1489". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 909. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.044. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ Pringle, Denys (2019). "The Holy Land (Israel/Palestine/Lebanon/Jordan) and Crusader States, 1095–1489". In Fraser, Murray. Sir Banister Fletcher’s Global History of Architecture. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 904. doi:10.5040/9781474207768.044. ISBN 978-1-4742-0776-8. Search this book on
- ↑ Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method.[page needed]
- ↑ Wim Swaan, The Gothic Cathedral [page needed]
- ↑ While the engineering and construction of the dome of Florence Cathedral by Brunelleschi is often cited as one of the first works of the Renaissance, the octagonal plan, ribs and pointed silhouette were already determined in the 14th century.
- ↑ The Gothic south tower is surmounted by a Baroque spire.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Curl, James Stevens; Wilson, Susan, eds. (2015), "chancel", A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199674985.001.0001/acref-9780199674985-e-926, ISBN 978-0-19-967498-5, retrieved 2020-04-13
- ↑ Curl, James Stevens; Wilson, Susan, eds. (2015), "pulpitum", A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199674985.001.0001/acref-9780199674985-e-3708, ISBN 978-0-19-967498-5, retrieved 2020-04-13
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Curl, James Stevens; Wilson, Susan, eds. (2015), "Rood", A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199674985.001.0001/acref-9780199674985-e-4010, ISBN 978-0-19-967498-5, retrieved 2020-04-14
- ↑ Curl, James Stevens; Wilson, Susan, eds. (2015), "Doom", A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199674985.001.0001/acref-9780199674985-e-1482, ISBN 978-0-19-967498-5, retrieved 2020-04-14
- ↑ Curl, James Stevens; Wilson, Susan, eds. (2015), "bell", A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199674985.001.0001/acref-9780199674985-e-504, ISBN 978-0-19-967498-5, retrieved 2020-04-14
- ↑ Curl, James Stevens; Wilson, Susan, eds. (2015), "fereter", A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199674985.001.0001/acref-9780199674985-e-1790, ISBN 978-0-19-967498-5, retrieved 2020-04-14
- ↑ 26.00 26.01 26.02 26.03 26.04 26.05 26.06 26.07 26.08 26.09 Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method.[page needed]
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Nikolaus Pevsner, An Outline of European Architecture. [page needed]
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 Wim Swaan, The Gothic Cathedral [page needed]
- ↑ Grodecki 1977, pp. 14, 17.
- ↑ 30.0 30.1 John Harvey, The Gothic World
- ↑ Wenzler 2018, pp. 95–98.
- ↑ Julian Flannery, Fifty English Steeples: The Finest Medieval Parish Church Towers and Spires in England, T&H, 2016, 10-0500343144 [page needed]
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 Renault & Lazé 2006, p. 35.
- ↑ Wenzler 2018, p. 79.
- ↑ Wenzler 2018, p. 54.
- ↑ The open-work spire was completed in 1890 to the original design.
- ↑ Banister Fletcher, 17th edition, p. 534
- ↑ Thomas Rickman, Attempt to Discriminate the Style of Architecture in England (1812–15) [page needed]
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 Alec Clifton-Taylor, The Cathedrals of England [page needed]
- ↑ Grodecki 1977, p. 20.
- ↑ Mignon, Olivier, Architecture des Cathérals Gothiques (2015), p. 9
- ↑ Mignon, Olivier, Architecture des Cathédrales Gothiques (2015), p. 9
- ↑ Mignon, Olivier, Architecture des Cathédrales Gothiques (2015), p. 22
- ↑ 44.0 44.1 Wenzler 2018, p. 28.
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 Viollet-le-Duc, Eugéne, Dictionnaire Raisonné de l'architecture Française du XIe au XVI siecle, Volume 6. (Project Gutenburg).[page needed]
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 McNamara 2017, pp. 158–59.
- ↑ Frazer, James George (1933) ed., Ovid, Fasti VI. 131–,Riley (1851), p. 216, tr.
- ↑ Wenzler 2018, pp. 97–99.
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 Wenzler 2018, pp. 99–100.
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