Helmets of the Roman army
Script error: No such module "AfC submission catcheck".
Republican Helmets[edit]
Negau Type[edit]
The Negu type, named after the city near the place it was founded, Negau, Austria, was a Celtic and Germanic helmet. The helmet began as a wooden or "pot" helmet used by people from Denmark to Slovenia.[1][2] Then it would be adopted by the Celts, and turned into a conical bell shaped helmet.[3] Eventually the helmet would reach Italy. One Etruscan of the negau type had a lower rim decorated with embossed feathers or cornicula. Two small figurines of sea dragons held a horsehair crest called a lophos. This crest would have been used on the helmet. Another Etruscan helmet found at Lanuvium had a feathered diadem with side horns. A variation of this helmet had central horeshair crest. It would have been worn by officers.[4]
Once this helmet was adopted by the Romans it changed again. They used the helmet as a helmet for officers from the sixth to the fourth century.[4][5] During this timeframe the helmet underwent many changes. It started out as a simple bronze bowl with a rib running fore and aft. It also had a lateral depression at its base and no earpieces.[6][7] Other early Negau helmets had inscriptions, likely for religious purposes, written in Old Italic Script.[8] The next evolution of the Negau helmet was a helmet with a a glope shaped bowl which narrowed at the base. This helmet also ha brims fixed to the lower rim, sometimes it had streamlined shapes and embossed curls. There were many variations on the Negau helmet. For example, the Vetulonia helmet was a Negau helmet made of silver and gilded bronze. This type of helmet also had laced cheek guards which were closed at the front, a pushed forward skill, and gold and enamel eyes. The eyes would be encircled in silver and surmounted by stylized eyebrows. There were other types of Negau helmets. On this type, the skull would have volutes and a ring decorated with dots, ovules, curves, and small leaves.[9] These decorations, combined with the helmets wide open eyes, may have been used for the purpose of terrifying enemies. Another type of Negau helmet was made of a flanged rim with a raised molding, fluted oval base, and a ridged crest which was surrounded by a double-pronged prune holder. These may have been decorated with with small figural plaques.[1] The lower edge of the helmet was folded back to create a thin interior lip which secured an organic material liner by means of a lead filler.[1]
Aside from different types of helmet, there could still be variations in the appearance of a Negau helmet. For example, one surviving Negau helmet has a protome in the shape of a cast stylized to look like horse's forequarters. These stylizations were riveted to the front of the crown. A small hole would be located at the crown suggests that the helmet had a second protome.[1] In the Tomba del Guerriero, which is located in the Osteria district of Vulci, has a helmet with double-prongs that were decorated with a small openwork plaque. This plaque showcased a youth reining in on a rearing winged horse. The depiction on this plaque is probably Pegasus and Bellerophon.[1][5]
Montefortino Type[edit]
The Montefortino type, also called the Mannheim type, named after the town where it was first discovered,[10][11] was the most popular and successful type of Roman helmet. It was almost unanimously used by the Roman army and about 3 to 4 million Montefortino helmets would be made.[12] The helmet originates as a Celtic and possibly Carthaginian helmet.[5] It was introduced to the Etruscans by the Sennones during the 5th and 4th century BCE.[3] Then the Etruscans would introduce the helmet to the Romans. One Etruscan tomb in Orvieto has the equipment of an Etruscan soldier. Among the equipment, was a Montefortino helmet.[10]
The Romans would get ahold of the helmet in the 4th and 3rd Century BCE.[3][13]All Montefortino helmets were beaten in Bronze or made of a copper alloy.[14] Some Montefortino helmets had scalloped cheekpieces or topknots to hold in horse hair for plumes. Beneath a peaked neckguard could be a double ring attachment for attaching straps to hold it in position.[15] The earliest style of Montefortino helmet, as it was used by the Celts, consisted of a basic conical bowl with decorative or plain crest knob and a small horizontal neckguard. It was secured to the head through straps and it had no cheek pieces. It is possible the reason no cheek pieces have been found on the early Montefortino helmets is because the Romans, who looted the Celts, discarded them due to being useless and inconvenient. This same early style was used during the Punic Wars an early style of the helmet was used by both the Carthaginians and Romans. Despite this, there are very few examples of Montefortino helmets in grave sites. One possible explanation is that the helmets were made of organic materials. Another possible cause could be that the helmet was not in universal usage. This would mean that the helmet was a status symbol. However, many wealthy people were buried with this helmet. While many were . This could be caused by the fact that many of the people who were buried with the helmet were Carthaginian mercenaries or allied forces. It could also be the Roman military equipment given to the Carthaginians after the Battles of Cannae and Lake Trasimene. [3]
.jpg)
The Cremona Variant of the Montefortino is the oldest type of Roman helmet. It dates back to the 2nd and 3rd century BCE. The Cremona variant, although somewhat hemispherical, was much closer to an onion. The helmet also had a cabled border, a small sloped neckguard, heavy border decoration, and a tab with two riveted rings on the underside of the neck guard to attach a neck strap and cheek pieces. Each cheek piece was fitted on the inside of its lower edge with a stud for a chin strap which passed around the wearers neck to a pair of D-shaped rings riveted beneath the rear of the helmet rim. The cheek pieces had triple disk shaped detachable pieces.[10] The bowl of the helmet was bulbous and conical. It was drawn to an integral hollow knob.[3] The Rieti variant is the second oldest type of Roman helmet. The only difference between it and the Cremona type is a broader neckguard. The Buggenum variant was another type of Montefortino helmet. The Buggenum variant derived from early Etrusco-Celtic-Italian helmets.[16] When it was adopted by the Romans it was simplified in its manufacturing, and it lacked decorations. These early helmets had a finial which was slightly smaller, rounder, and pierced to allow the insertion of a plume. The neck guard also increased in size. Cheek guards would have been attached to the helmet by a single rivet.[16] Later this helmet would change again. Now it was a slightly coned helmet finished with a hollow crest knob at the apex pierced by a hole to take on a crest pin and an unadorned and a slightly deepened decoration. It also has a horizontal and flatter neckguard.[14][17] The crest knob and an angled neckguard would have been Celto-Italic, Italic-Celto, or Etrusco-Italic developments.[3]The helmet would continue to be used by the Roman Army until the 1st century CE. Afterwards it would be used by the Praetorian Guard.[17]
Galaea[edit]
The galaea, also called the Etrusco-Italian type was a type of Montefortino helmet.
Coolus Type[edit]
The Coolus Type was a helmet similar to the Montefortino helmet. Only differing in a lack of an integral top knot.[10] Like the Montefortino helmet, it was of Celtic origins. The Coolus helmet may be as old as the Montefortino helmet. With the Coolus helmet possibly originating in 400 BCE. Although it was not as widespread as the Montefortino helmet, it would become popular and eventually supersede the Montefortino helmet in the first century CE.[10][12] It had a round capped bronze helmet with a small flat-projecting neckguard and a hemispherical bowl, bicupsid cheek pieces, and a heavy reinforcing brow guard. The bronze Coolus type disappeared during the 1st century. Afterwards, all Coolus helmets were iron. [5] During the empire the Coolus helmet would be modified. The neck guard was widened and deepened and it would be marked with the names of previous owners. Also, a reinforcing brow-guard became a defining feature.[14] The crest knob would be omitted, for the purpose of adding a plume. Feather tubes would be soldered into the sides of the helmet just above the wearers temples.[14] Ear recesses would be cut out of the rim and reinforced with bronze. The back of the head would also be reinforced with horizontal ribbing.[14] Some Coolus helmets had wing designs on theme. This practice started in Italy and it would have been inspired by the Samite Helmets.[12]
Italo-Attic Type[edit]
The Attic Style of helmet was used by the Romans during the third century BCE. It was a bronze helmet with a cranial ridge for ventilation and a cut away at the ears for improved hearing.[18] The helmet had rings, feathers, feather holders, and raised crests.[3][12] The crests on the helmet would be flanked by two feather plumes and a triple-disc curiass.[19] When the Romans adopted this helmet it was used for officers and cavalrymen, as well as in parades.[12]
Hagenau Type[edit]
The Hagenau type had a spherical bowl with a broad neckguard. These helmets had holes in the neckguard that would serve two purposes. The first purpose was to insert a ring on the underside of the helmet to fasten a helmet strap. The second purpose was to insert a ring on the uperside of the helmet to affix the crest. The helmets also had a large brow and cheek pieces. Hagenau helmets were made wrought from a Copper alloy. Like the Montefortino helmets these helmets had variants. The Haltern variant was a hemispherical bowl with a neck guard, large browbands, cheek pieces, a conical crest knob, and tubes on the helmet from plumes. The Burlafingen variant had a wide neck guard, a large browband, cheek pieces, and a crest knob on the apex. The Schaan variant had a neckguard which formed an arc around the bowl and a browband. The Cremona variant had a broad neckguard that formed an arc around the bowl of the helmet, with a narrow band continuing it. This narrow band runs around the helmet, providing a function similar to a browband. The Cremona type had a integral rounded conical dome which rises from a thick lower rim to a central crest at the top. It is possible this style of Hagenau helmet was actually another style of Montefortino helmet.[14][17]
Port Type[edit]
During the 1st Century, Romans adopted a type of helmet called port type, from the Celts during the Gallic Wars. The Port type developed from the earlier Coolus type.[5] This iron helmet had two types. The Agen type or the Western Celtic type, and the Eastern Celtic type. Both types used an oval shape bowl instead of the hemisphericial bowl of other helmets.[15] The Agen type was made from a combined bowl and neckguard with a prominent ridge encircling the bowl separating the bowl from a protruding brim. This protruding brim broadens towards the rear as the neck guard. The cheek pieces of this helmet assumed the cheek contours if the cheek area around the front edge. The Agen type's cheek pieces became the standard on all Roman helmets. As it provided better protection for the cheeks without limiting the wearers field of vision. [15] The Hemispherical bowl flared out into a brim all-round. A raised rib that passed right around the bowl existed just above this.[16] The Eastern Celtic type is made of three parts. These three parts were a bowl, a projecting rim at the front, and a drawn down neck guard. There was a gap between the neck guard and the front part of the helmet. The helmet's cheek pieces were exactly the same as the Agen variant's cheek pieces. Eastern Celtic port types were mostly distributed across Slovenia and the Alpine region.[17]
Boetian Type[edit]
The Boetian type was a Greek helmet used by the Roman cavalry. It consisted of a domed skull surrounded by a wide and flaring slope and down broad brim. This came down at the rear to protect the back of the neck. It also projected forward over the forehead to act as a visor. One of the sides of the brim would be shaped with downward pointing folds protecting the lateral of the base. It had chin straps fastened to a bent rim. This would be translated into bronze, giving it a crinkly appearance. The helmet was low-crowned, with corrugation, a crest, a Celtic style knob, and it was open faced. Allowing the wearer to see clearly on the battlefield. The helmet was manufactured by taking a metal plate and hammering the extra material to create a broad brim.[15][20][21][22][23]
Helmet Decorations[edit]
Some soldiers on the Ahenobarbas relief are depicted wearing long horse haired crests that hanged down the rear of the helmet. Polybius claims that helmets had plumes made of three and a half purple and black feathers. Each feather would have been one and a half feet long.[15]
Imperial Helmets[edit]
Essential Features[edit]
The Essential features of helmets introduced in the 1st Century CE were a bowl, a broad ribbed neck-guard manufactured in one piece, a bowl guard, and large hinged cheek pieces. The brow guards and the ribbing were designed to counter or hinder downward slashing blows. The neckguard would protect the back of the head and the soldiers. These helmets also began to feature cut-outs on the side of the bowl for ears, some even having added ear protectors.[15]
Weisenau Type[edit]
The Weisenau Type, also known as the Imperial-Gallic Type, was usually made of Iron and it developed from the Port type. The Weisenau helmet also had a hemispherical bowl and stylized eyebrows embossed on the front above the brow guard. It had a reinforced strip across the front of the helmet to protect the face from sword slashes. The bowl of the helmet was beaten out over a former, and the helmet was trimmed with brass piping and decorated with brass bosses.[15] Reinforcing braces would be added to the crown of the town. During the middle of the first century ear guards would be added to the helmet. The Weisenau helmets had Y-shaped crest support.[5] There were two types of Weisenau helmet. The Imperial-Gallic A type and the Imperial-Gallic B type. The Imperial-Gallic A type was used by Drusus' soldiers and at the Battle of the Teutoberg Forest. It was a more embellished type of helmet. It had a brow bridge, E-shaped ear guars, ear holes, and a decorated neck guard. This type of helmet was made of bronze and covered with polished tin.[24] The Imperial-Gallic B type dates from 5 BCE-14 CE. It was also likely used at the Battle of the Teutoberg Forest. The B-type was more embellished and elaborate then the A-type helmets. Officers and cavalrymen would have worn these helmets. As they were newer and more decorated.[24]
Imperial-Italic Type[edit]
Imperial-Italic helmets were similar to the Weisenau helmet but they lacked the eyebrows.[5]
Late Roman Helmets[edit]
Ridge Helmets[edit]
Intercisa Style[edit]
The Intercisa style helmets, also known as the simple helmets, were probably introduced to Rome by Danubian mercenaries.[3] The helmets looked like a bowl with an angled neck guard, and a peak. And a cap joined by two pieces. Ear pieces would be attached to the helmet through straps and buckles.[5] While cheekpieces and the neck guards were attached to the helmet through lines. Some Intercisa helmets had cheek pieces with ear cuttings and a metal strip riveted around the rim of the helmet's bowl .Both were either placed horizontally across the front of the bowl or pointed upward. The rest of the helmet was usually large. Sometimes only the eyes were uncovered. The helmets may have been made of iron that was concealed by silver.[15] It is likely that cavalrymen used masks on top of these helmets. The infantry Intercisa helmets may have been derived from the cavalry helmets. Although the helmet is generally seen as an infantry helmet.[25]
Berkasovo Style[edit]
The Berkasovo or heavy helmet was made of two composite bowls made of iron and with a silver surface. These bowls usually were divided into four quarters although some were only bipartite. The bowl was attached to a ridged strip which ran from the front to the back of the helmet. A band curving over each eye would also be riveted to be inside of the rim. The helmets had other bands too. These bands masked the joint between the rim and the cheek pieces. Cheek pieces were much larger than the Intercisa style ear pieces. These ear pieces usually covered the entirety of the ear and portions of the neck. Berkasovo helmets had a neck guard and cheek pieces. The neck guard and cheek pieces have holes for the purpose of allowing a leather or linen lining to be attached to the helmet. It would be secured to the helmet through straps and buckles. Glass casting would cover the bowl and the cheek pieces. Sometimes pairs of eyes would be chiseled or embossed into the metal of the armor.[3] Officers and cavalrymen wore the Berkasovo Style of Helmet. It is likely that cavalrymen wore the helmet as the helmet provided better protection it provided the wearers from lateral and rear blows. As well as an inscription on one helmet taking about Roman cavalry.[26]
Deurne Style[edit]
The Deurne helmet had four bowls, two side bands, a central joining band, a neck guard, nasal guard, a crest, two cheek pieces, and two horizontal bands. The bowls would have been around 2 mm thick. Holes would have pierced the outer edges of the bowl, neck guard, and ear pieces. Although two silver rivets would have remained on the cheek piece. The cheek guard would have been anchored to the helmet through hinges. While the neck guard would have been attached through suspension straps.[3]
Dura style-Europos Style[edit]
One depiction of a helmet on a coin shows a gilded helmet with a wide joining wide. Every one of these helmets dates back to the fourth and fifth century. At Dura-Europos a helmet dating back to the second century was discovered. The helmet is made of a bipartite bowl with each half being riveted to a central ridge, a t-shaped nose guard, and a chain-mail aventail protecting the apex of the helmet. It is possible this was used for the attachment of a Hackle.
Richborough Style[edit]
The Richborough helmet is the oldest confirmed example of a ridge helmet.[27] The edge bowl of the helmet was pierced with holes to secure and line the cheek pieces. The neck guard and cheek pieces were attached to the helmet through a rivet made of a copper alloy. Rivets for the attachment of lining to the helmet would be inserted into the helmet. There was a brow band that stretched from one side of the helmet to the other. On the apex of the helmet was a heart shaped plate with a hole in the center. This was possibly used as a crest holder. Also the helmet had a central ridge. The helmet was made of gypsum covered in resin or brown paint. Plumes made of horsehair were attached to the Gypsum.[3]
Spagenhelm[edit]
Spagenhelm Baldenheim[edit]
The Spagenhelm Baldenheim type was constructed from four or six iron, bronze, or copper alloy plates attached to a gilded brow band that was shaped to curve over the eyes. Gaps between the iron plates were bridged by spangens. The spangens were inverted t shaped copper plates or ribs. An inverted t-shaped copper alloy disc was at the apex of the helm. Possibly for a plume. The brow band and gilded cheek pieces would be pierced with holes for lining and for gilded copper pieces to be attached to the bowl. The gilded copper parts of the helmet were classical and Germanic designs.[3]
Egyptian Spagenhelm[edit]
The Egyptian Spagenhelm was made of a bowl of six plates riveted to six bands.[28] On top of this was a circular disc riveted to the apex of the helmet. Also, a ring would also be secured to the top of the helmet. A brow band, cheek pieces, and a nasal guard would riveted to the rim. Cheek and ear pieces would be attached to the helm through hinges. The Gepid Spagenhelm was allegedly found on the head of a mummy purchased in Thebes. The helmet may be Roman, but it could also be Uyghur. This helmet had four cheek pieces attached to the bowl through hinges. It had no neck guard and no nose guard.[3][27]
Sarmatian Spagenhelm[edit]
During the 3rd and 4th centuries Roman cavalrymen used the Sarmatian Spagenhelm. These helmets had bands secured by metal plates and round rivets. As well as a large round apex knob and a wide brow band with a nose guard. The Sarmatian Spagenhelm was used by the cavalrymen of the Late Empire.[3][28]
References[edit]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Caccioli, David (2009-06-24). The Villanovan, Etruscan, and Hellenistic Collections in the Detroit Institute of Arts. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-2577-9. Search this book on
- ↑ Turfa, Jean MacIntosh (2014-11-13). The Etruscan World. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-05523-4. Search this book on
- ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 Travis, Hilary & John (2014-12-15). Roman Helmets. Amberley Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4456-3847-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 D'Amato, Raffaele; Negin, Andrey Evgenevich (2017-03-30). Decorated Roman Armour: From the Age of the Kings to the Death of Justinian the Great. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-9289-7. Search this book on
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A.; Adkins, Both Professional Archaeologists Roy A. (2014-05-14). Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-7482-2. Search this book on
- ↑ Fields, Nic (2011-07-20). Early Roman Warrior 753–321 BC. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84908-500-7. Search this book on
- ↑ Fields, Nic (2011-07-20). Early Roman Warrior 753–321 BC. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84908-500-7. Search this book on
- ↑ MacLeod, Mindy; Mees, Bernard (2006). Runic Amulets and Magic Objects. Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-205-8. Search this book on
- ↑ Summer, Graham; D'Amato, Raffaele (2009-09-17). Arms and Armour of the Imperial Roman Soldier. Frontline Books. ISBN 978-1-84832-512-8. Search this book on
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Sage, Michael (2016-03-30). The Army of the Roman Republic: From the Regal Period to the Army of Julius Caesar. Casemate Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4738-8095-5. Search this book on
- ↑ Campbell, Brian; Tritle, Lawrence A. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-049913-6. Search this book on
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Connolly, Peter (2012-06-19). Greece and Rome at War. Grub Street Publishers. ISBN 978-1-78346-971-0. Search this book on
- ↑ Bennett, Matthew; Connolly, Peter; Gillingham, John; Lazenby, John (1998). The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient & Medieval Warfare. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-57958-116-9. Search this book on
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Campbell, Brian; Tritle, Lawrence A. (2013-01-09). The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-933380-6. Search this book on
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 Bishop, M. C.; Coulston, J. C. (2006-04-22). Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome, second edition. Oxbow Books. ISBN 978-1-78570-397-3. Search this book on
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 D’Amato, Raffaele; Gilbert, Francois (2021-09-16). Armies of Julius Caesar 58–44 BC. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4728-4522-1. Search this book on
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Fischer, Thomas (2019-11-19). Army of the Roman Emperors. Casemate Publishers. ISBN 978-1-61200-811-0. Search this book on
- ↑ Fields, Nic (2021-03-18). Caudine Forks 321 BC: Rome's Humiliation in the Second Samnite War. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4728-2493-6. Search this book on
- ↑ Salimbeti, Andrea; D’Amato, Raffaele (2014-04-20). The Carthaginians 6th–2nd Century BC. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78200-778-4. Search this book on
- ↑ Esposito, Gabriele (2020-07-19). Armies of Ancient Greece Circa 500 to 338 BC: History, Organization & Equipment. Pen and Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-5267-5192-8. Search this book on
- ↑ Everson, Tim (2004-11-18). Warfare in Ancient Greece: Arms and Armour from the Heroes of Homer to Alexander the Great. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-9506-4. Search this book on
- ↑ Martel, Gordon (2012-01-17). The Encyclopedia of War, 5 Volume Set. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-9037-4. Search this book on
- ↑ Matthew, Christopher (2015-11-30). An Invincible Beast: Understanding the Hellenistic Pike Phalanx in Action. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-8134-1. Search this book on
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Abdale, Jason R. (2016-05-31). Four Days in September: The Battle of Teutoburg. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-6087-2. Search this book on
- ↑ Hughes, Ian (2009-01-15). Belisarius: The Last Roman General. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-84468-941-5. Search this book on
- ↑ War and Warfare in Late Antiquity (2 vols.): Current Perspectives. BRILL. 2013-08-19. ISBN 978-90-04-25258-5. Search this book on
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Esposito, Gabriele (2018-10-30). Armies of the Late Roman Empire, AD 284–476: History, Organization & Equipment. Casemate Publishers. ISBN 978-1-5267-3038-1. Search this book on
- ↑ 28.0 28.1 Elliott, Paul (2016-09-23). The Last Legionary: Life as a Roman Soldier in Britain AD400. The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-7466-3. Search this book on
This article "Helmets of the Roman army" is from Wikipedia. The list of its authors can be seen in its historical and/or the page Edithistory:Helmets of the Roman army. Articles copied from Draft Namespace on Wikipedia could be seen on the Draft Namespace of Wikipedia and not main one.
