📜 Post with us on Reddit
📝 Create a new article
🏭 Create a company page
🇬🇧 - in English
🇫🇷 - en Français (FR)
🇵🇹 - em Português (PT)
🇩🇪 - in Deutsch (DE)
🇯🇵 - 日本語で (JA)
Sponsored articles

You can edit almost every page by Creating an account. Otherwise, see the FAQ.

Historical bioarchaeology

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki



Human skeletal remains found in excavations from a historical site in Cyprus.

Historical bioarchaeology refers to the study of human skeletal remains from archaeological contexts where written records exist and can help in contextualizing the skeletal material. The term is a combination of bioarchaeology, the discipline that studies human skeletal remains in their archaeological context, and historical archaeology, the study of human activity in past societies, where written records are available. The term bioarchaeology was first introduced by Grahame Clark in 1972[1] in a study of faunal remains but was later proposed by Jane Buikstra at the 1976[2] annual meeting of the Southern Anthropological Society, denoting the study of human skeletal remains. Lately, drawing from the need towards an integrative contextualization of data, historical bioarchaeology emerged as a term, featuring as a thematic collection[3] in the journal of Historical Archaeology.

Bioarchaeology developed as a distinct discipline during the 1970s but it was at the beginning of the new millennium that bioarchaeological studies started systematically approaching skeletal remains not only as markers of biological information but also placing emphasis on their cultural context. Nowadays, the discipline tries to blend the physical-natural with the cultural to understand the social life and human experience in past societies and inform larger sociocultural phenomena and patterns of behavior.[4] In this direction bioarchaeology integrates life history, biocultural and social science approaches, covering a multitude of research topics such as embodiment,[5] gender,[6] inequality,[7] ethnogenesis,[8] violence,[9] identity,[10] deviance,[11] childhood,[12] and disability.[13]

Historical bioarchaeology first appeared when demographic and other written records were used to evaluate ancient health in North American historic cemeteries.[14] The critical analysis and integration of historical documents with archaeological data and skeletal remains is the distinct attribute that enables historical bioarchaeology to reconstruct past societies in a more holistic manner.[15] In order for this to be achieved, various methods are implemented, complementing research questions often arising from the historical and archaeological context.

Demography[edit]

Palaeodemography is the study of the demographic profile of past human populations and provides information such as mortality and fertility rates, average life span and other characteristics that express a population’s composition and alterations through time. Any palaeodemographic analysis is based on the estimation of age-at-death and sex.

Age-at-death estimation[edit]

Age-at-death estimation methods are based on the recording of physiological changes that happen on specific parts of the human skeleton such as the skull, teeth, pelvis and long bones.[16] For adults, such methods rely on degenerative changes on specific parts of the skeleton, while for juveniles they rely on developmental changes.

Several recent contributions by historical bioarchaeologists have attempted to bridge the gap between biological and social divisions of age, whereby biological age is the number of years that have elapsed since an individual’s birth, and social age is the and culturally constructed age categories in which individuals belong. In order to interpret data in terms of social identity, bioarchaeologists examine the link between biological age and age-appropriate attitudes and behaviors that are socially and culturally constructed in their relative context.[17] [18]

Sex assessment[edit]

Cranial and mandibular sexually dimorphic anatomical areas

Bioarchaeologists use the skeletal differences that exist between male and female individuals to assess the sex of a skeleton. Such differences are seen principally on the pelvis and secondarily on the skull[16]. Pelvic differences are due to the fact that female pelves facilitate simultaneously locomotion and child-birth, whereas male pelves only need to facilitate locomotion. All other skeletal differences are due to the fact that generally males tend to be larger and more robust, while females tend to be smaller and more gracile.

At this point the relationship between sex and gender should be clarified. Gender is the socially constructed identity of being male or female, while sex is a biological feature.[19] Interpretations and associations between osteologically sexed individuals and gendered artefacts are now examined more thoroughly to provide a richer understanding of life in the past. Therefore, the information on biological sex, can elucidate gender roles and gendered behavior in past societies. Indeed, the relationship of sex and gender has recently started to be addressed by bioarchaeologists.[20] [21] This way the limitation of the binary nature of biological sex and the traditional use of heteronormative interpretations of gender roles, have allowed the identification of non-binary or third genders. For example, Robb and colleagues [22] demonstrated how health patterns in a historic sample from 7th-3rd century BCE Italy were affected by the complex interaction of gender, status and labor.

Pathology[edit]

Two slides comparing the vertebrae of a healthy 37 year old male with a 75 year old female suffering from osteoporosis.

Palaeopathological indicators observed macroscopically or histologically on skeletal remains can offer information in relation to past health and disease. Numerous diseases can affect the human skeleton. These may be ‘non-specific’ in etiology in the sense that they suggest a stressful episode (malnutrition, infectious disease etc.) affected the individual but the nature of the episode cannot be determined.[23] In addition, infectious, metabolic, neoplastic, developmental, hematopoietic, traumatic and many other disorders may be identified on skeletal remains. By assessing past pathology, historical bioarchaeologists can extract information on inter- and intra-population health, interaction between health status and the environment, division of labor, gender roles and social stratification.

For example, Bourbou[24] examined the impact of historical and environmental changes in Byzantine populations from central Greece and Crete and tried to associate social and biological status in two elite populations from Hellenistic and Roman era Crete. To test how individuals were affected by these changes, she analyzed the presence of dental diseases, metabolic disorders, degenerative joint diseases, Schmorl’s nodes, infections and trauma.

Activity[edit]

Activity patterns have been skeletally reconstructed by the analysis of degenerative joint diseases,[25] Schmorl’s nodes,[26] entheseal changes,[27] and long bone cross-sectional geometric properties.[28] During our lifetime, the cartilage covering the articular joint surfaces gradually degenerates, causing osteoarthritis.[25] In the spine, mechanical loading additionally, puts pressure on the nucleus pulposus, which results in pits and grooves on the vertebral body (known as Schmorl’s nodes).[26] Entheses are the connective tissue that links muscles to bones via tendons or ligaments. Entheses tend to degenerate throughout an individual’s life course, due to stress caused from repetitive movements. This procedure results in new bone formation or resorption on the site of muscle attachments (entheseal changes).[29] Lastly, bone tissue remodels itself in response to mechanical stimulation. Thus, by applying biomechanical analysis, bioarchaeologists can estimate the cross-sectional geometric properties of long bones, which provide information regarding bone rigidity to tension, compression and bending forces.[28] It should be noted however, that other factors such as sex, age, diet, genetic and metabolic predisposition, body size, trauma or infection may affect many of the above skeletal markers of activity.[30][31]

As a typical example, Driscoll and Sheridan[32] tried to reconstruct the life of 5th-7th c. CE individuals buried at St. Stephen’s Byzantine monastery in Palestine. Combining textual sources and activity markers on the skeletal remains of the monks, they found evidence for kneeling, compatible with the ascetical life of the period. Similarly, Baker and colleagues[33] identified the skeletal remains of a seamstress from 5th – 6th c. CE Polis Chrysochous in Cyprus. The authors reconstructed the occupation of the woman based on indicators of squatting in her lower long bones, grooves on her lateral incisors and a needle that had been buried with her.

Diet[edit]

Caries on a maxillary molar

Diet can offer insights on past populations’ health levels, how past societies were structured, their subsistence strategies, human-environment interactions and inter- and/or intra-population interactions. Dental health is a key parameter bioarchaeologists examine in order to draw indirect evidence on past diet as specific dental pathologies have been associated with a heightened consumption of carbohydrates (dental caries) or protein (dental calculus).

Dental caries is expressed as localized destruction of tooth enamel, which is gradually enlarged until a cavity forms. While many studies have found an association between caries and diets rich in carbohydrates,[34] other non-dietary factors also affect caries prevalence, such as oral hygiene, hormonal levels, composition and flow of saliva, pregnancies and lactation.[35] Dental calculus is expressed as mineralized plaque and adheres on tooth surfaces. Alkaline oral environments can facilitate calculus formation and since diets high in protein increase oral alkalinity, studies have associated the presence of calculus with a diet rich in protein.[36]

Cereal products rich in carbohydrates

Chemical analysis has also been employed in the reconstruction of past diet. Such analysis uses ratios of stable isotopes from skeletal and dental tissues with carbon (¹³C/¹²C) and nitrogen (¹⁵N/¹⁴N) stable isotope analysis of bone collagen being the most commonly applied.[37] Carbon isotope analysis is based on the fact that plants with different photosynthesis processes (or pathways) yield different isotope ratios, which are reflected in human and animal consumers’ bone and teeth[38]. There are three photosynthesis pathways: C3 carbon fixation (mostly for cereals, grasses and plants that occur naturally only in colder areas), C4 carbon fixation (mostly for maize, corn, millet, reeds, sugar cane, sorghum) and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (mostly for plants adapted in arid environments).[39] Furthermore, carbon isotope values can inform on some distinction between terrestrial and marine diet, with higher ¹³C/¹²C values indicating marine protein intake or C4 plants. Similarly, nitrogen stable isotope values (¹⁵N/¹⁴N) reflect consumption of animal-derived protein, with marine animals usually having elevated values compared to terrestrial ones. Thus, increased ¹⁵N/¹⁴N values can be indicative of an individual’s diet rich in protein from fish, meat or animal secondary products, while the opposite may be indicative of a diet based on plant foodstuffs (e.g. legumes).[40]

Historical bioarchaeologists in the Aegean have used stable isotope analysis to investigate diet diachronically in historical period populations from central Greece and demonstrated differences in socioeconomic strata of different periods.[41]

Human mobility and biodistance studies[edit]

Human mobility in bioarchaeological studies is explored through so-called biodistances and isotope analysis. Biodistance analysis estimates the relatedness or divergence between populations or subgroups within populations based on the analysis of morphological skeletal and dental traits. These traits may be measured or non-measurable but in all cases they express phenotypic characters the expression of which is to some extent controlled genetically.[16]

Strontium (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) and oxygen isotopes (δ¹⁸O), are also used to investigate mobility. Oxygen isotopes enter the body mostly through drinking water.[42] The isotopic signature of drinking water varies regionally according to temperature and other climatic parameters is reflected in the oxygen isotopes of phosphate in tooth enamel.[43] Strontium from the bedrock passes into the soil and groundwater and subsequently into the food chain. Thus, strontium isotopes enter the human skeleton through food and can reflect the bioavailable strontium of the area where the food was produced.[44] Both oxygen and strontium isotopes are fixed in enamel biogenic phosphate during tooth formation thus, when combined, they can provide two parameters for investigating the place of origin of an individual and migration patterns.[45]

Combining multiple skeletal indicators on mobility, stress, activity and pathology, Nikita and colleagues[46] examined life quality in a cemetery from central Greece diachronically. The results, supported by historical evidence, suggested population continuity between the Archaic and the Hellenistic period, an event occurring between the Hellenistic period and the Roman era that differentiated the local gene pool and, finally, continuity between the Roman and post‐Roman periods.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ Fagan, Brian (2018-07-03), "Star Carr", Grahame Clark, Routledge, pp. 145–168, doi:10.4324/9780429500114-8, ISBN 9780429500114, retrieved 2021-11-17 Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  2. ↑ Stout, Sam D. (2013-08-07). "Baadsgaard, Aubrey, Alexis T.Boutin & Jane E.Buikstra (eds). Breathing new life into the evidence of death: contemporary approaches to bioarchaeology. xiii, 340 pp., maps, tables, figs, illus., bibliogr. Santa Fe, N.M.: SAR Press, 2012. £32.50 (paper)". Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. 19 (3): 656–657. doi:10.1111/1467-9655.12058. ISSN 1359-0987.
  3. ↑ Novak, Shannon A.; Warner-Smith, Alanna L. (2019-12-16). "Vital Data: Re/Introducing Historical Bioarchaeology". Historical Archaeology. 54 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1007/s41636-019-00217-4. ISSN 0440-9213. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  4. ↑ Stojanowski, Christopher M.; Duncan, William N. (2014-02-17). "Engaging bodies in the public imagination: Bioarchaeology as social science, science, and humanities". American Journal of Human Biology. 27 (1): 51–60. doi:10.1002/ajhb.22522. ISSN 1042-0533. PMID 24677226. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ Past bodies : body-centered research in archaeology. Dušan Borić, John, March 18- Robb. Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books. 2008. ISBN 978-1-84217-341-1. OCLC 261178478. Search this book on
  6. ↑ Geller, Pamela L. (October 2009). "Identity and Difference: Complicating Gender in Archaeology". Annual Review of Anthropology. 38 (1): 65–81. doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-091908-164414. ISSN 0084-6570.
  7. ↑ Barrett, Autumn R.; Blakey, Michael L. (2011-04-27), "Life Histories of Enslaved Africans in Colonial New York", Social Bioarchaeology, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 212–251, doi:10.1002/9781444390537.ch8, ISBN 9781444390537, retrieved 2021-09-05
  8. ↑ STOJANOWSKI, CHRISTOPHER M. (September 2005). "The Bioarchaeology of Identity in Spanish Colonial Florida: Social and Evolutionary Transformation before, during, and after Demographic Collapse". American Anthropologist. 107 (3): 417–431. doi:10.1525/aa.2005.107.3.417. ISSN 0002-7294.
  9. ↑ Knüsel, Christopher; Smith, Martin, eds. (2013-12-17). The Routledge Handbook of the Bioarchaeology of Human Conflict. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315883366. ISBN 9781134677979. Search this book on
  10. ↑ Agarwal, Sabrina C.; Glencross, Bonnie A., eds. (2011-01-28). Social Bioarchaeology. doi:10.1002/9781444390537. ISBN 9781444390537. Search this book on
  11. ↑ Knüsel, Christopher (2009-05-13). "Deviant Burial in the Archaeological Record, edited by E.M. Murphy, 2008. (Studies in Funerary Archaeology 2.) Oxford: Oxbow Books; ISBN 978-1-84217-338-1 paperback £30 & US$60; xvii+244 pp., 72 figs., 14 tables". Cambridge Archaeological Journal. 19 (2): 270–272. doi:10.1017/s0959774309000389. ISSN 0959-7743. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  12. ↑ Perry, Megan A. (2008-06-28). "Redefining Childhood through Bioarchaeology: Toward an Archaeological and Biological Understanding of Children in Antiquity". Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association. 15 (1): 89–111. doi:10.1525/ap3a.2005.15.89. ISSN 1551-823X.
  13. ↑ "Hidden or overlooked? Where are the disadvantaged in the skeletal record?", The Archaeology of Identities, Routledge, pp. 209–224, 2007-01-24, doi:10.4324/9780203965986-26, ISBN 9780203965986, retrieved 2021-09-05
  14. ↑ Corruccini, Robert S. (October 1986). "Gone to a better land. Edited by J. C. Rose. Fayettesville, Arkansas: Arkansas Archeological Survey. 1985. xiii + 216 pp., figures, tables, references, appendix. $12.50 (paper)". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 71 (2): 251. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330710212. ISSN 0002-9483.
  15. ↑ Perry, Megan A. (2008-06-28). "Redefining Childhood through Bioarchaeology: Toward an Archaeological and Biological Understanding of Children in Antiquity". Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association. 15 (1): 89–111. doi:10.1525/ap3a.2005.15.89. ISSN 1551-823X.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Efthymia, Nikita (2017). Osteoarchaeology : a guide to the macroscopic study of human skeletal remains. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-804021-8. OCLC 1059279756. Search this book on
  17. ↑ Mays, Simon; Gowland, Rebecca; Halcrow, Siân; Murphy, Eileen (2017-01-02). "Child Bioarchaeology: Perspectives on the Past 10 Years". Childhood in the Past. 10 (1): 38–56. doi:10.1080/17585716.2017.1301066. ISSN 1758-5716. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  18. ↑ Sofaer, Joanna (2011-04-27), "Towards a Social Bioarchaeology of Age", Social Bioarchaeology, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 283–311, doi:10.1002/9781444390537.ch10, ISBN 9781444390537, retrieved 2021-09-05
  19. ↑ Walker, Phillip L.; Cook, Della Collins (June 1998). <255::aid-ajpa11>3.0.co;2-# "Brief communication: Gender and sex: Vive la difference". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 106 (2): 255–259. doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(199806)106:2<255::aid-ajpa11>3.0.co;2-#. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 9637188.
  20. ↑ Sofaer JR. 2006. Gender, bioarchaeology and human ontogeny. In Social Archaeology of Funerary Remains, (pp.155–167). Alden Press.
  21. ↑ Trombley, Trent M.; Agarwal, Sabrina C.; Beauchesne, Patrick; Goodson, Caroline; Candilio, Francesca; Coppa, Alfredo; Rubini, Mauro (2019-03-28). "Making sense of medieval mouths: Investigating sex differences of dental pathological lesions in a late medieval Italian community". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 169 (2): 253–269. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23821. hdl:2027.42/149340. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 30924143. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  22. ↑ Robb, John; Bigazzi, Renzo; Lazzarini, Luca; Scarsini, Caterina; Sonego, Fiorenza (2001). "Social ?status? and biological ?status?: A comparison of grave goods and skeletal indicators from Pontecagnano". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 115 (3): 213–222. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1076. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 11424073.
  23. ↑ Goodman, A.H. and Rose, J.C., 1991. Dental enamel hypoplasias as indicators of nutritional status. Advances in dental anthropology, 5, pp.225-240.
  24. ↑ Bourbou C. 2005. Biological status in Hellenistic and Roman elites in western Crete (Greece). Eres. Arqueología/Bioantropología, 87-110.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Waldron, Tony (2012-08-08), "Joint Disease", A Companion to Paleopathology, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 513–530, doi:10.1002/9781444345940.ch28, ISBN 9781444345940, retrieved 2021-09-11
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Faccia, K. J.; Williams, R. C. (January 2008). "Schmorl's nodes: clinical significance and implications for the bioarchaeological record". International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. 18 (1): 28–44. doi:10.1002/oa.924. ISSN 1047-482X.
  27. ↑ Jurmain, Robert; Cardoso, Francisca Alves; Henderson, Charlotte; Villotte, Sébastien (2012-08-08), "Bioarchaeology's Holy Grail: The Reconstruction of Activity", A Companion to Paleopathology, Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 531–552, doi:10.1002/9781444345940.ch29, ISBN 9781444345940, retrieved 2021-09-11
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Ruff, Christopher B. (2008), "Biomechanical Analyses of Archaeological Human Skeletons", Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton, Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 183–206, doi:10.1002/9780470245842.ch6, ISBN 9780470245842, retrieved 2021-09-11
  29. ↑ Villotte, Sébastien; Assis, Sandra; Cardoso, Francisca Alves; Henderson, Charlotte Yvette; Mariotti, Valentina; Milella, Marco; Pany-Kucera, Doris; Speith, Nivien; Wilczak, Cynthia A.; Jurmain, Robert (June 2016). "In search of consensus: Terminology for entheseal changes (EC)". International Journal of Paleopathology. 13: 49–55. doi:10.1016/j.ijpp.2016.01.003. ISSN 1879-9817. PMID 29539508.
  30. ↑ Michopoulou, Efrossyni; Nikita, Efthymia; Valakos, Efstratios D. (2015-08-04). "Evaluating the efficiency of different recording protocols for entheseal changes in regards to expressing activity patterns using archival data and cross-sectional geometric properties". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 158 (4): 557–568. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22822. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 26239396.
  31. ↑ Weiss, E.; Jurmain, R. (2007). "Osteoarthritis revisited: a contemporary review of aetiology". International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. 17 (5): 437–450. doi:10.1002/oa.889. ISSN 1047-482X.
  32. ↑ Driscoll MS, Sheridan SG. 2000. Every knee shall bend: A biocultural reconstruction of liturgical and ascetical prayer in V-VII century Palestine. Worship, 74, 453-468.
  33. ↑ Baker B, Terhune CE, Papalexandrou A. 2012. Sew long? The osteobiography of a woman from medieval polis, Cyprus. In The bioarchaeology of individuals (pp. 151-161). University Press of Florida.
  34. ↑ Temple, Daniel H.; Larsen, Clark Spencer (December 2007). "Dental caries prevalence as evidence for agriculture and subsistence variation during the Yayoi period in prehistoric Japan: Biocultural interpretations of an economy in transition". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 134 (4): 501–512. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20694. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 17935154.
  35. ↑ Lukacs, John R. (October 2008). "Fertility and Agriculture Accentuate Sex Differences in Dental Caries Rates". Current Anthropology. 49 (5): 901–914. doi:10.1086/592111. ISSN 0011-3204. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  36. ↑ Lillie, M. C. (February 1996). "Mesolithic and Neolithic Populations of Ukraine: Indications of Diet From Dental Pathology". Current Anthropology. 37 (1): 135–142. doi:10.1086/204479. ISSN 0011-3204. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  37. ↑ "Isotope Analyses and the Histories of Maize", Histories of Maize, Routledge, pp. 157–168, 2016-12-05, doi:10.4324/9781315427331-19, ISBN 9781315427331, retrieved 2021-09-11
  38. ↑ Burton, James H.; Price, T. Douglas (2002), The Use and Abuse of Trace Elements for Paleodietary Research, Advances in Archaeological and Museum Science, 5, Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 159–171, doi:10.1007/0-306-47194-9_8, ISBN 0-306-46457-8, retrieved 2021-09-11
  39. ↑ Sołtysiak, Arkadiusz; Schutkowski, Holger (2018-04-17). "Stable isotopic evidence for land use patterns in the Middle Euphrates Valley, Syria". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 166 (4): 861–874. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23480. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 29665014.
  40. ↑ Hedges, Robert E.M.; Reynard, Linda M. (August 2007). "Nitrogen isotopes and the trophic level of humans in archaeology". Journal of Archaeological Science. 34 (8): 1240–1251. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.015. ISSN 0305-4403.
  41. ↑ Lagia, Anna (2014), "Health inequalities in the classical city. A biocultural approach to socioeconomic differentials in the polis of Athens during the Classical, Hellenistic and Imperial Roman periods", Corps, travail et statut social, Presses universitaires du Septentrion, pp. 95–115, doi:10.4000/books.septentrion.60858, ISBN 9782757407677, retrieved 2021-09-11
  42. ↑ Eriksson, Gunilla (2013-05-01). "Stable Isotope Analysis of Humans". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199569069.013.0008.
  43. ↑ Daux, Valérie; Lécuyer, Christophe; Héran, Marie-Anne; Amiot, Romain; Simon, Laurent; Fourel, François; Martineau, François; Lynnerup, Niels; Reychler, Hervé; Escarguel, Gilles (December 2008). "Oxygen isotope fractionation between human phosphate and water revisited". Journal of Human Evolution. 55 (6): 1138–1147. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.06.006. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 18721999.
  44. ↑ Eckardt, H.; Chenery, C.; Booth, P.; Evans, J.A.; Lamb, A.; Müldner, G. (December 2009). "Oxygen and strontium isotope evidence for mobility in Roman Winchester". Journal of Archaeological Science. 36 (12): 2816–2825. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2009.09.010. ISSN 0305-4403.
  45. ↑ EVANS, J. A.; CHENERY, C. A.; FITZPATRICK, A. P. (May 2006). "Bronze Age Childhood Migration of Individuals Near Stonehenge, Revealed by Strontium and Oxygen Isotope Tooth Enamel Analysis". Archaeometry. 48 (2): 309–321. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4754.2006.00258.x. ISSN 0003-813X.
  46. ↑ Nikita, Efthymia; Schrock, Chelsey; Sabetai, Victoria; Vlachogianni, Elena (2018-09-27). "Bioarchaeological perspectives to diachronic life quality and mobility in ancient Boeotia, central Greece: Preliminary insights from Akraiphia". International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. 29 (1): 26–35. doi:10.1002/oa.2710. ISSN 1047-482X. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)


This article "Historical bioarchaeology" is from Wikipedia. The list of its authors can be seen in its historical and/or the page Edithistory:Historical bioarchaeology. Articles copied from Draft Namespace on Wikipedia could be seen on the Draft Namespace of Wikipedia and not main one.


Retrieved from "https://en.everybodywiki.com/index.php?title=Historical_bioarchaeology&oldid=2592838"
License CC BY-SA 3.0
Powered by MediaWiki
Powered by Semantic MediaWiki