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Hyalomma

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Observations on the life history and bionomics of hyalomma species under different temperature and humidity[edit]

Abstract[edit]

Ticks of genus hyalomma are hard ticks, contains 30 species which are well habituated to cold, hot, dry and humid climates. In the study, we reviewed general biology, life history and bionomics of hyalomma species including habitat,host behavior, prevalence, pre-ovipositional period, ovipositional period, ova size & incubation period, larvae feeding & molting behaviors, nymph metamorphosis & feeding behavior, adult weights and life spans under seasonal influence at different temperatures and relative humidity’s. Hyalomma spp exists in semi-arid, Mediterranean countries, tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. They infest variety of hosts including cattle, buffalo, camel, sheep, goat, rabbit, birds and reptiles. During cold no pre-oviposition and oviposition is evident. As ambient temperature and humidity rises length of pre-oviposition, oviposition, incubation and hatching is shortens. Similarly no metamorphosis and engorgement of larvae and nymph is evident at very cold conditions. Hyalomma spp. flourish maximum from March to November in tropical and subtropical regions during temperature of 28-34ºC and relative humidity of 61-78%.

Significance of Ticks[edit]

Ticks are tiny arachnoids, obligate in nature and voracious ecto-parasites that nourish, maintain and reproduce on mammals, birds and rarely on reptiles. They belong to the phylum Arthropoda, class Arachnida, order Parasitiformes and sub-order Ixodida.[1][2]. In both the nymph and the adult, a prominent gnathosoma (or capitulum, mouth and feeding parts) projects forward from the animal's body; in the Argasidae, conversely, the gnathosoma is concealed beneath the body.

They differ, too, in their lifecycle; Ixodidae that attach to a host bite painlessly and are generally unnoticed, and they remain in place until they engorge and are ready to change their skin; this process may take days or weeks. Some species drop off the host to moult in a safe place, whereas others remain on the same host and only drop off once they are ready to lay their eggs. [3][4] They are classified into 3 families but two families of major concern named Argasidae (soft ticks), Ixodidae (hard ticks), a total of 900 tick spp. have been reported till now[5] Livestock sector is under economic and deadly threads due ticks and tick-borne diseases. Ticks stressed livestock industry by various adverse effects. Infestation of ticks cause reduction in appetite, body weight, milk production, alters respiratory rate and blood composition[6][7]. Ticks may induce allergic reactions, toxicosis, paralysis of site and hence global public health issues[8].[9].[10] Ticks with long hypostomes causes devaluation of hide and skins[11]. Ticks induced major loss of livestock sector as vector of viral, bacterial, protozoal and rickettsial diseases[12][13] One of the major vectors in livestock population are hyalomma spp. round the world. Hyalomma spp. don’t play a vector role of many deadly diseases between the animals but also transmit pathogens to humans[14]

General Biology & Life History of Hyaloma spp.[edit]

Ticks of genus hyalomma are hard ticks, contains 30 species which are well habituated to cold, hot, dry and humid climates[15]. Hyalomma species can be morphologically distinguished based on their specific attributes i.e. elongated mouthparts, eyes occupancy, banded legs, have no protective shields and unequal spurs on forecoxae[16][17]. Only males have 3 distinct pairs of ventral plates while no plates are reported in females at any life cycle stage[18],[19] Members of hyalomma spp. are either one, two or 3 host ticks and nymph, larvae and adult ticks can prevail everywhere in the surrounding to search out their suitable hosts[20]. Single host ticks completes their complete life cycle on single host while two tick hosts acquire 2 hosts to complete their life cycle stages[21][22]. Depending upon the species, climate and ecology, ticks may take 3-4 months or more than a year to complete their life cycle stages[23]

Life History and Bionomics[edit]

Host specificity[edit]

Different ticks presents different host specificity. The host specificity of Hyalomma spp. determines whether all life cycles stages (nymph, larvae and adult) reside on the same host or leave the 1st host body to search a new one. The larvae shed off from the host after 3-6 days post feeding during winter and find a suitable shelter for themselves[24],[25]. After hematophagy or nourishment, the fully engorged nymphs of two host ticks Hyalomma spp. shed off from host during moulting and, nymph and larvae usually hunt small mammals like birds, moles, rabbits, rodents and reptiles etc. Most commonly occurring one or two host ticks are Hyalomma scupense, Hyalomma anatolicum and Hyalomma dromedarii while two host ticks include [[Hyalomma schulzei and Hyalomma marginatum[26] Hyalomma truncatum, Hyalomma lusitanicum, Hyalomma impressum, Hyalomma asiaticum, Hyalomma nitidum, Hyalomma albiparmatum, Hyalomma impeltatum and Hyalomma franchinii]] are most commonly occurring three host ticks[27]

Prevalence of hyalomma spp.[edit]

Hyalomma spp. target variety of animals including cattle, buffalo, camel, sheep, goat and rabbits. They are commonly diagnosed and identified in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. They are also common in semi-arid regions such as Spain, China and Mauritania[28] The hyalomma species population has been reported maximum from March to November with relative humidity of 61-84%[29] [[Hyalomma asiaticum, Hyalomma dromedarii, Hyalomma detritum, Hyalomma schulzei. Hyalomma marginatum, Hyalomma impressum, Hyalomma truncatum, Hyalomma nitidum, Hyalomma asiaticum, Hyalomma albiparmatum and Hyalomma lusitanicum are identified frequently and actively reported in more than 21 countries including in China, France, India, Iran, Italy, Pakistan, Russia, Romania, Spain and all tropical & subtropical regions worldwide[30][31]]]

Pre-Ovipositional period[edit]

Pre-ovipositional period of hyalomma spp. varies under different temperatures and humidity. It is 10-40 days during spring, 15-25 days during summer while 8-10 days during autumn[32]. It has been reported that period shortens at relatively high temperature and humidity.

Ovipositional period[edit]

Ovipositional period of ticks is not only influenced by seasonal changes but also influenced by the feeding behavior[33] The ticks which engorge little results very low or no oviposition with very less to no hatching while fully engorged ticks subject maximum oviposition and hatching[34] The mean ovipositional period of hyalomma spp. also varies under different temperatures and humidity i.e.15 to 20 days during spring, 10 to 15 days during summer and 10 to 18 days in autumn has been reported in various studies.

Ova Size & Incubation Period[edit]

Incubation length of ova of hyalomma spp. also varies season to season. It ranges 19-40 days during spring, 15-25 days during summer and 10-20 days during autumn. Average Ova size and weight of hyalomma spp. usually reported 0.475 X 0.424 mm and 0.048 respectively[35]. Females of Hyalomma truncatum led maximum number of eggs at 28°C and 85% of relative humidity[36]

Larvae[edit]

Maximum fasting longevity of hyalomma larvae ranges from 35-90 days while moulting is grandiose under seasonal changes[37]. The larvae shed off from the host after 3-6 days of feeding during winter and find a suitable shelter for themselves[38]. Larvae of hyalomma spp. feed on host and engorged fully from 3-15 days during spring, 3-19 days during summer and 7-10 days during autumn. The size and weight of unfed and fed larvae varies under seasonal changes. On an average, engorged larvae ranges from 0.160-0.175 mg and non-engorged larvae weight ranges from 0.037-0.048 mg[39]. The moulting of the larvae is lengthened during cold season and is fastened during hot weather[40] Larvae of Hyalomma aegyptium feed maximum at 28-34ºC and relative humidity of 68-78%[41]

Nymph[edit]

Nymph of hyalomma spp. usually rests for 3-7 days after moulting[42] Maximum fasting longevity of hyalomma nymph ranges 49-90 days during spring, 4-10 days during summer and 6-10 days during autumn. The size, weight and moulting of unfed and fed larvae is also influenced by seasonal changes and the length of moulting is reduced with rise in temperature and relative humidity (Snow. 1969).[43] Engorged nymph of various hyalomma species vary in size and weight, however weight of unfed larvae domain from 0.106-0.126 mg and engorged larvae ranges from 0.895-1.528 mg[44] Engorged nymph of hyalomma Schulzei loves to feed blood and may weights up to 70mg individually at 29ºC and 75% of relative humidity Snow KJP. 1969. T[45]. Engorged nymph of Hyalomma marginatum isaaci may attain body weight of 330-350mg under 31-32ºC and relative humidity of 68-78%[46]. Engorged nymph of Hyalomma rufipes may reach up to 900-1039 mg at 18-21ºC and 50% relative humidity[47]

Adults[edit]

Adult members of hyalomma spp. engorged fully in 8-20 days during summer, 5-8 days during autumn and 7-19 days during summer. Unfed individuals measure 1.30-25 mg while fed adults may reach up to 1050mg[48],[49]. On an average hyloma ticks require 98-128 days for their life cycle from egg laying to egg laying[50] The largest adult with lengthiest life span of hyalomma tick is hyalomma rufipes. The size of its may reach 1050mg with life span of 179 days which is longer than hylomma detritum, hylomma asiaticum, hyalomma kozlovi, hyalomma aegyptium, hyalomma impeltatum and hyalomma dromedarii[51]

Relationship with disease transmission[edit]

Vector role of hyalomma spp. in disease transmission is pivotal and concerning due to deadly animal and public health issues. They are carriers of many blood borne pathogens like theileria spp., Babesia spp., anaplasma spp, rickettsial spp. and coxiella burnetii etc.[52],[53] They are also vectors of many bacterial, viral, fungal and rickettsial diseases[54],[55] They have associated with transmission of infectious, contagious agents from animals to humans and it has been reported in many Asian, African and European countries. Crimean cango virus spread is a recent evidence on role of hyalomma spp. in disease transmission[56] Tick allergies and paralysis of localized area in animals and paralysis in humans is also reported due to bite of Hyalomma marginatum spp.[57],[58]

Conclusion[edit]

Hyalomma spp. exists in Mediterranean countries, tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Their ova can survive even in cold and very hot climates for the years while larvae and nymph may survive unfed from days to months. As ambient temperature increases, the length of feeding, pre-oviposional period and oviposional period decreases. The lengths ova incubation and nymph and larval is shortens by the rise in ambient temperature.

References[edit]

  1. ↑ Estrada-Peña A, Mangold AJ, Nava S, Venzal JM, Labruna M and Guglielmone AAJA. 2010. A review of the systematics of the tick family Argasidae (Ixodida). 50(3): 317-333.
  2. ↑ F. E. G. Cox (8 December 1993). Modern Parasitology: A Textbook of Parasitology. Wiley. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-632-02585-5. Archived from the original on 2017-02-15. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Search this book on
  3. ↑ Estrada-Peña, A., et al., A review of the systematics of the tick family Argasidae (Ixodida). 2010. 50(3): p. 317-333.
  4. ↑ Nava, S., A.A. Guglielmone, and A.J.J.F.B. Mangold, An overview of systematics and evolution of ticks. 2009. 14(8): p. 2857-2877.
  5. ↑ Abubakar, M., et al., Introductory Chapter: Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens, in Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens. 2018, IntechOpen.
  6. ↑ Schroder, B. and B.K.J.J.o.t.S.A.V.A. Reilly, A comparison between tick species collected in a controlled and control free area on a game ranch in South Africa. 2013. 84(1): p. 00-00.
  7. ↑ Jongejan, F. and G.J.P.-C. Uilenberg, The global importance of ticks. 2004. 129: p. S3. 6. van Nunen, S.A.J.M.J.o.A., Tick‐induced allergies: mammalian meat allergy and tick anaphylaxis. 2018. 208(7): p. 316-321.
  8. ↑ .van Nunen, S.A.J.M.J.o.A., Tick‐induced allergies: mammalian meat allergy and tick anaphylaxis. 2018. 208(7): p. 316-321.
  9. ↑ Van Nunen, S.A., et al., An association between tick bite reactions and red meat allergy in humans. 2009. 190(9): p. 510-511
  10. ↑ Castelli, E., et al., Local reactions to tick bites. 2008. 30(3): p. 241-248.
  11. ↑ Gashaw, B. and C.J.A.P.G. Mersha, Pathology of tick bite lesions in naturally infested skin and hides of ruminants: A Review. 2013. 4(2): p. 59-63.
  12. ↑ Rajput, Z.I., et al., Importance of ticks and their chemical and immunological control in livestock. 2006. 7(11): p. 912-921.
  13. ↑ Magnarelli, L.A.J.C.M.N., Global importance of ticks and associated infectious disease agents. 2009. 31(5): p. 33-37.
  14. ↑ Aktas, M., N. Dumanli, and M.J.V.P. Angin, Cattle infestation by Hyalomma ticks and prevalence of Theileria in Hyalomma species in the east of Turkey. 2004. 119(1): p. 1-8.
  15. ↑ Sajid, M., et al., An insight into the ecobiology, vector significance and control of Hyalomma ticks (Acari: Ixodidae): A review. 2018. 187: p. 229-239.
  16. ↑ Linthicum, K., et al., laboratory biology of Hyalomma truncatum (Acari: Ixodidae). 1991. 28(2): p. 280-283.
  17. ↑ Mathison, B.A. and B.S.J.C.m.r. Pritt, Laboratory identification of arthropod ectoparasites. 2014. 27(1): p. 48-67.
  18. ↑ Walker, A.R., Ticks of domestic animals in Africa: a guide to identification of species. 2003: Bioscience Reports Edinburgh.
  19. ↑ Mathison, B.A. and B.S.J.C.m.r. Pritt, Laboratory identification of arthropod ectoparasites. 2014. 27(1): p. 48-67.
  20. ↑ Avendaño-Reyes, L. and A. Correa-Calderón, Diseases of dairy animals| Parasites, External: Tick Infestations. 2002.
  21. ↑ Telmadarraiy, Z., et al., Hard ticks on domestic ruminants and their seasonal population dynamics in Yazd Province, Iran. 2010. 4(1): p. 66.
  22. ↑ Nava, S. and A.A.J.B.o.E.R. Guglielmone, A meta-analysis of host specificity in Neotropical hard ticks (Acari: Ixodidae). 2013. 103(2): p. 216
  23. ↑ Roberts, L.S. and J. Janovy, Gerald D. Schmidt & Larry S. Roberts' Foundations of Parasitology. 2009
  24. ↑ Ghosh, S., P.J.E. Azhahianambi, and A. Acarology, Laboratory rearing of Theileria annulata-free Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum ticks. 2007. 43(2): p. 137-146.
  25. ↑ Ghosh, S., P.J.E. Azhahianambi, and A. Acarology, Laboratory rearing of Theileria annulata-free Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum ticks. 2007. 43(2): p. 137-146.
  26. ↑ Walker, A.R., Ticks of domestic animals in Africa: a guide to identification of species. 2003: Bioscience Reports Edinburgh.
  27. ↑ Welc-Falęciak, R., et al., Effects of host diversity and the community composition of hard ticks (Ixodidae) on Babesia microti infection. 2008. 298: p. 235-242.
  28. ↑ Durrani, A., A. Shakoori, and N.J.A.P.S. Kamal, Bionomics of Hyalomma ticks in three districts of Punjab, Pakistan. 2008. 18: p. 121-124.
  29. ↑ Diab, F., G. El-Kady, and A.J.J.o.t.E.S.o.P. Shoukry, Bionomics of ticks collected from Sinai Peninsula: 2-abundance, attachment sites, and density estimators of ticks infesting Arabian camels. 2001. 31(2): p. 479-489.
  30. ↑ Khan, A., et al., Tick burden and tick species prevalence in small ruminants of different agencies of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), Pakistan. 2019. 45(6-7): p. 374-380.
  31. ↑ Among all tick species hyalomma spp. are most prevalent in cows Qayyum, M., et al., Prevalence, clinicotherapeutic and prophylactic studies on theileriosis in district Sahiwal (Pakistan). 2010. 20(4): p. 266-270.
  32. ↑ Durrani, A., A. Shakoori, and N.J.A.P.S. Kamal, Bionomics of Hyalomma ticks in three districts of Punjab, Pakistan. 2008. 18: p. 121-124.
  33. ↑ Chen, Z., et al., The life cycle of Hyalomma rufipes (Acari: Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions. 2012. 56(1): p. 85-92.
  34. ↑ Dipeolu, O.J.V.p., Studies on ticks of veterinary importance in Nigeria VI. Comparisons of oviposition and the hatching of eggs of Hyalomma species. 1983. 13(3): p. 251-265.
  35. ↑ Chen, Z., et al., The life cycle of Hyalomma rufipes (Acari: Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions. 2012. 56(1): p. 85-92.
  36. ↑ Dantas-Torres, F., B.B. Chomel, and D.J.T.i.p. Otranto, Ticks and tick-borne diseases: a One Health perspective. 2012. 28(10): p. 437-446.
  37. ↑ Chen, Z., et al., The life cycle of Hyalomma rufipes (Acari: Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions. 2012. 56(1): p. 85-92.
  38. ↑ Sharif, M.J.T.E.M. and B.o.t.c.I.T. . The External Morphology and Bionomics of the commonest Indian Tick (Hyalomma aegyptium). 1924(Bull. 152)
  39. ↑ Durrani, A., A. Shakoori, and N.J.A.P.S. Kamal, Bionomics of Hyalomma ticks in three districts of Punjab, Pakistan. 2008. 18: p. 121-124.
  40. ↑ Arthur, D.J.P., The bionomics of Ixodes hexagonus Leach in Britain. 1951. 41(1-2): p. 82-90.
  41. ↑ Sharif, M.J.T.E.M. and B.o.t.c.I.T. . The External Morphology and Bionomics of the commonest Indian Tick (Hyalomma aegyptium). 1924(Bull. 152)
  42. ↑ Sharif, M.J.T.E.M. and B.o.t.c.I.T. . The External Morphology and Bionomics of the commonest Indian Tick (Hyalomma aegyptium). 1924(Bull. 152)
  43. ↑ Snow KJP. 1969. The life-history of Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum Koch, 1844 (Ixodoidea, Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions. 59(1): 105-122.
  44. ↑ Durrani AZ and Shakoori ARJIJoP. 2009. Study on ecological growth conditions of cattle Hyalomma ticks in Punjab, Pakistan. 19-25.
  45. ↑ Shoukry A, El-Kady GA and Diab FMJEJoB. 2000. Bionomics of ticks collected from the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. I. Biology of Hyalomma schulzei (Olenev)(Acari: Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions. 2: 49-56.
  46. ↑ Ponnudurai G, Harikrishnan T and Rani N. 2013. Bionomics of ixodid ticks of ruminants in Namakkal, Tamil Nadu, India
  47. ↑ Chen Z, Li Y, Liu Z, Yang J, Yin HJE and acarology a. 2012. The life cycle of Hyalomma rufipes (Acari: Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions. 56(1): 85-92.
  48. ↑ Durrani A, Shakoori A and Kamal NJAPS. 2008. Bionomics of Hyalomma ticks in three districts of Punjab, Pakistan. 18: 121-124.
  49. ↑ Chen Z, Li Y, Liu Z, Yang J, Yin HJE and acarology a. 2012. The life cycle of Hyalomma rufipes (Acari: Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions. 56(1): 85-92
  50. ↑ Ponnudurai G, Harikrishnan T and Rani N. 2013. Bionomics of ixodid ticks of ruminants in Namakkal, Tamil Nadu, India.
  51. ↑ Chen Z, Li Y, Liu Z, Yang J, Yin HJE and acarology a. 2012. The life cycle of Hyalomma rufipes (Acari: Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions. 56(1): 85-92.
  52. ↑ Khan A, Nasreen N, Niaz S, Sajjad Ali Shah S, Mitchell III RD, Ayaz S, Naeem H, Khan L and De León APJIJoA. 2019. Tick burden and tick species prevalence in small ruminants of different agencies of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), Pakistan. 45(6-7): 374-380.
  53. ↑ Dantas-Torres F, Chomel BB and Otranto DJTip. 2012. Ticks and tick-borne diseases: a One Health perspective. 28(10): 437-446.
  54. ↑ anafshi O, Hanafi-Bojd AA, Karimi M, Faghihi F, Beik-Mohammadi M, Gholami S, Javaherizadeh S, Edalat H, Vatandoost H and Telmadarraiy ZJJoA-BD. 2018. Tick ectoparasites of animals in borderline of Iran-Iraq and their role on disease transmission. 12(3): 252.
  55. ↑ Kazimírová M, Stibraniova IJFic and microbiology i. 2013. Tick salivary compounds: their role in modulation of host defences and pathogen transmission. 3: 43.
  56. ↑ Bakheit MA, Latif AA, Vatansever Z, Seitzer U and Ahmed J. 2012. The huge risks due to Hyalomma ticks. In: Arthropods as Vectors of Emerging Diseases pp. 167-194. Springer.
  57. ↑ Chitimia-Dobler L, Schaper S, Rieß R, Bitterwolf K, Frangoulidis D, Bestehorn M, Springer A, Oehme R, Drehmann M, Lindau AJP and vectors. 2019. Imported Hyalomma ticks in Germany in 2018. 12(1): 1-9.
  58. ↑ Uguz M, Erdogan NM and Eken EJTPD. 2015. Tick-induced facial palsy. 39(3): 248.


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