Sculpture of the fire god Pharro (left) and Ardoksho (right) from Gandhara, Pakistan. The style is influenced by Greco-Buddhist art and Ardoksho is shown holding a cornucopia (upper right), a feature apparently adopted from the Greek goddess Tyche.
The Hellenic period (300 BC–10 CE) brought Greek influence to Pakistan, mixing Greek and local traditions and creating syncretic (mixed) gods.[8] This mix shows the region's historical role as a meeting place of cultures. In the early modern period, Sikhism, a monotheistic religion started in the Punjab region of Pakistan, introducing a distinct set of revered figures.[9] The PaganKalash community, living in the northern parts of Pakistan, has its own gods and spiritual practices.[10]
The following list shows the main gods and goddesses from different religions that started in Pakistan, including syncretic (mixed) gods. The list may not include gods of religions that are influential in the country but started elsewhere.
Man with horns, hooves and tail, fighting a beast. He has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man Enkidu.[13][14][15]Indus Valley civilization seal.
The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) of Ancient Pakistan gives interesting clues about early religious beliefs through its archaeological findings. While there is little direct evidence of specific gods, several key things suggest the presence of early forms of gods (Proto-Deities) and spiritual ideas.[16]
1. Mother Goddess Figurines: Clay figurines, often called "Mother Goddesses," are common in Indus Valley archaeological sites. Historians think these figurines, with clear female features, likely focus on fertility and motherhood. Their wide use suggests that fertility and farming success were important to the spiritual life of the Indus Valley people.[17]
2. Master of Animals: A important artifact is a seal showing a seated figure surrounded by animals. This has been understood in different ways. Some think it might connect to later gods, but this figure could represent early forms of spiritual or symbolic links to nature or animals.[18] The image of the figure with animals suggests a link to natural forces or an early form of worship related to animals.[19]
3. Animal Worship: Animals often appear in Indus Valley seals and sculptures, showing a form of animal worship. The Humped bull, for example, is a key symbol, possibly representing strength, fertility, or farming success. Other animals shown include elephants, the Indus unicorn, and rhinoceroses, suggesting that these animals had special or spiritual meanings. The regular depiction of animals in religious contexts shows that animals were thought to have sacred or spiritual qualities.[16]
The Kushan and Indo-Greek gods are very varied, as shown by their coins made of gold, silver, and copper. These coins feature more than thirty different gods from Iranian,[note 1] Greek, and South Asianbeliefs.[22] Kushan coins show Kushan kings, Buddha, and gods from Indo-Aryan and Iranian beliefs. Early coins also have Greek gods with Greek names. These empires and kingdoms were centred around the Gandhara region in Ancient Pakistan, which played a big role in the syncretism (mixing) of different beliefs and deities (gods).[23] Following is a list of the Kushan or Hellenistic deities of Pakistan:[24][25][26]
Coin of Vima Kadphises. Deity Oesho on the reverse.[36][37][42][43]
Rigvedic Deities
Rigveda is the oldest of the four sacred Veda texts, composed in an ancient form of Sanskrit in about 1500 BCE, in the Punjab (Sapta-Sindhu) region of Ancient Pakistan. It is also the oldest religious text of Hinduism.[44] It consists of a collection of 1,028 poems grouped into 10 “circles” (mandalas).[45] Following is the list of deities mentioned in the Rigveda:[46]
Vayu (Vāyu): The god of wind.File:DT5248.jpgFour-armed statue of the goddess Sharada, the kashmiri name for Sarasvati, from Kashmir, c. late 9th century AD.
Head of a bodhisattva from Gandhara, Ancient Pakistan. Around 4th century, terracotta, 85 cm in height, Asian Civilisations Museum.
The historical region of Gandhara in ancient Pakistan is considered "The holy land of Buddhism".[47] Both the Mahayana and Vajrayana branches of Buddhism have their origins in the Gandhara and Oddiyana regions of Pakistan.[4] Many important Buddhist deities are linked to these areas. Gandharan monks were the first to spread Buddhism to Central and East Asia, and many Buddhist traditions in Japan, Korea, and China today trace their roots back to ancient Pakistan.[21] The Gandhāran Buddhist texts are the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered (circa 1st century CE). Mahāyāna Pure Land sūtras were brought from the Gandhāra to China as early as AD 147, by the Gandharan monk Lokakṣema who translated the important Mahayana sutras. Following are some major deities and Bodhisattvas associated with the region of Pakistan, including both Mahayana and Vajrayana deities:
Mahayana
Amitabha Buddha (Amitābha): Amitabha Buddha is the Buddha of Infinite Light, associated with his Western Paradise, Sukhavati. He embodies boundless compassion and wisdom. The origin of Amitabha Buddha is Gandhara, Pakistan.[48]
Avalokiteshvara (Avalokiteśvara): Avalokiteshvara is the Gandharan Bodhisattva of Compassion, often depicted with many arms and eyes to aid all beings in need. He is one of the most popular Bodhisattvas in the region.[49]
Manjushri (Mañjuśrī): Manjushri is the Gandharan Bodhisattva of Wisdom, symbolizing the enlightened wisdom of the Buddha. He is commonly shown holding a sword and a book.[50]
Maitreya (Maitreyā): Maitreya is the Gandharan Bodhisattva of the Future, who is expected to come to earth to renew the Dharma. He is depicted in a relaxed posture, indicating his future role as a Buddha.[51]
Statue of of BodhisattvaMaitreya, the Buddha of the Future, from Gandhara, Ancient Pakistan.
Ksitigarbha (Kṣitigarbha): Ksitigarbha is the Bodhisattva who vows to help beings in hell realms and protect travelers. He is often shown holding a staff and a jewel.[52]
Tara (Tārā): Tarā is a female Bodhisattva known for her role in guiding and protecting devotees. She is often depicted standing or seated with a serene expression.
Dharmachakra Buddha (Dharmacakra): Dharmachakra Buddha represents the Buddha’s first sermon and the turning of the wheel of Dharma. This form is associated with the teaching of the Dharma.[53]
Padmapani (Padmapāṇi): Padmapani, or the “Lotus-Bearer,” is a Gandharan Bodhisattva associated with compassion and wisdom, often depicted holding a lotus flower.
Vajrapani (Vajrapāṇi): Vajrapani is the Bodhisattva of Power and the Protector of the Buddha. He is depicted holding a vajra (thunderbolt), symbolizing his strength and ability to remove obstacles.
Buddha Shakyamuni (Śākyamuni): Buddha Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha, is often depicted in various poses representing his enlightenment and teachings.
Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (Avalokiteśvara): Avalokiteshvara, as a Bodhisattva of Compassion, is frequently shown with multiple arms and eyes to assist all beings.
Naga Deities (Nāga): Nāga deities are serpent-like beings associated with water and fertility, appearing in various forms in Gandharan art.
Mahakasyapa (Mahākāśyapa): Mahakasyapa was a principal disciple of Buddha Shakyamuni, known for his role in the first Buddhist council. He is depicted as an elder monk with a solemn demeanor.
Kumarajiva (Kumārajīva): Kumarajiva was a renowned translator and scholar whose work significantly influenced the dissemination of Buddhism in Gandhara.
Vajrasattva (Vajrasattva): Vajrasattva represents the embodiment of the enlightened mind and the purifying power of the vajra (thunderbolt), often depicted with a vajra and bell.
Lokeshvara (Lokeśvara): Lokeshvara is a manifestation of Avalokiteshvara, depicted in a regal form with multiple arms and adorned with jewels, symbolizing world protection.
Prajnaparamita (Prajñāpāramitā): Prajnaparamita personifies the perfection of wisdom, often depicted holding a book or scroll, representing ultimate insight into the nature of reality.
Hariti (Hārītī): Hariti is both a revered goddess and demon, depending on the Buddhist tradition. She is one of the Twenty-Four Protective Deities of Mahayana Buddhism. The iconography of Hārītī shows similarities to the Greek goddess Tyche and was transmitted to East Asia from Gandhara, Pakistan. She is known as Guǐzǐmǔ(shén) in Chinese and Kishimojin in Japanese.
Vajrapani (Vajrapāṇi): Vajrapani is a prominent Vajrayana deity symbolizing the power and protection of the Buddha. He is often depicted wielding a vajra (thunderbolt) and a bell. MET DP297457
Padmasambhava (Padmasambhava): Padmasambhava, known as Guru Rinpoche, is a central figure in Vajrayana Buddhism. He is credited with bringing Buddhism to Tibet from Pakistan and is often depicted in various forms, including as a tantric deity.
Tara (Tārā): Tara is a female Bodhisattva and is also a key figure in Vajrayana Buddhism. She is associated with protection and compassion and is often depicted in multiple forms, including Green Tara and White Tara.
Avalokiteshvara (Avalokiteśvara): Avalokiteshvara, a Bodhisattva of Compassion, is also a significant figure in Vajrayana, often depicted with multiple arms and eyes, symbolizing his ability to aid all sentient beings.
Hevajra (Hevajra): Hevajra is a central deity in Vajrayana Tantra, particularly in the Kālacakra and other tantric traditions. He is depicted in a complex form with multiple heads and arms, often surrounded by consorts.
Yamantaka (Yamāntaka): Yamantaka is a fierce deity known for overcoming death and ignorance. He is depicted with multiple heads and arms, often standing on a corpse or in a fierce posture.
Vajrasattva (Vajrasattva): Vajrasattva is the embodiment of the enlightened mind and the purifying power of the vajra. He is depicted holding a vajra and bell, representing the purification of negativities.
Kalachakra (Kālacakra): Kalachakra is a deity associated with the concept of time and cycles. He is central to the Kalachakra Tantra and is often depicted with multiple faces and limbs.
Jnana Dakini (Jñāna Dākinī): Jnana Dakini is a female deity representing wisdom and knowledge. She is often depicted in a dynamic and protective posture, embodying the feminine aspect of enlightenment.
Vajravarahi (Vajravārāhī): Vajravārāhī is a fierce, wrathful deity embodying the power of transformation and protection. She is depicted with a pig's head and a variety of symbols representing her power.
Nairatmya (Nairātmyā): Nairatmya is a female deity representing the absence of self and the wisdom of emptiness. She is depicted in a wrathful form, often holding ritual implements.
Mahakala (Mahākāla): Mahākāla is a protector deity in Vajrayana, associated with the destruction of obstacles and negativities. He is often depicted in a fearsome form with multiple heads and limbs.
Kalarupa (Kalarūpa): Kalarupa is a wrathful deity representing the transformation of negative forces into positive energy. He is depicted in a fierce, dynamic posture.
Samantabhadra (Samantabhadra): Samantabhadra is a primordial Buddha representing the essence of enlightenment. He is often depicted in a serene, meditative posture.
Other
Akshobya (Akṣobhya): Akshobhya is one of the five Transcendent Buddhas of Esoteric Buddhism. He sits on a tasseled throne supported by three crowned elephants, his traditional mounts. He is venerated in both Mahayana and Vajrayana.
Dvarapala (Dvārapāla): Dvarapala or the Door Guardian is a non-Buddhist protective deity that were found flanking on doorways of Buddhist monasteries at the Gandharan site of Thareli.
Hindu Deities
File:Brahma mirpur khas.jpg5th century statue of the Brahma from Sindh, Pakistan. It is the earliest known metallic image of Brahma, and the only known representative of the school it represents. It has been described as "an immense artistic creation" of its time. National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi.
Hinduism evolved from a blend of Vedic religion and other South Asian religious beliefs in the Greater Indus region (Ancient Pakistan),[54] and later in the Ganges Valley as well. The following are the major Hindu gods associated with Pakistan, the list does not include the Rigvedic deities:
Karttikeya (Kārttikeya): The god of war and victory, known for his role as the commander of the divine army.
Brahma (Brahmā): The creator god in the Hindu Trimurti, known for his role in the creation of the universe.
Jhulelal (Jhulelal): A folk deity revered in Sindh, known as the protector of the Sindhi people and the patron of water and rivers.
Shiva (Śiva): One of the principal deities of Hinduism, known as the destroyer and transformer within the Trimurti.
Parvati (Pārvatī): The goddess of love, fertility, and devotion, and the consort of Shiva.
Ganesh (Gaṇeśa): The elephant-headed god of beginnings, wisdom, and remover of obstacles.
Durga (Durgā): A fierce and protective goddess associated with strength and the destruction of evil.
Kali (Kālī): A fierce goddess associated with death, time, and the destruction of evil forces.
Lakshmi (Lakṣmī): The goddess of wealth, prosperity, and fortune.
Vishnu (Viṣṇu): One of the principal deities of Hinduism, known as the preserver and protector of the universe.
Dezau (ḍezáw): The supreme creator deity in Kalasha religion, similar to Zeus. Dezau is associated with creation and the formation of all other gods and goddesses. The term "Dezau" is derived from the Indo-European word *dheig'h, meaning 'to form' or 'to create.'
Dizane (Disane): The great MotherGoddess of the Kalasha people, also known as Disani or Dezalik (The sister of Dezau). She is associated with the hearth, life force, protection of children and women during childbirth, and the wheat crop. The Giché festival is dedicated to her.
Balumain (Bal’ima’n’in): A deity associated with protection and guidance in Kalasha traditions.
Sajigor (Sajigor): A deity linked with natural elements and local traditions.
Krumai (Krumai): A goddess residing on the sacred mountain Tirich Mir, associated with fairies and natural landscapes. She is known for a myth involving her transformation and interaction with other deities.
Mahandeo (Mahandeo): A deity associated with the sun and solar energy, playing a key role in Kalasha rituals and festivals.
Saranji (Saranji): A lesser-known deity linked with agricultural fertility and seasonal changes.
Nirmali (Nirmali): A goddess similar to Lucina from Ancient Rome, responsible for the protection of women and children, particularly during childbirth. She is associated with the roots of the Sacred Tree.
Jestak (Jes’t’ak): A deity associated with health and well-being in the Kalasha pantheon.
The temple of Jestak in the Bamburet valley of, Chitral, Pakistan.
Munjem Malek (Munjem Malék): A deity with specific cultural and religious significance in Kalasha beliefs.
Suchi (Suchi): A deity associated with purity and sacredness.
Warin (warin): A lesser-known deity from the Biriu Valley.
Varoti (Varōti): A deity linked with local traditions and natural elements.
Jach (Jach): A lesser-known deity in the Kalasha pantheon with specific regional importance.
Praba (Braba): A lesser-known clan deity, worshipped only in specific villages of Kalash.
Nuristani Deities
The Nuristani people of northern Pakistan and Afghanistan followed a polytheistic religion, similar to the Kalash, before their converstion to Islam in 1895-96. Following is the list of Pre-Islamic Nuristani deities:[57]
Mara (Mara): The principal creator deity in Nuristani belief, often associated with creation and cosmic order. Also, known as Imra.
Mandi (Mandi): Local deities and spirits, collectively known as Mandi or Moni, associated with various aspects of life and nature.
Shomde (Shomde): A lesser-known deity with regional significance.
Gish (Gish): A deity linked with natural elements and local traditions.
Giwish (Giwish): A lesser-known deity in Nuristani beliefs.
Bagisht (Bagisht): A deity associated with protection and guidance.
Indr (Indr): A deity often associated with rain and storms.
Zuzum (Züzum): A deity with specific local significance.
Disani (Disani): A mountain deity, known in Kalasha religion as Dizane, associated with local traditions and natural elements.
Kshumai (Kshumai): A lesser-known deity in Nuristani pantheon.
Kime (Kime): Another deity with specific regional importance.
Yush (Yush): A deity associated with protection and nature.
In Sikhism
Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded in the 15th century in the Punjab region of Pakistan by Guru Nanak Dev Ji. The core belief of Sikhism is in the oneness of God, who is beyond human understanding and transcends all forms and attributes. The religion was shaped by the teachings of ten successive Sikh Gurus, who are highly revered but not considered deities. In Sikhism, God is singular and does not take on human form.[9]
File:Ek onkar.svgIk Onkār (ੴ), a Sikh symbol meaning "There is only one God". It is a central tenet of Sikh religious philosophy.
Waheguru (ਵਾਹਿਗੁਰੂ, vāhigurū): The term for God in Sikhism, meaning "Wonderful Lord" or "Great Guru". Waheguru is the singular, all-encompassing, and formless God who is the creator, sustainer, and destroyer of the universe. Waheguru is beyond human comprehension and is the focus of Sikh devotion and meditation.
↑Iranian here means Bactrian, Arachosian, etc,. Iranian here does not mean "Persian", which is western Iranian.
References
↑Heesterman, Jan (2005). "Vedism and Brahmanism". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 14 (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference. pp. 9552–9553. ISBN0-02-865733-0Search this book on..
↑ 34.034.134.2Harmatta 1999, p. 326. "Also omitted is the ancient Iranian war god Orlagno, whose place and function are occupied by a group of Indian war gods, Skando (Old Indian Skanda), Komaro (Old Indian Kumara), Maaseno (Old Indian Mahāsena), Bizago (Old Indian Viśākha), and even Ommo (Old Indian Umā), the consort of Siva. Their use as reverse types of Huvishka I is clear evidence for the new trends in religious policy of the Kushan king, which was possibly influenced by enlisting Indian warriors into the Kushan army during the campaign against Pataliputra."
↑Fleet, J.F. (1908). "The Introduction of the Greek Uncial and Cursive Characters into India". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 1908: 179, note 1. JSTOR25210545. The reading of the name of the deity on this coin is very much uncertain and disputed (Riom, Riddhi, Rishthi, Rise....)
↑Shrava, Satya (1985). The Kushāṇa Numismatics. Pranava Prakashan. p. 29. The name Riom as read by Gardner, was read by Cunningham as Ride, who equated it with Riddhi, the Indian goddess of fortune. F.W. Thomas has read the name as RheaSearch this book on
↑Perkins, J. (2007). Three-headed Śiva on the Reverse of Vima Kadphises's Copper Coinage. South Asian Studies, 23(1), 31–37
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