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Road expansion

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki





Roads are currently expanding across large expanses of the Earth’s surface at an increasing rate. Increases in population sizes and GDP, especially in developing nations, are the key drivers of this change.[1] The anticipated length of new paved roads to be built between 2010 and 2050 would encircle the planet more than 600 times,[2] and approximately 90% of these new roads are being built in developing nations.[3] Future road expansion is predicted to be greatest in Africa and South East Asia, with increased encroachment into wilderness areas such as the Congo and Amazon rainforests expected.

Road expansion has many potential positive impacts, and many potential negative impacts. Roads facilitate access to markets, health services, and education. Conversely, roads also allow greater exploitation of natural environments, and can negatively impact communities and economies.[2] It is projected that there will be 2 billion vehicles on the planet by 2030[4]. Understanding the impacts of roads and other infrastructure on our planet, societies, and economies is an important emerging field of research.

Effects on Environment[edit]

Road infrastructure expansion can have numerous negative impacts on environmental systems, both direct and indirect. Direct impacts include animal mortality from vehicle strikes, degradation and fragmentation, and climatic and geomorphological changes. The indirect effects of roads on environments are related to increased exploitation, behavioral changes, and susceptibility to external forces including invasive species. The extent of the effects of road expansion are dependent on the nature of the roads and the sensitivity of the resident ecosystem. Forests and wetland ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to road intrusion as the road represents a significant change compared to the surrounding environment, affecting microclimatic and geomorphological conditions. In savannah, grassland, or desert ecosystems, roads represent a less significant change to the surrounding landscape, but can introduce a significant source of mortality for roaming or migratory species.

File:2. Road building and deforestation in a montane forest area© Mohammed Alamgir.jpg
Road building and deforestation in a mountainous area of Papua Province, Indonesia. © Mohammed Alamgir

Vehicle Mortality and Behavioral Changes[edit]

A substantial reduction in local biodiversity can occur via habitat loss associated with road building and direct mortality from wildlife-vehicle collisions.[5][6] Not only do wildlife-vehicle collisions result in significant animal mortality, they also present a significant source of property damage and human mortality.[7][8] Roads also alter animal behavior by causing changes in home ranges, movement, reproductive success, escape response, and physiological state, according to a major review.[6] The chronic noise resulting from vehicles has also been shown to reduce the reproductive capacity of sensitive species, and cause behavioural changes among wildlife.[9] African forest elephants, for instance, avoid habitats in close proximity to roads[10], and several understory bird species in the Amazon, while able to cross 75 m-wide clearings were unwilling to cross a clearing of 250 m width- a distance equivalent to that of a highway.[11] Increased anthropogenic disturbances associated with roads may also cause many animal species to become more nocturnal, resulting in demographic and ecological consequences.[12]

Fragmentation and Edge Effects[edit]

African Forest Elephant

Initial road construction involves the clearing of land, often not only for the road but also to allow extra room for the construction process.[13] This initial destruction may seem insignificant in size, however, by fragmenting the environment the impact of a road can be substantial.[14][15] The gap in habitat created by this fragmentation can present a barrier to the movement of some animal species (particularly forest species), thereby potentially affecting home ranges and migration routes, territories, breeding systems and population genetic structure, and the seed dispersal of some plant species.[16][17][11][18] Habitat fragmentation also produces further negative impacts in forest ecosystems by altering microclimates, increasing tree mortality, altering forest dynamics, affecting community structure, and contributing to a loss of biomass and carbon stocking potential.[19][20][21][22][23]

In forest ecosystems, roads represent a significant change to the habitat and produce an edge effect (there is a good existing article on edge effects that would not detract from this article). Edge effects such as the alteration of microclimate and ecological dynamics along newly formed forest edges are strongly deleterious to many flora and fauna especially those adapted to forest-interior areas.[22] In the Amazon, tree mortality and biomass loss are significantly elevated within 100m of fragmented forest edges,[21] and impacts can occur over much larger spatial scales if fires penetrate into fragments from surrounding pastures.[24] Some further examples of edge effects include altered plant species composition, higher tree mortality, elevated wind disturbance, a proliferation of vines, weeds, and invasive plant species, drier microclimatic conditions, and lower abundances of understory birds.[22][25][26].

The fragmentation of protected areas by roads is of concern particularly where forest management practices are weak. In Africa, upgraded and proposed road-development corridors intersected 345 protected areas, of which 69 were high value protected areas (national parks, World Heritage Site, RAMSAR site).[27] Forest fragmentation compounds the degradation of genetic biodiversity amongst isolated species in a region, and greatly increases the risk of extinction particularly of rare species.[28][29]

Exploitation[edit]

Roads also have many indirect effects, and in many instances these are actually more harmful to ecosystems than the direct impacts of roads. By increasing the accessibility of previously intact ecosystems, roads allow for increased rates of exploitation of natural resources through hunting, logging, and mining.[30][31] These activities, along with fires and conversion of forest to other land uses are major causes of tropical forest loss across the globe.[32][33][34][35]

Road building increases deforestation through increased access to previously inaccessible forests, facilitating unofficial road building, legal and illegal logging, illegal colonization of previously undisturbed areas, land speculation, land grabbing, and forest conversion through illegal and legal means.[34][36] [37][38] Prior studies have demonstrated a very strong positive correlation between road building and deforestation in regions such as the Amazon,[37] Borneo,[39] and Equatorial Africa.[32][40] It is reported that 95% of all deforestation in the Amazon occur within 5.5 km of legal or illegal roads,[41] indicating the remarkably strong association of existing and planned roads as a proximate driver of forest loss and degradation.[36][42]

Road building also facilitates increased access for poachers and hunters,[9][10][14][17][25][43] leading to an increase in legal and illegal hunting. In Central Africa the strongest predictors of a decline of elephant populations were “proximity to expanding infrastructure” and “absence of law enforcement”.[25]  Two thirds of African forest elephants were slaughtered for their valuable ivory tusks between 2002 and 2011, largely as a result of sharply increased road-building rates in Central Africa.[10][25][43] Similarly, in equatorial West Africa, the “primary cause” of the collapse of gorilla and chimpanzee populations was hunting spurred by a rapid expansion of road networks, which facilitated poaching as well as habitat conversion.[44]

Climate and Geomorphology[edit]

In undulating terrain, road construction typically proceeds via cut-and-fill activities, in which high parts of the landscape are cut down and the fill (soil and mineral earth) is bulldozed into lower areas, in order to flatten-out the topography along the road route. Concurrently, vegetation is usually cleared along and adjacent to a road footprint. Both these practices dramatically increases surface erosion and sediment inputs to water courses. This alters hydrological patterns, reducing water quality for humans and livestock and elevates water turbidity and temperature.[26][45][46] The altered existing hydrological dynamics resulting from cut and fill activities, inadequate drainage, culverts, and bridges associated with road construction can also obstruct surface-water flow, leading to impeded drainage and localized flooding, particularly during high-rainfall episodes.[47][48]

Road construction in a forested landscape can sharply increase the frequency of human-lit fires.

Road construction in a forested landscape can sharply increase the frequency of human-lit fires. Road construction in mountainous areas or steep terrain increases the risks of landslides,[49] particularly in wet environments.[45] Site disturbances, vegetation clearing, unstable terrain caused by cut-and-fill activities, and road drainage all contributes to the elevated rates of landslides in mountainous or steep terrain areas with roads.[46] In fact, the likelihood of landslides is up to five times higher in close proximity (<80 m) to roads.[13]

Road construction in a forests can lead to increases in the frequency of fires.[5][35] This can happen via numerous mechanisms, including intentionally lit fires (leading to deforestation), leaked fires from land management practices adjacent to fragmented forests or roads, and accidental fires due to increased human-ignition sources.[50][51] Apart from direct biomass loss and carbon emissions, elevated fire regimes can alter the species composition and ecological dynamics of the remaining forests. In fact, in the Brazilian Amazon, ~90% of fires occurred within ≤10 km of roads.[52]

Effects on Economy[edit]

Market Access[edit]

Road infrastructure development can lower the costs of accessing markets, especially for remote communities. Increased market access allows producers, such as farmers, to increase the export of their goods, and thereby increase money into the community. Improved road infrastructure has reduced poverty by facilitating higher production and exports in Peru,[53] Bangladesh,[54] and parts of Sub-Saharan Africa.[55] Improved market access as a result of improved road infrastructure may also facilitate a trend from subsistence agriculture to increasing specialized and commercialized agriculture.[56] While increased commercialization of agriculture may result in economic gains for communities, it can also increase dependence on external markets.[57] Additionally, transitioning away from subsistence agriculture increases reliance on outside sources of food[58] and can often be detrimental to nutritional status.[57][58][59]

Increased access to markets also allows individuals in remote communities to purchase goods beyond what have been produced within their community. In some situations this can result in improved food security, as communities need not rely on their own agricultural capacity.[60] Alternatively, it allows for the purchasing and consumption of non-essential, or detrimental products including drugs and alcohol.[61]

Facilitating access of remote communities to urban markets also has the detrimental effect of allowing urban market influences to affect rural economies. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, urban markets are subject to greater control by soldiers than are rural markets, resulting in hunters and farmers paying more protection money and getting less of a share of profits made.[62] Greater market intensity is also more environmentally detrimental. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, more large-bodied and endangered animals are hunted for sale in urban markets than in rural markets.[62]

Traffic and Road Maintenance[edit]

Funding for new road infrastructure is often focused on initial road construction, with less money being earmarked for ongoing maintenance.[63] With many new roads being constructed in high-rainfall tropical environments, degradation leading to slumping and pot-holing are rendering expensive paved roads impassable in just a few years. Road degradation can increase the cost of using the road, by lengthening travel time or causing damage to vehicles.[64] Poor quality paved roads may cost less on initial construction, but are more costly to maintain and produce greater costs of use over the life of the road.[64]

Maintaining roads often involves long-term and major investments which can be whittled away by corrupt practices of those saddled with maintenance responsibilities. Moreover, budgeting high construction costs, but building substandard roads which require higher levels of maintenance is both a common practice and a major drain on public expenditures and private investment.[63] Such activities escalate costs and reduce the usable lifetime of roads, and is particularly evident in many developing countries where corruption is more pervasive and implicitly tolerated.[40][65][66]

Increased road expansion incentivises people to purchase cars and use roads to a greater degree than previously. This increased use results in further degradation of the roads, leading to higher maintenance costs. Increased vehicle and road use can also lead to more accidents, particularly in regions where roads are poor quality and motor vehicle use is relatively novel.[56][67] While it may seem counter-intuitive, more roads results in more traffic, not less, due to induced demand (there is a wikipedia article explaining this also). As such, economic appraisals of road projects in developing countries often find that improving existing road infrastructure is more beneficial than construction of new road infrastructure.[64]

Corruption[edit]

Cross River Gorilla

Corruption may lead to road projects that are poorly planned and constructed. Subsequently, these projects may experience numerous unplanned and negative economic outcomes such as inflated project costs and significant financial debt. Any ensuing debt burden on a government is often resolved through increased taxes and public funds.[68][69][65][70]

An example of corruption in road projects is the previously proposed Cross River ‘Superhighway’ route which would have cut through much of the remaining habitat for the endangered Cross River Gorilla (Gorrilla gorilla diehli) in southern Nigeria. The project originally included a 20 km-wide 'buffer corridor' which if implemented would have resulted in the seizing of extensive traditional community-owned lands while few if any of the touted economic benefits would have been realised. In reality, the economic benefits of the corridor would have been realised by selected decision-makers while impacting heavily on local communities; a practice frequently seen in during major infrastructure projects in poorly-governed regions.[32][65]

Corruption also plays a significant role in delaying certain road projects, while accelerating others. For instance, despite a dramatic growth in financing for infrastructure, corruption has slowed down the delivery of some projects in the transportation sector. In other cases, corruption has allowed some ill-advised projects to rapidly proceed by circumventing or reducing requirements delivered under  mandated environmental impact assessments.

Effects on Societies[edit]

Access to Services[edit]

In developing countries especially, goods and services such as health facilities and educational facilities are typically concentrated in urban regions, with little to no availability in remote and rural areas. Road expansion may provide greater accessibility to urban centres, and hence improve educational attainment.[71] In both Bangladesh[54] and Madagascar[72] investments in improving rural roads have led to greater education attainment. Similarly, greater access to urban areas gives remote communities better access to health facilities, including medical supplies and medical information,[73] and has been associated with better health outcomes.[71]

Access to urban centres facilitated by road expansion may also result in improved employment opportunities. In Indonesia, improved roads allowed job creation in manufacturing industries and an occupational shift amongst workers away from agriculture.[74] Conversely, a greater supply of people seeking employment may drive down the wages in an area, producing a negative effect on livelihoods.[75]

While access to goods and services associated with urban centres can be beneficial, increased relocation to already densely populated centres can increase the strain on cities already struggling to cope with growing populations, particularly in developing regions.[76] Increasing urbanization comes with its own associated problems including increased crime, increasing inequality, and public health concerns among others.[75][77][78]

Migration and Culture[edit]

Road expansion can promote forced migration of local peoples, with indigenous groups often being highly vulnerable. This can happen via the influx of non-indigenous settlers who migrate into the region for employment or to exploit local resources. Non-indigenous settlers can attain or claim the land title through land grabbing, land speculation, and illegal colonization.[79][80][81][82] While migration can increase urbanization, potentially leading to increased development, this is often at the expense of indigenous populations.

Road expansion is particularly threatening for often vulnerable remote communities. Large road projects usually generate an influx of temporary migrant workers, which can increase demand for immoral services such as prostitution and black-market products.[83][14][5] Beyond this, road expansion in remote areas can also promote activities such as illegal logging, illegal mining, poaching, smuggling and illicit drug production.[84][5][85][86][87][88] Such activities can have chain-reaction-like impacts on the traditional culture and social structure of local communities. The scale and pace of these impacts are likely to be most severe in indigenous communities.

The traditional culture and lifestyles of indigenous groups that have lived in remote areas for many generations may be substantially altered by new roads. Unprecedented road penetration into their natural landscapes can damage the aesthetic of the landscape and traditional cultural practices, the influx of non-indigenous land settlers can violate traditional land rights, and increased commercial poachering can alter traditional hunting practices. All such consequences can degrade the cultural heritage of the indigenous communities, increasing loss of their traditional identity and culture.[63][89][79]

Diseases[edit]

Temporary workers for road building and the influx of settlers resulting from road building can also bring new pests and diseases into communities. This mechanism can be particularly dangerous for indigenous communities that have limited tolerance and immunity to new pathogens. For instance, the construction of the Trans-Amazon highway in the 1970s resulted in the death of 45% of one indigenous community within a single year.[90]

Road expansion can increase the incursion of common diseases into communities such as malaria and also increase the vulnerability of communities to previously uncommon diseases such as HIV. This can occur as pests and pathogens use roads as a pathway to spread from one place to another place. Human enteric pathogen levels, for instance, were 2–8-times higher in Ecuadorian villages near roads than in more remote areas[91] and incursions of dengue fever, malaria, and HIV were higher among people living near roads than in remote communities.[83][92][93]

Conflict[edit]

The influx of non-indigenous migrants through road building, and the associated intensification can create inter-group conflicts, such as seen between indigenous Amazonian tribes and loggers or gold miners.[94] Additionally, increased road access can increase the spread of conflicting forces in war-torn regions, and the pace at which conflicts escalate. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, more accessible regions were exposed to more violent events than less accessible regions resulting in a decrease in population welfare.[95]

Reducing the Impacts of Road Expansion[edit]

Expanding existing roads[edit]

Following the ‘first-cut-is-the-deepest’ dictum, the expansion or upgrading of roads in previously settled areas is believed to cause less environmental impact per kilometre of road development than where new roads penetrate intact forest landscapes. Beyond this rule of thumb, however, road expansion can threaten remnant habitats of endangered species and lead to the loss of remnant areas of rare ecosystems (e.g., lowland tropical forest). This is increasingly common as new major road developments seek to consolidate earlier, rudimentary road networks (often characterized by penetration roads, improvised roads, and rough tracks) to expand agricultural and industrial activities in partially deforested landscapes. Many economic appraisals of road projects in developing countries have found that improving existing road infrastructure is more beneficial than construction of new road infrastructure.[64]

Examples of such consolidative road-expansion projects include the various 'development corridors' of Africa,[27][40] meant to facilitate trans-national economic activities; Indonesia’s development corridors as per its Master Development Plan[96], meant to accelerate agro-industrial development, mining and timber extraction; and China’s One Belt One Road initiative.[97]  In northern Sumatra, Indonesia, proposed road developments extending the trans-Sumatran highway if they were to occur will affect six of the eight local conservation priority areas of the Leuser Ecosystem,[98] comprising 89% of the remaining Sumatran orangutan's habitat.[99] In fact, Forest conversion due to road development in this region has been projected as a major factor influencing the decline in orangutan populations.[100][101]

Limiting road expansion[edit]

Road planning to limit the extension of exiting roads in ecologically vulnerable areas or mitigation measures such as restriction of road width and the inclusion of faunal overpasses is an emerging field of conservation science. Aside from the environmental benefits, limiting road expansion may also be beneficial for social and economic factors in developing regions. Many roads in remote areas have uncertain socio-economic benefits and surprisingly high economic, social, and environmental risks, and a cost-benefit analysis of 33 planned ‘development corridors’ in sub-Saharan Africa concluded that less than one-fifth of the projects were clearly justified.[40] Many road developments will be characterized by upgrades to rudimentary road networks, rather than entirely new roads.[27] The Trans-Borneo Highway in Sabah, Malaysia is one example, as virtually all road developments on this route planned for 2033 will coincide with existing logging roads or two-lane access roadways.[102][103]

In addition to simply limiting road expansion, more rigorous approaches to project assessment and planning, such as unbiased cost-benefit analyses, proactive land-use planning,[2] and strategic environmental-impact assessments (which consider socioeconomic and environmental issues over wider spatial scales and timeframes) are direly needed.[40][65][66]

See also…[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ Johan, R. M., Mark, A. J. H., Kees, C. G. J. S., & Aafke, M. S. (2018). Global patterns of current and future road infrastructure. Environmental Research Letters, 13(6), 064006.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Laurance, W.F., Clements, G.R., Sloan, S., O’Connell, C.S., Mueller, N.D., Goosem, M., Venter, O., Edwards, D.P., Phalan, B., Balmford, A., et al. (2014). A global strategy for road building. Nature 513, 229–232
  3. ↑ Dulac, J. (2013). Global land transport infrastructure requirements: Estimating road and railway infrastructure capacity and costs to 2050 (Paris, France: International Energy Agency), p. 50.
  4. ↑ D. Sperling, D. Gordon, Two Billion Cars: Driving Toward Sustainability (Oxford Univ. Press, 2009).
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Laurance, W.F., Goosem, M., Laurance, S.G.W., 2009. Impacts of roads and linear clearings on tropical forests. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24, 659-669.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Trombulak, S.C., Frissell, C.A., 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology 14, 18-30.
  7. ↑ Forman, R.T.T., and Alexander, L.E. (1998). Roads and their major ecological effects. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29, 207-231.
  8. ↑ Bissonette, J.A., Kassar, C.A., Cook, L.J. 2008. Assessment of costs associated with deer-vehicle collisions: human death and injury, vehicle damage, and deer loss. Human-Wildlife Conflicts 2(1): 17-27.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Laurance, W.F., Croes, B.M., Tchignoumba, L., Lahm, S.A., Alonso, A., Lee, M.E., Campbell, P., Ondzeano, C., 2006a. Impacts of roads and hunting on Central African rainforest mammals. Conservation Biology 20, 1251-1261.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Blake, S., Deem, S.L., Strindberg, S., Maisels, F., Momont, L., Isia, I.-B., Douglas-Hamilton, I., Karesh, W.B., Kock, M.D., 2008. Roadless wilderness area determines forest elephant movements in the Congo Basin. PLoS ONE 3, e3546.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Laurance, S.G.W., Gomez, M.S., 2005. Clearing width and movements of understory rainforest birds. Biotropica 37, 149-152.
  12. ↑ Gaynor, K. M., Hojnowski, C. E., Carter, N. H., & Brashares, J. S. (2018). The influence of human disturbance on wildlife nocturnality. Science, 360(6394), 1232-1235. doi:10.1126/science.aar7121   
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Larsen, M.C., Parks, J.E., 1997. How wide is a road? The association of roads and mass-wasting in a forested montane environment. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 22, 835-848.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Clements, G.R., Lynam, A.J., Gaveau, D., Yap, W.L., Lhota, S., Goosem, M., Laurance, S., Laurance, W.F., 2014. Where and how are roads endangering mammals in Southeast Asia's Forests? PLoS ONE 9, e115376.
  15. ↑ Jaeger, J.A.G., 2000. Landscape division, splitting index, and effective mesh size: new measures of landscape fragmentation. Landscape Ecology 15, 115-130.   
  16. ↑ Shepard, D. B., Kuhns, A. R., Dreslik, M. J., & Phillips, C. A. (2008). Roads as barriers to animal movement in fragmented landscapes. Animal Conservation, 11(4), 288-296. doi:doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2008.00183.x
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Laurance, W.F., Croes, B.M., Guissouegou, N., Buij, R., Dethier, M., Alonso, A., 2008. Impacts of roads, hunting, and habitat alteration on nocturnal mammals in African rainforests. Conservation Biology 22, 721-732.
  18. ↑ Laurance, S.G.W., Stouffer, P.C., Laurance, W.F., 2004. Effects of road clearings on movement patterns of understory rainforest birds in Central Amazonia. Conservation Biology 18, 1099-1109.
  19. ↑ Ewers, R.M., Andrade, A., Laurance, S.G., Camargo, J.L., Lovejoy, T.E., Laurance, W.F. 2017. Predicted trajectories of tree community change in Amazonian rainforest fragments. Ecography 40, 26-35.
  20. ↑ Laurance, W.F., Camargo, J.L.C., Luizão, R.C.C., Laurance, S.G., Pimm, S.L., Bruna, E.M., Stouffer, P.C., Williamson, G.B., Benítez-Malvido, J., Vasconcelos, H.L., Van Houtan, K.S., Zartman, C.E., Boyle, S.A., Didham, R.K., Andrade, A., Lovejoy, T.E., 2011. The fate of Amazonian forest fragments: a 32-year investigation. Biological Conservation 144, 56-67.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Laurance, W.F., Laurance, S.G., Ferreira, L.V., Rankin-de Merona, J.M., Gascon, C., Lovejoy, T.E., 1997. Biomass collapse in Amazonian forest fragments. Science 278, 1117-1118.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Laurance, W.F., Lovejoy, T.E., Vasconcelos, H.L., Bruna, E.M., Didham, R.K., Stouffer, P.C., Gascon, C., Bierregaard, R.O., Laurance, S.G., Sampaio, E., 2002b. Ecosystem decay of Amazonian forest fragments: a 22-year investigation. Conservation Biology 16, 605-618.
  23. ↑ Laurance, W.F., Nascimento, H.E.M., Laurance, S.G., Andrade, A.C., Fearnside, P.M., Ribeiro, J.E.L., Capretz, R.L., 2006b. Rain forest fragmentation and the proliferation of successional trees. Ecology 87, 469-482.
  24. ↑ Cochrane, M. A., & Laurance, W. F. (2002). Fire as a Large-Scale Edge Effect in Amazonian Forests. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 18, 311-325.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Maisels, F., Strindberg, S., Blake, S., Wittemyer, G., Hart, J., Williamson, E.A., Aba’a, R., Abitsi, G., Ambahe, R.D., Amsini, F., Bakabana, P.C., Hicks, T.C., Bayogo, R.E., Bechem, M., Beyers, R.L., Bezangoye, A.N., Boundja, P., Bout, N., Akou, M.E., Bene, L.B., Fosso, B., Greengrass, E., Grossmann, F., Ikamba-Nkulu, C., Ilambu, O., Inogwabini, B.-I., Iyenguet, F., Kiminou, F., Kokangoye, M., Kujirakwinja, D., Latour, S., Liengola, I., Mackaya, Q., Madidi, J., Madzoke, B., Makoumbou, C., Malanda, G.-A., Malonga, R., Mbani, O., Mbendzo, V.A., Ambassa, E., Ekinde, A., Mihindou, Y., Morgan, B.J., Motsaba, P., Moukala, G., Mounguengui, A., Mowawa, B.S., Ndzai, C., Nixon, S., Nkumu, P., Nzolani, F., Pintea, L., Plumptre, A., Rainey, H., de Semboli, B.B., Serckx, A., Stokes, E., Turkalo, A., Vanleeuwe, H., Vosper, A., Warren, Y., 2013. Devastating decline of forest Elephants in Central Africa. PLoS ONE 8, e59469.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Sidle, R.C., Sasaki, S., Otsuki, M., Noguchi, S., Rahim Nik, A., 2004. Sediment pathways in a tropical forest: effects of logging roads and skid trails. Hydrological Processes 18, 703-720.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Sloan, Sean; Bertzky, Bastian; Laurance, William F. (2016-12-09). "African development corridors intersect key protected areas". African Journal of Ecology. 55 (4): 731–737. doi:10.1111/aje.12377. ISSN 0141-6707.
  28. ↑ Sloan, S., Supriatna, J., Campbell, M.J., Alamgir, M.., Laurance, W.F. (2018). Newly discovered orangutan species requires urgent habitat protection Current Biology.   
  29. ↑ Bruford, M.W., Ancrenaz, M., Chikhi, L., Lackman-Ancrenaz, I., Andau, M., Ambu, L., and Goossens, B. (2010). Projecting genetic diversity and population viability for the fragmented orang-utan population in the Kinabatangan floodplain, Sabah, Malaysia. Endangered Species Research 12, 249-261.
  30. ↑ Gaveau, D.L.A., Sloan, S., Molidena, M., Husnayanem, Wijaya, A., Ancrenaz, M., Nasi, R., Wielaard, N., and Meijaard, E. (2014). Four decades of forest loss and degradation in Borneo. PLoS ONE 9, e101654.   
  31. ↑ Wilkie, D., Shaw, E., Rotberg, F., Morelli, G., and Auzel, P. (2000). Roads, Development, and Conservation in the Congo Basin. Conservation Biology 14, 1614-1622.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Laurance, W. F., Campbell, M. J., Alamgir, M., & Mahmoud, M. I. (2017c). Road expansion and the fate of africa’s tropical forests. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 5(75), 1-7. doi:10.3389/fevo.2017.00075
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