Communism

Communism is a political, economic and social ideology and movement that seeks to establish a classless society based on common ownership of the means of production. Drawing on a range of philosophical and political traditions, communism has developed into diverse schools of thought and has influenced revolutions, political parties, states and social movements around the world.

Modern communism is primarily associated with the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, whose writings established the foundations of Marxism and influenced international socialist and communist movements. Communism encompasses a diverse range of political and philosophical traditions, including Marxism, Marxism–Leninism, Trotskyism, Maoism, Luxemburgism, left communism, council communism, anarchist communism and libertarian communism.

Communist philosophy is founded on the idea that productive resources should be collectively owned and organised for the benefit of society. It seeks to overcome the division between social classes and the economic relationships associated with capitalist production. In Marxist theory, communism represents a higher stage of social development in which class distinctions and the state as a coercive institution have disappeared. The principle traditionally associated with this society is "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs."

Throughout history, communism has developed into numerous intellectual traditions, political organisations and revolutionary movements. Its influence has extended across Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas, shaping labour movements, anti-colonial struggles, revolutionary organisations, political parties and social movements.

Etymology

The word communism derives from the French communisme, originating from commun, meaning common or shared, which ultimately derives from the Latin communis. The terminology became increasingly prominent during the early nineteenth century as movements advocating communal ownership and economic equality developed in Europe.

The term became particularly associated with revolutionary socialist movements and the political theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels during the nineteenth century.

Philosophy and principles

Communism encompasses several interconnected philosophical, economic and political principles.

Common ownership: The collective ownership of the means of production, including factories, agricultural land, infrastructure and productive resources.
Classless society: The elimination of economic and social classes based on ownership of productive property.
Economic equality: The organisation of economic relationships without exploitation or structural economic privilege.
Collective production: The organisation of production through cooperation and social planning.
Distribution according to need: The principle that individuals contribute according to their abilities and receive according to their needs.
Internationalism: Solidarity and cooperation among working people across national boundaries.
Social cooperation: The development of collective responsibility, mutual assistance and cooperative social relationships.
Human emancipation: The overcoming of economic conditions that restrict individual and collective development.
Social ownership: The organisation of productive resources as collectively controlled social wealth rather than private capital.

Class struggle

Class struggle is a central concept in Marxist communist theory. Marx and Engels argued that historical societies have been characterised by conflicts between social classes with opposing economic interests.

Under capitalism, Marxist theory identifies the principal classes as the bourgeoisie, who own and control the means of production, and the proletariat, who sell their labour in exchange for wages.

Communists argue that overcoming this class division requires transforming the ownership and organisation of production.

Common ownership of the means of production

Communism advocates replacing private capitalist ownership of productive resources with collective or social ownership. The means of production include factories, machinery, agricultural land, natural resources and infrastructure.

Different communist traditions propose different forms of collective ownership and economic coordination, ranging from centralised economic planning to decentralised workers' councils and community-based organisations.

Stateless society

In classical Marxist theory, the fully developed communist society is stateless. The state is understood as a historical institution associated with particular social and economic conditions.

Marxist theory distinguishes between the transitional political organisation of the working class and the eventual development of a communist society in which class divisions have disappeared and the state has ceased to exist as an instrument of class domination.

Anarchist and libertarian communist traditions generally advocate the abolition of the state and hierarchical political authority without establishing a centralised transitional state.

Distribution according to need

One of the most recognised principles of communism is expressed in Marx's Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875):

"From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs."

This principle describes an economic arrangement in which individuals contribute to society according to their capacities and receive goods and services according to their needs.

History

Early ideas of communal ownership and social equality

Ideas resembling aspects of communism existed long before the emergence of communism as a modern political ideology. Various societies, religious communities and philosophical traditions developed forms of shared property, collective responsibility and economic cooperation. These earlier examples were not communist movements in the modern Marxist sense, but they contributed to the wider history of ideas about equality and communal life.

In ancient Greece, Plato discussed communal property among the guardian class in The Republic. Early Christian communities practised forms of voluntary sharing, while some religious movements throughout medieval Europe advocated common ownership and greater social equality. During the English Civil War, the Diggers, led by Gerrard Winstanley, advocated communal cultivation of land and challenged private property arrangements.

Modern communist ideas developed more clearly during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. French revolutionary writers such as François-Noël Babeuf and Sylvain Maréchal advocated economic equality and the collective organisation of society. Babeuf's Conspiracy of the Equals in 1796–1797 sought to establish a society in which wealth and resources would be distributed more equally.

During the Industrial Revolution, rapid urbanisation, poor working conditions and economic inequality encouraged new socialist and cooperative movements. Thinkers such as Robert Owen, Charles Fourier and Henri de Saint-Simon proposed alternative systems based on cooperation, social planning and collective welfare. Owen established a model industrial community at New Lanark in Scotland, where he introduced improvements to working conditions, education and housing. He later attempted to establish a cooperative community at New Harmony in the United States in 1825.

These experiments helped develop the cooperative and socialist traditions from which modern communism emerged. They also demonstrated that social reformers could attempt to organise production and community life around principles other than unrestricted private competition.

Marxism and the international socialist movement

Modern Marxist communism developed through the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Their ideas were influenced by earlier socialist movements, German philosophy, British political economy and the labour struggles of nineteenth-century Europe.

In 1848, Marx and Engels published The Communist Manifesto, which described history as shaped by class conflict and argued that capitalism would eventually be replaced by a society based on collective ownership of the means of production. They viewed the working class as the principal force capable of transforming capitalist society.

Marxism influenced the growth of trade unions, workers' associations, socialist parties and revolutionary movements across Europe. The International Workingmen's Association, commonly known as the First International, was established in London in 1864. It brought together different socialist, communist and anarchist tendencies, although disagreements between Marxists and anarchists eventually contributed to its fragmentation.

The Paris Commune of 1871 became particularly influential among later socialist and communist movements.

The Second International was established in Paris in 1889 and helped coordinate socialist parties and labour movements internationally. Its member organisations campaigned for workers' rights, universal suffrage, shorter working hours, social insurance and political representation. Socialist movements also contributed to the development of labour legislation and the growth of organised working-class politics.

Although Marxism became an influential current within socialism, the international socialist movement remained ideologically diverse. Reformist socialists, revolutionary Marxists, anarchists, syndicalists and other movements disagreed over political strategy, the role of the state and the organisation of economic life.

The Paris Commune (1871)

The Paris Commune was established in March 1871 following France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and the collapse of the Second French Empire. It governed Paris from 18 March until 28 May 1871. The Commune was politically diverse, including Jacobins, Blanquists, Proudhonist socialists, members of the First International and other republican and revolutionary groups. It was not a formally communist government, although it became an important reference point for Marxists and other revolutionary socialists.

The Commune introduced a series of social and political measures intended to improve the conditions of ordinary Parisians. These included the separation of church and state, proposals for free and secular education, the abolition of certain forms of workplace exploitation, restrictions on night work in bakeries, assistance for workers and families affected by the war, and measures allowing abandoned workshops to be operated by workers' associations.

Its supporters also promoted elected public officials, local autonomy and greater accountability in government. Women participated in the Commune's political and social organisations, including the Union of Women for the Defence of Paris and Care of the Wounded, which advocated women's employment rights and wider social reforms.

The Commune was defeated by French government forces during the Bloody Week of May 1871. Thousands of Communards were killed, imprisoned or deported. Despite its short existence, the Commune influenced subsequent socialist, communist and anarchist movements, particularly discussions about workers' democracy, decentralisation and popular political participation.

The Russian Revolution and the development of Soviet power

The Russian Revolution developed against the background of autocratic rule, widespread poverty, industrial unrest and the devastating effects of the First World War. The Revolution of 1905 had already produced workers' councils, known as soviets, which later became important institutions in the revolutionary movement.

In February 1917, mass demonstrations and strikes led to the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II. A Provisional Government was established, but it struggled to resolve the country's economic and military crises. Workers, soldiers and peasants increasingly organised through soviets, while demands for land redistribution, peace and political reform gained support.

In October 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and established a revolutionary government. They introduced decrees concerning land, workers' control and the withdrawal of Russia from the First World War. The land decree abolished large landed estates and legitimised the seizure and redistribution of land by peasants, although the subsequent development of agriculture was shaped by civil war and later state policies.

The revolutionary government also introduced policies intended to expand education, improve healthcare, promote literacy and establish a new economic system. The early Soviet period included significant experiments in workers' control, local councils and public administration. These developments took place amid severe economic disruption, foreign intervention and civil war.

The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) involved the Bolshevik-led Red Army, anti-Bolshevik White forces, nationalist movements, foreign intervention and various independent revolutionary groups. Among the latter was the Makhnovshchina in Ukraine, an anarchist communist movement associated with Nestor Makhno. It promoted peasant self-organisation, voluntary cooperation and local councils, while opposing both White and Bolshevik authoritarianism at different stages.

The civil war ended with the consolidation of Bolshevik power, but the conflict had caused enormous destruction and suffering. The government increasingly restricted political opposition, independent socialist organisations and freedom of expression. The suppression of the Kronstadt rebellion in 1921 and the introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP) reflected the tensions between revolutionary aspirations, economic reconstruction and centralised state authority.

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formally established in December 1922. It became the first state to emerge from a successful Marxist-led revolution and subsequently influenced political movements throughout the world.

Revolutionary movements and Soviet republics in Europe (1918–1924)

The end of the First World War created revolutionary conditions across Europe. Economic collapse, food shortages, military defeat and demands for political reform contributed to uprisings, workers' councils and attempts to establish socialist governments.

In Germany, the November Revolution of 1918 overthrew the monarchy and led to the establishment of a republic. Workers' and soldiers' councils appeared across the country. Although the German Revolution did not establish a lasting communist government, it created a powerful revolutionary movement and led to the foundation of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). The Spartacist uprising of January 1919 was suppressed by government forces and right-wing paramilitary units.

In Finland, the Finnish Civil War of 1918 pitted the socialist Red Guards against the conservative White forces. The Reds established a revolutionary government, sometimes referred to by supporters as the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic or Red Finland. The movement included socialists and communists seeking workers' political power and social reform. It was defeated in May 1918, and the White victory was followed by imprisonment, executions and widespread hardship among former Red supporters.

The Bavarian Revolution of 1918–1919 began with the overthrow of the monarchy in Bavaria. Kurt Eisner established the Bavarian People's State in November 1918. Following his assassination in February 1919, political instability intensified. On 7 April 1919, a Bavarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed. Its first phase included independent socialists and anarchists, including Ernst Toller, Gustav Landauer and Erich Mühsam. A second, more explicitly communist-led phase followed under the influence of the Communist Party. The Soviet Republic was defeated by government troops and right-wing Freikorps units in early May 1919.

The Bremen Soviet Republic was established in January 1919 by revolutionary socialists and communists, but was suppressed in February. Workers' councils and revolutionary governments also appeared in parts of Saxony and other German territories.

In Hungary, the Hungarian Soviet Republic was established in March 1919 under Béla Kun. It introduced nationalisation of major industries, social reforms and attempts to reorganise agriculture and education. Its government was defeated in August 1919 following military conflict with Romania and internal opposition. The short-lived Slovak Soviet Republic was proclaimed in June 1919 during the Hungarian-Slovak conflict and was dissolved the following month.

Revolutionary socialist and Soviet-oriented governments also emerged in parts of the Baltic region. These included the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic, the Estonian Workers' Commune and Soviet governments in Lithuania, including the Lithuanian-Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Their existence was closely connected to the wars and political conflicts that followed the collapse of the Russian Empire and the establishment of independent Baltic states.

In Ireland, the Limerick Soviet was established during a general strike in April 1919. It organised local services, transport and economic activity during the strike, but it was not a communist government or an attempt to establish a Soviet state. In Italy, the Biennio Rosso of 1919–1920 saw factory occupations, workers' councils and agricultural strikes, particularly in the industrial north. These movements encouraged the development of the Italian communist movement, although they did not establish a national communist government.

The Bulgarian September Uprising of 1923 and the Hamburg Uprising of October 1923 were further examples of revolutionary communist activity during the interwar period. In Poland, the Polish Provisional Revolutionary Committee briefly operated during the Polish-Soviet War in 1920, attempting to establish a Soviet-style government in territories occupied by the Red Army.

These revolutionary episodes demonstrated the international influence of the Russian Revolution. They also revealed the difficulties faced by revolutionary movements in countries where they lacked sufficient popular support, faced military opposition or were divided over political strategy.

Communist movements in Asia and the Middle East

Communist movements developed in Asia during the early twentieth century, often in association with anti-colonial struggles, peasant movements, labour organisations and campaigns against foreign domination.

In Persia, the Gilan Soviet Republic was established in 1920 in northern Iran. It emerged from a combination of local revolutionary forces, nationalist movements and communist influence. Its leaders attempted to introduce social and economic reforms, but the republic was defeated in 1921 following political and military changes in the region.

In Mongolia, revolutionary forces overthrew Chinese-controlled authorities with assistance from Soviet Russia in 1921. The Mongolian People's Republic was formally established in 1924. Its government introduced a modern education system, expanded literacy programmes, developed public institutions and gradually reduced the political power of traditional aristocratic and religious authorities. The country experienced significant improvements in access to schooling and public services, although its political system became closely aligned with the Soviet model and restricted political and religious opposition.

In China, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921. It initially cooperated with the nationalist Kuomintang in an effort to unify the country and end foreign domination. Following the breakdown of this alliance in 1927, communist forces increasingly developed rural revolutionary bases and organised peasant support.

The Chinese Soviet Republic was established in Jiangxi in 1931 under communist leadership. It introduced land redistribution, local administration, literacy programmes and social reforms in areas under its control. The Nationalist government's military campaigns forced the communists to abandon their main base in 1934, beginning the Long March of 1934–1935. The retreat became a foundational event in the history of the Chinese Communist Party and contributed to Mao Zedong's rise to leadership.

The Spanish Revolution and collectivisations (1936–1939)

The Spanish Civil War began in July 1936 following a military uprising against the elected Republican government. The conflict attracted international attention and involved a range of political movements, including communists, socialists, anarchists, republicans and conservative nationalists.

In areas where the military uprising was defeated, particularly Catalonia, Aragon and parts of eastern Spain, workers and peasants established collective organisations. The anarchist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI) played major roles in these developments. Factories, transport systems, agricultural estates and public services were taken over by workers' committees or collectivised organisations.

In Catalonia, workers' organisations assumed responsibility for parts of industrial production, transport and healthcare. In rural Aragon, agricultural collectives reorganised land and farming through cooperative arrangements. The Council of Aragon, established in October 1936, coordinated local administration and collectivised economic activity until it was dissolved by Republican authorities in August 1937.

These experiments demonstrated the potential for large-scale workplace self-management and cooperative agriculture. In some areas, collectivisation improved access to services and enabled workers and peasants to participate directly in economic decision-making. However, the extent of voluntary participation varied, and some collectivisation measures were imposed under wartime conditions.

The Republican side also included the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM), the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the Communist Party of Spain (PCE). These groups disagreed over revolutionary strategy, the role of the state and the conduct of the war. The May Days of 1937 in Barcelona exposed serious divisions between revolutionary anarchists, the POUM and communist-aligned Republican forces. The POUM was subsequently suppressed, and several of its leaders were arrested.

The Spanish Revolution was ultimately defeated when Francisco Franco's Nationalist forces won the civil war in 1939. The victory established a dictatorship that persecuted trade unionists, communists, socialists, anarchists and other opponents for decades. The collectivisation experiments nevertheless remained influential among later libertarian socialist, anarchist and cooperative movements.

Communist resistance movements during the Second World War

During the Second World War, communist parties and organisations participated in resistance movements against Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Japanese imperial expansion. Their influence varied considerably between countries, and communist participation did not mean that every resistance organisation was exclusively communist.

In Yugoslavia, the communist-led Partisans under Josip Broz Tito became one of the largest and most effective resistance movements in occupied Europe. They organised military resistance, established liberated territories and developed a multi-ethnic political movement. Their victory in 1945 led to the establishment of a socialist Yugoslav state.

In Albania, communist-led partisans played a central role in the liberation struggle and established a new government following the withdrawal of Axis forces. In Greece, the communist-led National Liberation Front (EAM) and its military organisation ELAS became major resistance forces, although the country subsequently experienced conflict between communist and anti-communist factions.

Communists also participated in resistance movements in France, Italy, Poland and other occupied countries. In China, the CCP and Kuomintang both fought Japanese forces, although their rivalry continued during the war. In Vietnam, the communist-led Viet Minh organised resistance against Japanese occupation and French colonial rule.

The wartime resistance helped establish the political legitimacy and organisational strength of communist parties in several countries. Their participation in anti-fascist struggles became a major source of post-war support, particularly in Europe and Asia.

The establishment of communist governments after 1945

Following the defeat of Nazi Germany and its allies, communist parties gained power in several countries in Eastern Europe and Asia. In some countries, they had developed substantial domestic resistance movements; in others, their rise to power was closely connected to the presence of Soviet military forces and the political influence of the USSR.

Yugoslavia and Albania developed communist-led governments following the war. In Bulgaria, Poland, Romania and Hungary, communist parties progressively consolidated control through political alliances, state restructuring and the suppression or exclusion of opposition parties. Czechoslovakia became a communist-led state following the February 1948 coup. The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was established in 1949 in the Soviet occupation zone.

These governments introduced extensive programmes of land reform, industrial development, public education, healthcare expansion and social welfare. In many countries, previously agrarian economies underwent rapid industrialisation, and access to education and employment expanded. Governments also introduced legal reforms affecting women's employment, family law and political participation.

However, the new systems were generally based on one-party political structures. Opposition parties and independent political organisations were restricted or suppressed, while secret police organisations and political surveillance became important features of several governments. The extent of repression and public participation differed between countries and changed over time.

In Asia, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was established in 1948 under Kim Il Sung. The People's Republic of China was founded in October 1949 after the victory of the Chinese Communist Party in the Chinese Civil War. Communist-led governments also emerged in North Vietnam and, later, in other parts of Southeast Asia.

The Soviet Union under Stalin

Following Lenin's death in 1924, Joseph Stalin gradually consolidated control over the Soviet Communist Party and the state. His leadership was characterised by rapid industrialisation, centralised economic planning, collectivisation of agriculture and the expansion of Soviet military and industrial power.

The Five-Year Plans of the Soviet Union, beginning in 1928, directed resources towards heavy industry, infrastructure, mining, energy and machinery production. The Soviet Union developed major industrial centres, expanded technical education and created employment opportunities for millions of people moving from rural areas to cities. The country transformed from a predominantly agricultural society into a major industrial power.

The Soviet government also expanded literacy, public education, scientific research and healthcare. Women entered industrial employment and higher education in increasing numbers, and the state introduced policies intended to expand access to childcare and professional occupations. Soviet achievements in science and technology later included major advances in aviation, nuclear research and space exploration.

Industrialisation was accompanied by immense human costs. Forced collectivisation disrupted rural life, contributed to famine and led to the deportation and imprisonment of millions of people. The Soviet famine of 1932–1933 devastated several regions of the Soviet Union, particularly Ukraine and Kazakhstan. The Great Purge of 1936–1938 involved mass arrests, executions and imprisonment, targeting party members, military officers, intellectuals and ordinary citizens. The Gulag forced-labour system became a major instrument of state repression.

Stalin's government also eliminated much of the political pluralism that had existed during the early revolutionary period. Independent socialist parties, political opposition and many forms of public criticism were prohibited.

The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the defeat of Nazi Germany during the Second World War. Soviet military forces suffered enormous casualties but ultimately captured Berlin in 1945. The country's industrial and military mobilisation was central to the Allied victory in Europe.

After the war, the USSR became one of the world's two superpowers. Its achievements in industrial development, education, scientific research and military technology were significant, but they existed alongside authoritarian rule, mass repression and the suppression of political freedom.

The Chinese Revolution and the People's Republic of China

The People's Republic of China was established on 1 October 1949 after the Chinese Communist Party defeated the Nationalist government in the Chinese Civil War. Under Mao Zedong, the new government introduced land reform, nationalised major industries and began constructing a centrally planned economy.

Land reform redistributed land from landlords to peasants and dismantled much of the traditional rural landlord system. The government expanded public education, literacy programmes, vaccination campaigns and rural healthcare. The 1950 Marriage Law formally established greater legal equality between men and women, including reforms to marriage and divorce rights.

Public-health programmes contributed to major improvements in life expectancy and reductions in infectious disease. Mass vaccination campaigns, sanitation projects and the expansion of rural medical services helped improve health conditions across large parts of the country. Industrial development also expanded, and the state created new infrastructure and educational institutions.

The Great Leap Forward, launched in 1958, attempted to accelerate industrial and agricultural production through rural communes and mass mobilisation. The campaign included ambitious production targets and the construction of rural industrial facilities. However, unrealistic targets, coercive implementation, distorted reporting, poor economic decisions and the diversion of agricultural labour contributed to a catastrophic collapse in food production. The resulting Great Chinese Famine of 1959–1961 caused tens of millions of deaths.

The Cultural Revolution, launched by Mao in 1966, aimed to renew revolutionary ideology and challenge perceived capitalist and bureaucratic influences. It developed into a period of political persecution, mass mobilisation, factional violence, attacks on educational and cultural institutions and widespread disruption. Millions of people experienced persecution, imprisonment, displacement or other forms of violence.

After Mao's death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping became the dominant political figure. Beginning in 1978, the government introduced economic reforms that expanded market mechanisms, foreign investment and private enterprise while retaining Communist Party political control. These reforms contributed to rapid economic growth and a substantial reduction in poverty, although they also produced new inequalities and social tensions.

The history of the People's Republic of China therefore includes major improvements in education, public health, infrastructure and economic development, alongside severe political repression and catastrophic policy failures.

The Cold War and the global communist movement (1947–1991)

After the Second World War, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers. Their political, military and economic competition shaped international relations for much of the second half of the twentieth century.

The USSR supported communist governments and movements in Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America. It also established the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) in 1949 to coordinate economic relations among socialist states and the Warsaw Pact in 1955 as a military alliance.

The Cold War was not simply a conflict between two governments. It involved competing political systems, anti-colonial movements, civil wars, military interventions, economic development programmes and ideological struggles. Communist movements often supported national liberation movements and campaigns against colonial rule, while anti-communist governments received support from Western powers.

Communist parties and socialist movements were active in trade unions, anti-war campaigns, anti-racist organisations, women's movements and campaigns for national independence. Their role varied between countries, and many communist organisations operated legally as parliamentary parties rather than revolutionary movements.

The communist world was never completely united. The Sino-Soviet split during the 1950s and 1960s divided the international communist movement into rival Soviet-aligned and Chinese-aligned tendencies. Other communist parties developed independent political positions, including Eurocommunism in parts of Western Europe.

Communist and socialist movements in Asia

Communist movements played a significant role in the political conflicts and anti-colonial struggles of twentieth-century Asia. Their ideologies, social bases and political objectives varied considerably, ranging from Marxist-Leninist parties seeking to establish socialist states to Maoist-inspired rural insurgencies and revolutionary movements shaped by local nationalist and social conditions.

In Vietnam, the communist-led Viet Minh, under Ho Chi Minh, fought French colonial rule during the First Indochina War. Its victory at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954 contributed to the end of French colonial authority in Indochina. The Geneva Accords of that year temporarily divided Vietnam along the 17th parallel. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam, established in 1945 and governed by the communist movement, became the socialist state of North Vietnam.

The Vietnam War (1955–1975) pitted North Vietnam and the communist-led National Liberation Front of South Vietnam against South Vietnam and its principal international supporter, the United States. The conflict ended in 1975 with the capture of Saigon by North Vietnamese forces. Vietnam was formally reunified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976 under the leadership of the Communist Party of Vietnam.

In Laos, the Pathet Lao, a communist movement allied with North Vietnam, fought in the Laotian Civil War. It took control of the country in 1975, abolished the monarchy and established the Lao People's Democratic Republic, a one-party state led by the Lao People's Revolutionary Party.

In Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, seized power in April 1975 and established Democratic Kampuchea. Although the movement emerged from communist organisations and borrowed Marxist-Leninist and Maoist terminology, its governing ideology developed into an extreme form of agrarian ultranationalism. Its glorification of an idealised Khmer past, racial and ethnic chauvinism, hostility towards intellectuals and urban society, and obsession with national purity have led to interpretations of the regime as a form of right-wing revolutionary fascism, rather than a genuine project of proletarian emancipation.

The Khmer Rouge sought to reconstruct Cambodian society through forced ruralisation, collectivisation and the destruction of existing economic and social institutions. Cities were emptied, money and private commerce abolished, and the population subjected to forced labour, political persecution and mass executions. The regime's policies produced the Cambodian genocide, in which approximately 1.5 to 2 million people died between 1975 and 1979.

The Khmer Rouge's communist self-identification and its use of Maoist language should therefore be distinguished from the substance of its political project. Its extreme nationalism, ethnic persecution, hierarchical one-party rule and violent social engineering are central to interpretations of Pol Potism as fascistic. The regime's ideological classification remains debated among historians, but its self-description should not be treated as proof that its programme represented Marxism or the broader communist movement.

In Malaya, the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) led an armed insurgency against British colonial rule and, after independence in 1957, against the Malaysian government. The conflict known as the Malayan Emergency lasted from 1948 to 1960, although the communist insurgency continued in a reduced form until a peace agreement in 1989. The MCP was strongly influenced by Marxism-Leninism and drew much of its early support from the Chinese-Malayan population.

In the Philippines, the Communist Party of the Philippines was re-established in 1968 under the leadership of José María Sison. Influenced by Marxism-Leninism-Maoism, it established the New People's Army in 1969, which began an armed struggle against the Philippine government. The movement became one of the longest-running communist insurgencies in the world.

In India, the Naxalite movement emerged in 1967 following a peasant uprising in Naxalbari, West Bengal. Influenced by Maoism and revolutionary agrarian politics, it developed into a number of communist organisations advocating armed struggle and rural revolution. Several of these groups later became associated with the wider Naxalite–Maoist insurgency in central and eastern India.

Communist movements also developed in Burma and Thailand. The Communist Party of Burma, founded in 1939, waged an armed insurgency against successive Burmese governments from 1948 until its collapse in 1989. In Thailand, the Communist Party of Thailand led a rural insurgency during the Cold War, particularly from the 1960s through the early 1980s.

Indonesia experienced a different trajectory. The Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) became one of the largest communist parties in the world outside the ruling parties of communist states, with a substantial mass membership and influence in labour, peasant and cultural organisations. It participated in Indonesian politics during the Sukarno period, but was destroyed following the political crisis and Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966. The killings and subsequent repression resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths and the imprisonment of many more people.

In Nepal, Maoist revolutionaries launched an armed insurgency in 1996 against the monarchy and the existing political order. The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) led the decade-long Nepalese Civil War, which ended with a peace agreement in 2006. The Maoist movement subsequently entered parliamentary politics and played a major role in the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal in 2008.

Eastern Europe: reform, resistance and political change

Communist governments in Eastern Europe pursued industrialisation, public housing, education, healthcare and social welfare programmes. These policies contributed to increased literacy, urbanisation and access to employment in several countries. Governments also expanded women's participation in education and the workforce.

However, political centralisation and restrictions on civil liberties generated opposition. The East German uprising of June 1953 involved workers protesting against increased production targets and political conditions. It was suppressed by Soviet military intervention.

In Hungary, the 1956 uprising began with demands for political reform, national independence and the withdrawal of Soviet troops. The movement included students, workers, intellectuals and reform communists. The Soviet Union intervened militarily and crushed the uprising.

In Poland, the Poznań protests of 1956 and the subsequent Polish October movement led to changes in political leadership and some relaxation of state control. In 1968, the Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia attempted to establish a more open form of socialism under the slogan of "socialism with a human face". The reforms were ended by the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968.

In Poland during the 1970s and 1980s, independent trade union activity became a major force for political change. The Solidarity movement, founded in 1980 and led by figures including Lech Wałęsa, brought together workers, intellectuals and other opponents of the communist government. It contributed to the negotiations and political transformations that led to the end of communist rule in Poland.

These movements demonstrated that many people living under communist governments supported social welfare and economic security while also demanding political pluralism, civil liberties and greater democratic participation.

Communist and socialist movements in Latin America

Communist parties and socialist movements developed across Latin America during the twentieth century. They participated in trade unions, peasant organisations, anti-imperialist campaigns, electoral politics and revolutionary movements.

The Cuban Revolution overthrew the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista in 1959. The revolutionary government initially included a range of nationalist and socialist forces before moving towards a Marxist-Leninist political system and establishing close relations with the Soviet Union.

The Cuban government introduced land reform, expanded public education and established a universal healthcare system. The 1961 literacy campaign mobilised teachers, students and volunteers to reduce illiteracy, particularly in rural areas. Cuba subsequently developed a large medical education system and an extensive network of primary healthcare facilities. Its medical personnel also participated in international health missions and disaster relief programmes.

Cuba achieved major improvements in life expectancy, infant mortality, literacy and access to medical care. However, its political system became a one-party state, with restrictions on independent political opposition, freedom of expression and some civil liberties. The economy also experienced shortages, inefficiencies and long-term difficulties, intensified by the United States embargo against Cuba and the loss of Soviet economic support after 1991.

In Chile, Salvador Allende's Popular Unity government was elected in 1970. It pursued a democratic socialist programme that included the nationalisation of major industries, land reform, expanded social provision and increased public participation in economic planning. The government was overthrown by a military coup led by Augusto Pinochet in September 1973, after which Chile experienced a dictatorship characterised by political repression and human-rights abuses. Allende's government was a socialist coalition with communist participation, rather than a communist state in the Soviet sense.

In Nicaragua, the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) overthrew the dictatorship of Anastasio Somoza in 1979. The Sandinista government introduced literacy programmes, expanded healthcare, pursued land reform and supported cooperative economic organisations. It faced armed opposition from the US-backed Contras and experienced economic difficulties and political conflict. The government lost the 1990 general election, demonstrating the importance of electoral competition within the country's political development.

In Grenada, the New Jewel Movement established the People's Revolutionary Government in 1979. The government pursued socialist policies, expanded education and healthcare and began the construction of an international airport intended to support tourism and economic development. Its political system became increasingly centralised, and internal divisions culminated in the 1983 crisis and US military intervention.

Other Marxist and socialist movements included the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), founded in 1964, and the Peruvian Shining Path, which began an armed insurgency in 1980. These movements differed considerably in ideology, strategy and social support. Their use of violence and attacks on civilians, particularly by the Shining Path, have been widely condemned.

Communist and socialist governments in Africa

Communist and socialist movements played important roles in African anti-colonial struggles and the development of post-independence governments. During the colonial period, communist organisations often worked with trade unions, nationalist movements and anti-imperialist groups.

After independence, several African governments adopted socialist or Marxist-Leninist policies in an attempt to accelerate economic development, reduce foreign economic dependence and expand public services. These systems were diverse and should not all be classified as communist states.

In the Republic of the Congo, the government adopted Marxism-Leninism and established the People's Republic of the Congo in 1969. The state pursued public ownership, socialist economic planning and closer cooperation with the Soviet Union.

In Ethiopia, the Derg military government overthrew Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974 and adopted Marxism-Leninism in 1976. It introduced extensive land reform, abolished the traditional landlord system and expanded public education. However, the government also became associated with political repression, forced resettlement, famine-related abuses and the Red Terror, during which thousands of people were killed.

In Mozambique, the FRELIMO government came to power following independence from Portugal in 1975. It introduced nationalisation and socialist development programmes, expanded literacy and healthcare and sought to overcome the inequalities inherited from colonial rule. FRELIMO formally adopted Marxism-Leninism in 1977 before moving away from that position in the late 1980s.

In Angola, the MPLA established a government following independence in 1975 and adopted Marxism-Leninism in 1977. The country subsequently experienced a prolonged civil war involving foreign intervention and competing domestic movements. The government pursued state-led development and expanded education and healthcare, although the war severely restricted reconstruction and economic progress.

Somalia adopted a policy known as scientific socialism under Siad Barre in 1970. The government introduced literacy campaigns, expanded public services and attempted to modernise the economy. It later became increasingly authoritarian, and the country's political system collapsed in 1991.

The People's Republic of Benin was established in 1975 under Mathieu Kérékou, who adopted Marxism-Leninism and introduced state-led economic policies. The government later moved towards political pluralism and abandoned Marxism-Leninism in 1990.

Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde and Madagascar also developed governments influenced by socialism and Marxist thought, although their political and economic systems differed from those of Soviet-style communist states.

These experiences illustrate the importance of distinguishing between communist parties, Marxist-Leninist governments, African socialism and other forms of postcolonial state-led development. Their achievements included independence from colonial rule, expanded education, healthcare and infrastructure, while their limitations included economic difficulties, political centralisation and, in some cases, severe repression.

Communist movements in the Middle East

Communist parties and Marxist organisations developed in several Middle Eastern countries during the twentieth century. They were involved in labour movements, anti-colonial campaigns, student organisations and opposition to monarchies and military governments.

In Iraq, the Iraqi Communist Party became one of the country's major political organisations during the twentieth century. It participated in trade unions and nationalist movements but experienced repeated repression under successive governments.

Communist parties also operated in Iran, Syria and Lebanon, where they participated in political and labour organisations and campaigned for social and economic reform.

In South Yemen, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen was established in 1967 following independence from Britain. The government adopted Marxism-Leninism and pursued nationalisation, land reform, literacy campaigns and expanded public services. It was the only officially Marxist-Leninist state in the Arab world.

In Afghanistan, the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) took power following the Saur Revolution of 1978. Its government introduced land and social reforms, expanded literacy programmes and attempted to modernise rural society. However, the reforms were frequently imposed coercively and provoked widespread opposition. The Soviet invasion in December 1979 intensified the conflict, leading to a prolonged war involving Afghan resistance groups and foreign powers. The PDPA government survived until 1992.

The decline of Soviet-style communism and the end of the Cold War

By the 1980s, many communist governments faced economic stagnation, political opposition, public dissatisfaction and increasing pressure for reform. The Soviet economy struggled with inefficiency, shortages and the costs of maintaining its military and international commitments.

Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1985. He introduced policies of glasnost (greater openness) and perestroika (restructuring), seeking to reform the political and economic system. These changes permitted greater public debate but also exposed longstanding political and economic problems.

In 1989, communist governments across Eastern Europe collapsed or underwent major political transformations. Poland held partially free elections, Hungary dismantled restrictions on its borders, the Berlin Wall fell in November, and communist rule ended in Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania. The Romanian Revolution involved violent fighting and the execution of Nicolae Ceaușescu.

In the Soviet Union, nationalist movements and demands for political independence intensified across the republics. An attempted coup against Gorbachev in August 1991 accelerated the collapse of central authority. The USSR formally dissolved in December 1991.

The end of the Soviet Union marked the collapse of the largest and most influential communist state. Several former communist parties transformed into social-democratic or democratic socialist organisations, while others retained communist identities. The economic transition in many former socialist countries involved privatisation, market reforms and significant social disruption.

Communism in the contemporary world

Communist parties and governments continued to exist after the Cold War. The People's Republic of China, Cuba, Vietnam and Laos retained governments led by communist parties, although their economic systems and political structures developed in different directions.

China introduced extensive market reforms while maintaining one-party Communist Party rule. Vietnam pursued the Đổi Mới reforms, which expanded private enterprise and international trade while retaining the leading political role of the Communist Party. Laos also introduced market-oriented reforms within a one-party political system. Cuba maintained a socialist political and economic system while introducing limited reforms to private enterprise and foreign investment.

North Korea retained a one-party system originating in the communist movement, but its official ideology developed around Juche and other state doctrines. Its political and economic system differs significantly from those of other contemporary communist states.

In Nepal, former Maoist insurgents entered electoral politics and became part of the country's post-monarchy political system. Communist parties also continued to participate in parliamentary politics in countries such as India, South Africa, Greece, Portugal and others.

Contemporary communist movements encompass a wide range of political traditions, including Marxism-Leninism, Maoism, Trotskyism, council communism, libertarian communism and democratic forms of socialism influenced by Marxist thought. Their objectives and strategies vary, ranging from parliamentary reform and trade-union activity to revolutionary political organisation.

Historical significance and legacy

The history of communism is not limited to the governments that ruled in the Soviet Union, China or Eastern Europe. It includes a much wider range of revolutionary movements, trade unions, workers' councils, anti-colonial organisations, cooperative experiments and political parties.

Communist and socialist movements contributed to debates and campaigns concerning workers' rights, land redistribution, public ownership, universal education, healthcare, gender equality, anti-colonial independence and economic planning. In several countries, governments led by communist parties expanded literacy, public health systems, industrial capacity and access to social services. Other movements developed experiments in workers' self-management, collective agriculture and democratic local organisation.

At the same time, the history of communist governments includes political repression, forced collectivisation, censorship, one-party rule, famine, forced labour and mass killings. These experiences differed in scale and character across countries and periods, and cannot be reduced to a single explanation. They remain central to historical debates about the relationship between revolutionary ideology, state power, economic planning and political freedom.

It is therefore important to distinguish between communist ideals, the different traditions within the international communist movement and the policies of individual governments. The Paris Commune, anarchist collectivisations in Spain, the Soviet Union under Stalin, Maoist China, the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and contemporary communist-led states represent different historical experiences. Their similarities and differences are essential to understanding the development, achievements, failures and continuing influence of communism.

Types and schools of communism

Communism encompasses numerous philosophical and political traditions that differ in their understanding of revolutionary strategy, economic organisation, political authority and social transformation.

Marxism

Marxism is a political, philosophical and economic tradition based on the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

It examines historical development through historical materialism, class struggle and the transformation of economic systems.

Marxism provides the theoretical foundation for many subsequent communist movements and traditions.

Marxism–Leninism

Marxism–Leninism is a communist political ideology developed from the interpretations of Marxism by Vladimir Lenin and subsequently formalised in the Soviet Union.

It generally advocates revolutionary political organisation through a vanguard party, the establishment of working-class political power and the development of a socialist transitional economy.

Leninism

Leninism refers to the political and revolutionary theories associated with Vladimir Lenin, particularly his writings on imperialism, revolutionary organisation, political parties and the transition from capitalism to socialism.

Trotskyism

Trotskyism is a Marxist political tradition associated with Leon Trotsky.

It emphasises permanent revolution, international socialism and workers' democracy.

Trotskyists have historically opposed the development of bureaucratic political structures within the international communist movement.

Stalinism

Stalinism refers to the political ideology and governing practices associated with Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union during his leadership.

It is associated with the theory of socialism in one country, centralised political organisation and state-directed economic development.

Maoism

Maoism is a revolutionary communist tradition developed by Mao Zedong.

It emphasises the revolutionary potential of the peasantry, protracted people's war, mass mobilisation and the development of socialism through revolutionary transformation.

Luxemburgism

Luxemburgism is a Marxist political tradition associated with Rosa Luxemburg.

It emphasises mass strikes, internationalism, revolutionary participation and workers' democracy.

Left communism

Left communism encompasses several communist traditions that developed critical approaches to parliamentary politics, social democracy and the organisational strategies of established communist parties.

Its historical representatives include Amadeo Bordiga, Anton Pannekoek, Herman Gorter and Otto Rühle.

Council communism

Council communism is a communist tradition that advocates workers' councils as the principal institutions of political and economic organisation.

It emphasises direct democracy, workers' self-management and the collective administration of production.

Anarchist communism

Anarchist communism is a libertarian communist tradition advocating a stateless society based on common ownership, voluntary association, mutual aid and decentralised organisation.

Important representatives include Peter Kropotkin, Errico Malatesta and Nestor Makhno.

Libertarian communism

Libertarian communism advocates collective ownership and economic equality alongside individual freedom, decentralisation and direct democracy.

It is closely associated with anarchist communism, libertarian socialism and other anti-authoritarian socialist traditions.

Eurocommunism

Eurocommunism emerged during the 1970s among several Western European communist parties.

It advocated greater political independence from the Soviet Union and explored democratic parliamentary approaches to socialism.

Religious communism

Religious communism encompasses traditions that combine communal ownership, economic equality and collective social organisation with religious principles.

Examples include certain forms of Christian communism and religious communal movements.

Ecological communism

Ecological communism combines communist economic principles with ecological sustainability and the collective management of natural resources.

It examines the relationship between capitalist production, environmental degradation and the organisation of sustainable economic systems.

Communist movements and organisations

Communist movements have historically organised through political parties, revolutionary organisations, trade unions, international associations and workers' organisations.

Important historical and contemporary organisations include:

Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Communist International
Chinese Communist Party
Communist Party of Cuba
Communist Party of Vietnam
Communist Party of India
Communist Party of India (Marxist)
Communist Party of Great Britain
French Communist Party
Communist Party of Germany
Communist Party of Spain
Communist Party of the Philippines
South African Communist Party
Brazilian Communist Party

Communism and socialism

Communism and socialism are closely related political and economic traditions that share an emphasis on social ownership, economic equality and the organisation of production for social needs.

In Marxist theory, socialism is commonly understood as the lower or transitional phase of communist society, while communism represents its higher stage.

Different socialist and communist traditions interpret the relationship between the two concepts in different ways.

Socialism encompasses a broad range of movements, including democratic socialism, market socialism, libertarian socialism and revolutionary socialism.

Communism generally seeks the eventual establishment of a classless society based on common ownership and the disappearance of class-based political institutions.

Notable communists

The following individuals have made significant contributions to communist philosophy, political movements, revolutionary organisations and associated intellectual traditions.

Major communist publications

A number of influential publications have shaped the development of communist philosophy and political movements.

The Communist Manifesto (1848) — Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
The German Ideology (1845–1846) — Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852) — Karl Marx.
Das Kapital (1867) — Karl Marx.
The Civil War in France (1871) — Karl Marx.
Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875) — Karl Marx.
Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (1880) — Friedrich Engels.
What Is to Be Done? (1902) — Vladimir Lenin.
Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917) — Vladimir Lenin.
The State and Revolution (1917) — Vladimir Lenin.
The Accumulation of Capital (1913) — Rosa Luxemburg.
Reform or Revolution (1900) — Rosa Luxemburg.
History and Class Consciousness (1923) — György Lukács.
Prison Notebooks (1929–1935) — Antonio Gramsci.
The State and Revolution in China and other works — Mao Zedong's political writings.

International influence

Communism has influenced political, economic and cultural developments throughout the modern world.

Its historical influence includes:

The international labour movement.
Trade union organisation.
Anti-colonial and national liberation movements.
Revolutionary political movements.
Workers' councils and cooperative organisations.
Feminist and anti-racist movements.
Marxist philosophy and social theory.
Political economy and economic planning.
Literature, cinema, visual arts and political culture.
International solidarity movements.

Communist ideas have also influenced debates concerning economic democracy, collective ownership, social welfare, industrial organisation and the relationship between individuals and society.

References

Marx, Karl and Engels, Friedrich. The Communist Manifesto (1848).
Marx, Karl. Capital: Critique of Political Economy, Volume I (1867).
Marx, Karl. Critique of the Gotha Programme (1875).
Engels, Friedrich. Socialism: Utopian and Scientific (1880).
Lenin, Vladimir. The State and Revolution (1917).
Luxemburg, Rosa. Reform or Revolution (1900).
Kropotkin, Peter. The Conquest of Bread (1892).
Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks.
Britannica. Communism: Definition, History, Varieties, & Facts.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Karl Marx.