Femicide in China
Femicide, or the systematic killing of females, is considered to be particularly severe in China as a result of the country’s traditional son preference and restrictive family planning policies. Femicide in China can occur prenatally by means of sex-selective abortion or postnatally through female infanticide and discrimination against girls in health care. Although the phenomenon is more commonly known as “gendercide in China”, such a label lacks accuracy because gendercide, by definition, can involve the systematic killing of men (i.e., androcide) as well.
Background[edit]
Many Chinese couples desire to have sons because they can carry on the family name and provide support and security to their aging parents later in life.[1] On the contrary, a daughter is expected to leave her parents upon marriage to join and care for her husband’s family.[1] In rural households, which constitute almost half of the Chinese population,[2] males are additionally valuable for performing agricultural work and manual labor.[1]
China’s family planning laws restrict the number of children each couple can have. Under the one-child policy, a subset of Chinese families can have no more than one child, whereas a two-child limit applies to parents who meet certain criteria (e.g., if either the mother or the father is an only child, or if the couple belong to an ethnic minority).[3] Couples who exceed their birth quotas are subject to fines, which are usually a multiple of their own annual income or the per capita annual income of their local region.[4] Moreover, children born in violation of the one-child policy, often referred to as "heihaizi" in China, are not allowed to register in the national household registration system, which prevents them from receiving education, health care, and other public services.[5] These deterrents, when coupled with Chinese society’s longstanding male preference, can prompt parents to eliminate their daughters.
Sex-selective abortion[edit]
Sex-selective abortion is a primary form of femicide in China.[6] Since no quantitative, nationwide data on the actual prevalence of sex-selective abortion are currently available, researchers have mainly relied on sex ratio at birth (SRB) to assess the nature and extent of the practice. The natural SRB of a human population is 1.03–1.07, meaning that 103–107 males are born for every 100 females.[6] While China’s SRB was at 1.074—a somewhat normal level—when the one-child policy took effect in 1980,[7] it rose steadily for over two decades,[8] peaked at 1.212 in 2004,[9] and has slightly declined in recent years,[10] which some scholars believe is due to a partial weakening of the traditional son preference.[11] According to an official from the National Health and Family Planning Commission, China’s SRB in 2014 was 1.159.[10] Moreover, a 2005 intercensus survey demonstrated pronounced differences in sex ratio across provinces, ranging from 1.04 in Tibet to 1.43 Jiangxi.[12] Zhu, Lu, and Therese (2009), who published a report on the aforementioned survey, wrote that “sex selective abortion accounts for almost all the excess males,”[12] a statement that has found support in several regional demographic studies.[13] [14] In rural households, female fetuses of parents who already have one or more daughters face the highest risk of abortion.[13]
It is worthwhile to note that some scholars have identified factors other than sex-selective abortion as the main cause of China’s persistently high sex ratios. Zeng and colleagues (1993), for example, contended that at least half of the nation’s gender imbalance arises from the underreporting of female births.[15] Oster (2005) once attributed the abnormal sex ratios to the hepatitis B virus,[16] but she later retracted this claim when opposing evidence emerged.[17]
In China, sex-selective abortions are preceded by prenatal sex discernment, which is achieved, in most cases, through obstetric ultrasonography.[18] In 1979, China manufactured its first B-scan ultrasound machine, which became widely available by the mid-1990s.[13] Although the intended purpose of the machines was to monitor pregnancies and to detect fetal abnormalities, many couples have used them to determine the sex of their child.[13]
On September 19, 1986, the Ministry of Health and the National Population and Family Planning Commission jointly released a notice prohibiting prenatal sex determination in China (except when it is performed to diagnose hereditary disorders),[6] and the two state agencies issued similar decrees in 1989 and 1993 to ensure higher compliance rates.[19] [20] The ban on prenatal sex determination was formally written into the Law on Maternal and Infant Health Care in 1994 and the Law of Population and Family Planning in 2001 (the latter piece of legislation also forbids sex-selective abortions for non-medical reasons).[21] [22] Nonetheless, some commentators have questioned the effectiveness of such legal measures, citing reasons such as lenient punishment for violators and the pervasiveness of private ultrasound service providers to explain the common occurrence of sex-selective abortions in China.[23] [24]
Postnatal femicide[edit]
Female infanticide[edit]
Under natural circumstances, infant mortality rate is higher for boys than for girls.[14] In China, however, the opposite is true, and a large portion of the excess female deaths take place within 24 hours after birth, which can be interpreted as an outcome of female infanticide.[14] [25] Banister (2004), in her literature review on China’s shortage of girls, suggested that there has been a resurgence in the prevalence of female infanticide following the introduction of the one-child policy.[26] On the other hand, many researchers have argued that female infanticide is rare in China today,[12] [15] especially since the government has outlawed the practice.[27] Currently, the relative contribution of female infanticide to the overall issue of femicide in China remains unclear, as coverage of this topic has mostly appeared in the popular press where individual cases are presented. For instance, in July 2012, the Daily Mail reported that a newborn girl, with her placenta and umbilical cord still attached, was found in a trash can in Liaoning province; the two-inch-deep wound across her throat indicated that she was a victim of infanticide.[28]
Sex discrimination in health care[edit]
During infancy and early childhood, girls may face sex discrimination in health care and thus have a lower chance of survival.[25] In a 2004 study conducted in a rural Chinese county, Li, Zhu, and Feldman found that “when children became ill, parents tended to consider illnesses of boys to be more serious than those of girls and consequently were more likely to seek medical treatment for boys than for girls,” and that “once parents decided to seek medical treatment for their children, they tended to spend more money on it, and transferred children to better hospitals for boys than for girls.”[25]
Other forms of postnatal femicide[edit]
From age four, survival rate does not differ significantly across gender, which implies that femicide might not happen in a large scale beyond early childhood.[26] However, organizations such as All Girls Allowed and Women’s Rights Without Frontiers have ascribed China’s high female suicide rate to its coercive family planning policies and gender inequality.[29] [30] A 2013 human rights report by the U.S. Department of State revealed that there are about 590 female suicides in China per day, a number that is three times higher than that for men.[31]
Missing women of China[edit]
As a result of femicide, there are an estimated 30–40 million more men than women in China today.[6] This female deficit is expected to generate a wide range of adverse social, political, and economic consequences.[32] For a detailed discussion on this topic, see Missing women of China.
See also[edit]
- Abortion in China
- Female infanticide in China
- List of Chinese administrative divisions by gender ratio
References[edit]
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Chan, C. L. W., Yip, P. S. F., Ng, E. H. Y., Ho, P. C., Chan, C. H. Y., & Au, J. S. K. (2002). Gender selection in China: It’s meanings and implications. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics, 19(9), 426-430.
- ↑ National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2014). Total population by urban and rural residence and birth rate, death rate, natural growth rate by region [Data set]. Retrieved from http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2014/indexeh.htm.
- ↑ China reforms: One-child policy to be relaxed. (2013, November 15). BBC. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-24957303.
- ↑ Zhang, L. (2014, August 14). China: Statistics on family planning fines released. Law Library of Congress. Retrieved from http://www.loc.gov/lawweb/servlet/lloc_news?disp3_l205404086_text.
- ↑ Feng, K. & Hunt, K. (2013, November 11). The girl with no identity: Being a second child in China. CNN. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/10/world/asia/china-second-child/.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Nie, J. (2011). Non-medical sex-selective abortion in China: Ethical and public policy issues in the context of 40 million missing females. British Medical Bulletin, 98(1), 7-20.
- ↑ Johansson, S., & Nygren, O. (1991). The missing girls of China: A new demographic account. Population and Development Review, 17(1), 35-51.
- ↑ Poston, D. L., Jr., Conde, E., & DeSalvo, B. (2011). China's unbalanced sex ratio at birth, millions of excess bachelors and societal implications. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 6(4), 314-320.
- ↑ Fu., P. (2013, March 5). China's sex ratio at birth declines 4 years in a row. Xinhua. Retrieved from http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-03/05/c_132209268.htm.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Hu, H. (2015, February 4). 我国出生人口性别比六连降. Xinhua. Retrieved from http://news.xinhuanet.com/mrdx/2015-02/04/c_133968718.htm.
- ↑ Chi, Z., Dong, Z. X., Lei, W. X., Jun, Z. W., Lu, L., & Hesketh, T. (2013). Changing gender preference in China today: Implications for the sex ratio. Indian Journal of Gender Studies, 20(1), 51-68.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Zhu, W. X., Lu, L., & Hesketh, T. (2009). China’s excess males, sex selective abortion, and one child policy: Analysis of data from 2005 national intercensus survey. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 338(7700)
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Chu, J. (2001). Prenatal sex determination and sex-selective abortion in rural central China. Population and Development Review, 27(2), 259-281.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Wu, Z., Viisainen, K., & Hemminki, E. (2006). Determinants of high sex ratio among newborns: A cohort study from rural Anhui province, China. Reproductive Health Matters, 14(27), 172-180.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Zeng, Y., Tu, P., Gu, B., Xu, Y., Li, B., & Li, Y. (1993). Causes and implications of the recent increase in the reported sex ratio at birth in China. Population and Development Review, 19(2), 283-302.
- ↑ Oster, E. (2005). Hepatitis B and the case of the missing women. The Journal of Political Economy, 113(6), 1163-1216.
- ↑ Oster, E., Chen, G., Yu, X., & Lin, W. (2010). Hepatitis B does not explain male-biased sex ratios in China. Economics Letters, 107(2), 142-144.
- ↑ Li, H., Zheng, H., Lui, F. T., & Yu, Y. (2009). Ultrasonography and sex ratios in China. Asian Economic Policy Review, 4(1), 121-141.
- ↑ 卫生部关于严禁用医疗技术鉴定胎儿性别和滥用人工授精技术的紧急通知. Retrieved from http://www.120.org.cn/xinxijiansuo/ylzcfgcontent.asp?ID=246.
- ↑ 卫生部、国家计划生育委员会关于重申严禁进行胎儿性别预测的通知. Retrieved from http://60.13.141.177/cgi-bin/Ginfo.dll?DispLaw&w=westpower&ac=&gr=7909&pr=0&lid=57696.
- ↑ 中华人民共和国母婴保健法. Retrieved from http://www.gov.cn/banshi/2005-08/01/content_18943.htm.
- ↑ 中华人民共和国人口与计划生育法. Retrieved from http://www.gov.cn/banshi/2005-08/21/content_25059.htm.
- ↑ Nie, J. (2010). Limits of state intervention in sex-selective abortion: The case of China. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 12(2), 205-219.
- ↑ Eckholm, E. (2002, June 21). Desire for Sons Drives Use of Prenatal Scans in China. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/21/world/desire-for-sons-drives-use-of-prenatal-scans-in-china.html?pagewanted=1.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Li, S., Zhu, C., & Feldman, M. W. (2004). Gender differences in child survival in contemporary rural China: A county study. Journal of Biosocial Science, 36(1), 83-109.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Banister, J. (2004). Shortage of girls in China today. Journal of Population Research, 21(1), 19-45.
- ↑ Female infanticide. (n.d.). BBC. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/abortion/medical/infanticide_1.shtml.
- ↑ Innocent victim of China's one child policy? Newborn baby girl discarded in bin and left to die in plastic bag... with her throat cut. (2012, July 26). The Daily Mail. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2179271/Innocent-victim-Chinas-child-policy-Newborn-baby-girl-discarded-bin-left-die-plastic-bag-throat-cut.html.
- ↑ All Girls Allowed. (n.d.). Gendercide in China. Retrieved from http://www.allgirlsallowed.org/gendercide.
- ↑ Women's Rights Without Frontiers. (n.d.). Female Suicide. Retrieved from http://www.womensrightswithoutfrontiers.org/index.php?nav=female_suicide.
- ↑ Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. (2013). Country reports on human rights practices for 2013. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/humanrightsreport/index.htm?year=2013&dlid=220186.
- ↑ Ebenstein, A. Y., & Sharygin, E. J. (2009). The consequences of the "missing girls" of China. The World Bank Economic Review, 23(3), 399-425.
This article "Femicide in China" is from Wikipedia. The list of its authors can be seen in its historical. Articles copied from Draft Namespace on Wikipedia could be seen on the Draft Namespace of Wikipedia and not main one.
