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Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki

Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb
at-Tamīmī
Calligraphic representation of the name of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's name in Islamic calligraphy
TitleShaykh
Personal
Born1703 (1115 A.H)
Al-‘Uyainah, Najd
Died22 June 1792 (1206 AH) (aged 88–89)
Dir‘iyah, First Saudi State
ReligionIslam
Children
DenominationSunni
JurisprudenceḤanbalī,[1][2][3][4][5] Ahlul Hadith/Independent[6][7][8][9]
CreedAthari[10]
MovementWahhābiyyah[1][2][3][11][12][13][14]
Salafīyyah[1][3][14][15][16][17]
Main interest(s)‘Aqīdah (Islamic theology)
Notable work(s)Kitāb at-Tawḥīd (Arabic: كتاب التوحيد‎; "The Book of Oneness")[3][18][19]
Senior posting
Arabic name
Personal (Ism)Muḥammad
Patronymic (Nasab)ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaymān ibn ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rāshid
Teknonymic (Kunya)Abū al-Ḥasan
Epithet (Laqab)an-Najdī
Toponymic (Nisba)at-Tamīmī

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Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb at-Tamīmī (/wəˈhɑːb/; Arabic: مُحَمَّدُ بنُ عَبْدِ الوَهَّابِ التَّمِيْمِيُّ‎; 1703 – 22 June 1792) was a religious leader,[3] reformer,[20] scholar and theologian[1][2][4][21] from Najd in central Arabia, attributed as the founder of the Islamic doctrine and movement known as Wahhābism.[1][2][4][13][14][22][23][24][25][26][27] His prominent students included his sons Ḥusayn, ʿAbdullāh, ʿAlī, and Ibrāhīm, his grandson ʿAbdur-Raḥman ibn Ḥasan, his son-in-law ʿAbdul-ʿAzīz ibn Muḥammad ibn Saʿūd, Ḥamād ibn Nāṣir ibn Muʿammar, and Ḥusayn āl-Ghannām.

The label "Wahhabi" is not claimed by his followers but rather employed in criticism.[3][28][12] Born to a family of jurists,[4] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's early education consisted of learning a fairly standard curriculum of orthodox jurisprudence according to the Hanbali school of Islamic law, which was the school most prevalent in his area of birth.[4] He promoted strict adherence to traditional Islamic law, proclaiming the necessity of returning directly to the Quran and Hadith rather than relying on medieval interpretations, and insisted that every Muslim – male and female – personally read and study the Quran.[29] He opposed taqlid (blind following) and called for the use of ijtihad (independent legal reasoning through research of scripture).[30][31] He had initial rudimentary training in classical Sunni Muslim tradition, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab gradually became opposed to many popular, yet contested, religious practices such as the visitation to and veneration of the shrines and tombs of Muslim saints,[2][4][13][25] which he felt amounted to heretical religious innovation or even idolatry.[4][13][14][25][32] His call for social reform in society was based on the key doctrine of tawhid (oneness of God).[33][34]

Despite his teachings being rejected and opposed by many of the most notable Sunni Muslim scholars of the period,[1][4][32][35] including his own father and brother,[1][4][32][35][36] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab charted a religio-political pact with Muhammad bin Saud to help him to establish the Emirate of Diriyah, the first Saudi state,[2][37] and began a dynastic alliance and power-sharing arrangement between their families which continues to the present day in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[2][3][38] The Al ash-Sheikh, Saudi Arabia's leading religious family, are the descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab,[3][38] and have historically led the ulama in the Saudi state,[38][39] dominating the state's clerical institutions.[38][40]

Early years[edit]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is generally acknowledged[Note 1] to have been born in 1703[4][41] into the sedentary and impoverished Arab clan of Banu Tamim[42][43] in 'Uyayna, a village in the Najd region of central Arabia.[41][44] Before the emergence of Wahhabism there was a very limited history of Islamic education in the area.[43][45] For this reason, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had modest access to Islamic education during his youth.[43] Despite this,[43][46][47][48] the area had nevertheless produced several notable jurists of the Hanbali school of orthodox Sunni jurisprudence, which was the school of law most prominently practiced in the area.[4] In fact, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's own family "had produced several doctors of the school,"[4] with his father, Sulaymān b. Muḥammad, having been the Hanbali jurisconsult of the Najd and his grandfather, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, having been a judge of Hanbali law.[4]

Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's early education was taught by his father,[4] and consisted of learning the Quran by heart and studying a rudimentary level of Hanbali jurisprudence and Islamic theology as outlined in the works of Ibn Qudamah (d. 1223), one of the most influential medieval representatives of the Hanbali school, whose works were regarded "as having great authority" in the Najd.[4] As the veneration of Muslim saints and the belief in their ability to perform miracles by the grace of God had become one of the most omnipresent and established aspects of Sunni Muslim practice throughout the Islamic world, being an agreed-upon tenet of the faith by the vast majority of the classical scholars,[49][50][51][52][53][54][55] it was not long before Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab began to encounter the omnipresence of saint-veneration in his area as well; and he probably chose to leave Najd and look elsewhere for studies to see if the honoring of saints was as popular in the neighboring places of the Muslim world or the possibility that his home town offered inadequate educational resources. Even today, the reasoning for why he left Najd is unclear.[4]

After leaving 'Uyayna, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab performed the Greater Pilgrimage in Mecca, where the scholars appear to have held opinions and espoused teachings that were unpalatable to him.[4] After this, he went to Medina, the stay at which seems to have been "decisive in shaping the later direction of his thought."[4] In Medina, he met a Hanbali theologian from Najd named ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ibrāhīm al-Najdī, who had been a supporter of the neo-Hanbali works of Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), the controversial medieval scholar whose teachings had been considered heterodox and misguided on several important points by the vast majority of Sunni Muslim scholars up to that point in history.[56][57][58][59]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teacher, Abdallah ibn Ibrahim ibn Sayf, introduced the relatively young man to Mohammad Hayya Al-Sindhi in Medina, who belonged to the Naqshbandi order (tariqa) of Sufism,[60][61] and recommended him as a student.[62][63][64] Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab and al-Sindhi became very close, and Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab stayed with him for some time.[62] Muhammad Hayya also taught Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab to reject popular religious practices associated with walis and their tombs that resemble later Wahhabi teachings.[62][better source needed] Following his early education in Medina, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab traveled outside of the Arabian Peninsula, venturing first to Basra[46][65] which was still an active center of Islamic culture.[4]

Early preaching[edit]

His leave from Basra marked the end of his education and as he returned home, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab began to attract followers, including the ruler of 'Uyayna, Uthman ibn Mu'ammar. Once returned to Huraymila, where his father had settled, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab wrote his first work on the Unity of god.[4] With Ibn Mu'ammar, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab agreed to support Ibn Mu'ammar's political ambitions to expand his rule "over Najd and possibly beyond", in exchange for the ruler's support for Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's religious teachings. Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab began to implement some of his ideas for reform. First, he persuaded Ibn Mu'ammar to help him level the grave of Zayd ibn al-Khattab, a companion of Muhammad, whose grave was revered by locals. Secondly, he ordered the cutting down of trees considered sacred by locals, cutting down "the most glorified of all of the trees" himself. Third, he organized the stoning of a woman who confessed to having committed adultery.[66][67]

These actions gained the attention of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of Bani Khalid, the chief of Al-Hasa and Qatif, who held substantial influence in Najd. Ibn Ghurayr threatened Ibn Mu'ammar by denying him the ability to collect a land tax for some properties that Ibn Mu'ammar owned in Al-Hasa if he did not kill or drive away from Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Consequently, Ibn Mu'ammar forced Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to leave.[67][68]

Emergence of Saudi state[edit]

Pact with Muhammad bin Saud[edit]

First Saudi State (1744–1818)

Upon his expulsion from 'Uyayna, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring Diriyah by its ruler Muhammad bin Saud. After some time in Diriyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded his second and more successful agreement with a ruler.[69] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud agreed that, together, they would bring the Arabs of the peninsula back to the "true" principles of Islam as they saw it. According to one source, when they first met, bin Saud declared:

This oasis is yours, do not fear your enemies. By the name of God, if all Nejd was summoned to throw you out, we will never agree to expel you.

— Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia: 16

Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab replied:

You are the settlement's chief and wise man. I want you to grant me an oath that you will perform jihad against the unbelievers. In return, you will be imam, leader of the Muslim community and I will be leader in religious matters.

— Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia: 16

The agreement was confirmed with a mutual oath of loyalty (bay'ah) in 1744.[70][better source needed] Ibn Abd al-Wahhab would be responsible for religious matters and Ibn Saud in charge of political and military issues.[69] This agreement became a "mutual support pact"[71][72] and power-sharing arrangement[73] between the Al Saud family, and the Al ash-Sheikh and followers of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, which has remained in place for nearly 300 years,[74] providing the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion.[75]

Emirate of Diriyah (First Saudi State)[edit]

Main article: Emirate of Diriyah
Further information: Demolition of al-Baqi, Wahhabi sack of Karbala, and Wahhabi War

The 1744 pact between Muhammad bin Saud and Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab marked the emergence of the first Saudi state, the Emirate of Diriyah. By offering the Al Saud a clearly defined religious mission, the alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion.[40] First conquering Najd, Al Saud's forces expanded the Salafi influence to most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,[40] eradicating various popular practices they viewed as akin to polytheism and propagating the doctrines of ʿAbd al-Wahhab.[40][76]

Family[edit]

Main article: Al ash-Sheikh

According to academic publications such as the Encyclopædia Britannica while in Baghdad, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab married an affluent woman. When she died, he inherited her property and wealth.[77][78] Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had six sons; Hussain (died 1809), Abdullah (1751–1829), Hassan, Ali (died 1829), Ibrahim and Abdulaziz[79] who died in his youth. Four of his sons, Hussain, Abdullah, Ali and Ibrahim, established religious schools close to their home in Diriyah and taught the young students from Yemen, Oman, Najd and other parts of Arabia at their majlis.[79] One of their pupils was Husayn Ibn Abu Bakr Ibn Ghannam, a well-known Hanbali scholar.[79] Though al-Uthaymin writes about Ibn Ghannam that he was a Maliki scholar from al-Ahsa.

The descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, the Al ash-Sheikh, have historically led the ulama in the Saudi state,[39] dominating the state's religious institutions.[40] Within Saudi Arabia, the family is held in prestige similar to the Saudi royal family, with whom they share power, and has included several religious scholars and officials.[80] The arrangement between the two families is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating the Salafi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority[81] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[82]

Teachings[edit]

Part of a series on:
Islamism
Islamic crescent and star
Key ideologues


On Tawhid[edit]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab sought to revive and purify Islam from what he perceived as non-Islamic popular religious beliefs and practices by returning to what, he believed, were the fundamental principles of the Islamic religion. His works were generally short, full of quotations from the Quran and Hadith, such as his main and foremost theological treatise, Kitāb at-Tawḥīd (Arabic: كتاب التوحيد‎; "The Book of Oneness").[4][3][18][19] He taught that the primary doctrine of Islam was the uniqueness and oneness of God (tawhid),[83][84] and denounced what he held to be popular religious beliefs and practices among Muslims that he considered to be akin to polytheism (shirk).

The "core" of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching is found in Kitāb at-Tawḥīd, a theological treatise which draws from material in the Quran and the recorded doings and sayings of the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the Hadith literature.[85] It preaches that worship in Islam includes conventional acts of worship such as the five daily prayers (Salat); fasting (Sawm); supplication (Dua); seeking protection or refuge (Istia'dha); seeking help (Ist'ana and Istighatha) of Allah.[86][page needed][non-primary source needed]

Traditionally, most Muslims throughout history have held the view that declaring the testimony of faith is sufficient in becoming a Muslim.[87] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab did not agree with this. He held the view that an individual who believed that there could be intercessors with God was actually performing shirk (polytheism or idolatry). This was the major difference between him and his opponents,[88] and led him to accuse Muslims who engaged in these religious practices to be apostates (a practice known in Islamic jurisprudence as takfir) and idolaters (mushrikin).[89]

On Taqlid[edit]

See also: Taqlid and Ijtihad

Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was highly critical of the practice of Taqlid ( blind-following), which in his view, deviated people away from Qur'an and Sunnah. He also advocated for Ijtihad of qualified scholars in accordance with the teachings of Qur'an and Hadith. In his legal writings, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab referred to a number of sources- Qur'an, hadith , opinions of companions, Salaf as well as the treatises of the 4 schools of thought. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab argued that Qur'an condemned blind emulation of forefathers and nowhere did it stipulate scholarly credentials for a person to refer to it directly. His advocacy of Ijtihad and harsh denunciation of Taqlid arose widespread condemnation from Sufi orthodoxy in Najd and beyond, compelling him to express many of his legal verdicts ( fatwas ) discreetly, using convincing juristic terms. He differed from Hanbali school in various points of law and in some cases, also departed from the positions of the 4 schools. In his treatise Usul al-Sittah (Six Foundations), Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab vehemently rebuked his detractors for raising the description of Mujtahids to what he viewed as humanely unattainable levels. The teachings of Medinan hadith scholar Muhammad Hayat as Sindi highly influenced the anti-taqlid views of Ibn 'Abd al Wahhab.[90][91][92][93]

Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab opposed partisanship to madhabs (legal schools) and didn't consider it obligatory to follow a particular madhab. Rather, in his view, the obligation is to follow Qur'an and the Sunnah.[94] Referring to the classical scholars Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab condemned the popular practice prevalent amongst his contemporary scholars to blindfollow latter-day legal works and urged Muslims to take directly from Qur'an and Sunnah. He viewed it as a duty upon every Muslim, laymen and scholar, male & female, to seek knowledge directly from the sources. Radically departing from both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn Qayyim, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab viewed the entirety of the prevalent mad'hab system of jurisprudence (Fiqh) as a fundamentally corrupt institution, seeking a radical reform of scholarly institutions and preached the obligation of all Muslims to directly refer to the foundational texts of revelation. He advocated a form of scholarly authority based upon the revival of the practice of ittiba, i.e., laymen following the scholars only after seeking evidences. The prevalent legal system was, in his view, a "factory for the production of slavish emulators" symbolic of Muslim decline.[95][96]

Influence on Salafism[edit]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement is known today as Wahhabism (Arabic: الوهابية‎, romanized: Wahhābiyyah).[1][2][4][13][14][22][23][24][25][26][27] The designation of his doctrine as Wahhābiyyah actually derives from his father's name, ʿAbd al-Wahhab.[97] Many adherents consider the label "Wahhabism" as a derogatory term coined by his opponents,[3][28][12] and prefer it to be known as the Salafi movement.[98][99][100] Modern scholars of Islamic studies point out that "Salafism" is a term applied to several forms of puritanical Islam in various parts of the world, while Wahhabism refers to the specific Saudi school, which is seen as a more strict form of Salafism. However, modern scholars remark that Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's followers adopted the term "Salafi" as a self-designation much later.[28] Indeed, his first followers denominated themselves as ahl al-Tawhid[28] and al-Muwahhidun[1][3][28][12][13] ("Unitarians" or "those who affirm/defend the unity of God"),[1][3][28][12][13] and were labeled "Wahhabis" by their opponents.[3][28][12] According to professor Abdullah Saeed, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab should be considered one of the "precursors" of the modern Salafi movement rather than a full-fledged Salafi, because his teachings predate modern Salafism.[101] Nevertheless, the Wahhabi movement is considered by modern scholars "the most influential expression of Salafism of the Islamist sort, both for its role in shaping (some might say: 'creating') modern Islamism, and for disseminating salafi ideas widely across the Muslim world."[12]

On Islamic Revival[edit]

See also: Tajdid

As a young scholar in Medina, Muhammad Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was profoundly influenced by the revivalist doctrines taught by his teachers Muhammad Hayyat ibn Ibrahim al-Sindhi and Abdullah Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Sayf. Much of the Wahhabi teachings such as opposition to saint-cults, radical denunciation of blind-following medieval commentaries, adherence to Scriptures and other revivalist thoughts came from Muhammad Hayyat. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's revivalist efforts were based on a strong belief in Tawhid (Oneness of Allah) and a firm adherence to the Sunnah. His reformative efforts left exemplary marks on contemporary Islamic scholarship. Viewing Blind adherence ( Taqlid ) as an obstacle to the progress of Muslims, he dedicated himself to educating the masses for them to be vanguards of Islam. According to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the degradation and lagging behind of Muslims was due to their neglect of the teachings of Islam, emphasizing that progress could be achieved only by firmly adhering to Islam. He also campaigned against popular Sufi practices associated with istigatha, myths and superstitions.[102][103]

On Sufism[edit]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab praised Tasawwuf. He stated the popular saying: "From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid)".[104] He describes Tasawwuf as "the science of the deeds of the heart, which is known as the science of Suluk", and considered it as an important branch of Islamic religious sciences.[105][106]

At the end of his treatise, Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's son 'Abd Allah speaks positively on the practice of tazkiah (purification of the inner self).[107][108]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab ends his treatise saying:

We do not negate the way of the Sufis and the purification of the inner self from the vices of those sins connected to the heart and the limbs as long as the individual firmly adheres to the rules of Shari‘ah and the correct and observed way. However, we will not take it on ourselves to allegorically interpret (ta’wil) his speech and his actions. We only place our reliance on, seek help from, beseech aid from and place our confidence in all our dealings in Allah Most High. He is enough for us, the best trustee, the best mawla and the best helper. May Allah send peace on our master Muhammad, his family and companions.

[109][110]

On Social Reforms[edit]

See also: Islah

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab concerned himself with the social reformation of his people. As an 18th-century reformer, Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab called for the re-opening of Ijtihad by qualified persons through strict adherence to Scriptures in reforming society. His thoughts reflected the major trends apparent in the 18th-century Islamic reform movements. Unlike other reform movements which were restricted to da'wa, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab was also able to transform his movement into a successful Islamic state. Thus, his teachings had a profound influence on majority of Islamic reform-revivalist movements since the 18th century. Numerous significant socio-economic reforms would be advocated by the Imam during his lifetime. His reforms touched over various fields such as aqeeda, ibaadat (ritual acts of worship), muamalaat (social interactions), etc. In the affairs of mu'amalat, he harshly rebuked the practice of leaving endowments to prevent the rightful heirs (particularly the females) from receiving their deserved inheritance. He also objected to various forms of riba (usury) as well as the practice of presenting judges with gifts, which according to him, was nothing more than bribing. He also opposed and brought an end to numerous un-Islamic taxes that were forced upon the people.[111][112][113]

The legal writings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab reflected a general concern of female welfare and gender justice. In line with this approach, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab denounced the practice of instant triple talaq, counting it as only a single talaq (regardless of the number of pronouncements). The outlawing of triple talaq is considered to be one of the most significant reforms across the Islamic World in the 20th and 21st centuries. Following a balanced approach in issues of gender, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab advocated moderation between men and women in social interactions as well as spirituality. According to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, women has a place in society with both rights and responsibility, with the society being obliged to respect her status and protect her. He also condemned forced marriages and declared any marriage contracted without the consent of a woman (be it minor, virgin or non-virgin) to be "invalid". This too was a significant reform as well as a break from the four Sunni schools which allowed the wali (ward/guardian) to compel minor daughters into marriage without consent. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also stipulated the permission of the guardian as a condition in marriage (in line with traditional Hanbali,Shafi'i and Maliki schools). Nevertheless, as a practical jurist, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab allowed guardians to delegate the right to contract marriages to women herself, after which his permission cannot be denied. He also allowed women the right to stipulate favourable conditions for her in the marriage contract. Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab also defended the woman's right to divorce through Khul' for various reasons, including in cases wherein she despised her husband. He also prohibited the killing of women, children and various non-combatants such as monks, elderly, blind, shaykhs, slaves and peasants in warfare.[114]

On Muslim saints[edit]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab strongly condemned the veneration of Muslim saints (Which he described as worship) or associating divinity to beings other than God, labeling it as shirk.[4] Despite his great aversion to venerating the saints after their earthly passing and seeking their intercession, it should nevertheless be noted that Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab did not deny the existence of saints as such; on the contrary, he acknowledged that "the miracles of saints (karāmāt al-awliyāʾ) are not to be denied, and their right guidance by God is acknowledged" when they acted properly during their life.[97]

On Non-Muslims[edit]

According to the political scientist Dore Gold,[115] Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab presented a strong anti-Christian and anti-Judaic stance in his main theological treatise Kitāb at-Tawḥīd,[115] describing the followers of both Christian and Jewish faiths as sorcerers[115] who believe in devil-worship,[115] and by citing a hadith attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad[Note 2] he stated that capital punishment for the sorcerer is "that he be struck with the sword".[115][116] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab asserted that both the Christian and Jewish religions had improperly made the graves of their prophet into places of worship and warned Muslims not to imitate this practice.[115][117] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded that "The ways of the People of the Book are condemned as those of polytheists."[115][118]

However, Western scholar Natana J. DeLong-Bas defended the position of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, stating that

despite his at times vehement denunciations of other religious groups for their supposedly heretical beliefs, Ibn Abd al Wahhab never called for their destruction or death … he assumed that these people would be punished in the Afterlife …"[119]

According to Vahid Hussein Ranjbar, "Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab saw it as his mission to restore a more purer and original form of the faith of Islam". In accordance with the his own theology, which upheld a strict doctrine of tawhid (oneness of God), Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab condemned the veneration of any personality other than God and sought the demolition of the tombs of Muslim saints (awliya). Those who didn't adhere to his interpretation of monotheism were considered disbelieving polytheists (including Sufi and Shia Muslims), Christians, Jews, and other Non-Muslims. He also advocated for a literalist interpretation of the Quran and its laws.[120]

Reception[edit]

By contemporaries[edit]

The doctrine of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was criticized by a number of Islamic scholars during his lifetime for disregarding Islamic history, monuments, traditions and the sanctity of Muslim life.[121] His critics were mainly ulama from his homeland, the Najd region of central Arabia, which was directly affected by the growth of the Wahhabi movement,[35] based in the cities of Basra, Mecca, and Medina.[35] The early critics of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab classified his doctrine as a "Kharijite sectarian heresy".[28]

A handful of Arabian Hanbalis participated on the Ottoman side of the controversy. Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Humayd's 19th century biographical dictionary sheds light on those Hanbali scholars.[122] However, the reliability of his biography itself is disputed for its inherent biases, which portrays Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his followers as heretics. It also misrepresents many Najdi Hanbali scholars as on the side of Ottoman Hanbalis.[123] Ibn Humayd's maternal lineage, Al-Turki, was of some local renown for its religious scholars, including two men who opposed the Wahhabi movement. One of them, named Ibn Muhammad, compared Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab with Musaylimah.[124] He also accused Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab of wrongly declaring the Muslims to be infidels based on a misguided reading of Quranic passages and prophetic traditions,[124] and of wrongly declaring all scholars as infidels who did not agree with his "deviant innovation".[124] In contrast to this anti-Wahhabi family tradition, Ibn Humayd's early education included extensive studies under two Wahhabi Shaykhs, both praised in his biographical dictionary. He then travelled to Damascus and Mecca]wherein he attended lessons of men known for strong anti-Wahhabi convictions. Ibn Humayd's compatibility with Ottoman religious outlook made him eligible for the post of Ottoman Mufti in Mecca.[124]

Another Hanbali scholar whom Ibn Humayd portrays as a central figure in rejecting Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's doctrine was Ibn Fayruz Al-Tamimi al-Ahsai (1729/30 – 1801/02). Ibn Fayruz publicly repudiated Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings when he sent an envoy to him. Ibn Fayruz then wrote to Sultan Abdul Hamid I and requested Ottoman assistance to subjugate Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's followers, whom he referred to as the "seditious Kharijites" of Najd. The Wahhabis, in turn, came to view him as one of their worst enemies and an exemplar of idolatry.[125]

According to Ibn Humayd, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's father criticized his son for his unwillingness to specialize in jurisprudence and disagreed with his doctrine and declared that he would be the cause of wickedness.[126] Similarly his brother, Sulayman ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, wrote one of the first treatises refuting the Wahhabi doctrine,[36][97][126] The Divine Thunderbolts in Refutation of Wahhabism (Al-Šawā'iq Al-Ilāhiyya fī Al-radd 'alā Al-Wahhābiyya),[36][97] affirming that Muhammad was ill-educated and intolerant, and classing his views as fringe and fanatical.[36][121] Sulayman's first anti-Wahhabi treatise was followed by a second book, The Unmistakable Judgment in the Refutation of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab (Faṣl al-Ḫiṭāb fī Al-radd 'alā Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb).[36] Both Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's father and brother disagreed with him and didn't share his doctrinal statements because they considered his doctrine, and the way he intended to impose it in Arabia, too extreme and intolerant.[127] The Arabian historian Ahmad ibn al-Zayni Dahlan, Shaykh al-Islām[128] and Grand Mufti of the Shafi'i madhab in Mecca,[129][130] recorded the account of the dispute between Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his brother Sulayman, reporting that:

Sulayman [ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab] once asked his brother Muhammad [ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab], "How many are the pillars of Islam?" "Five," he answered. Sulayman replied, "No, you have added a sixth one: He who does not follow you is not a Muslim. This, to you, is the sixth pillar of Islam."[131]

Later reports claim that Sulayman allegedly repented and joined the cause of his brother.[132] However, there is a difference of opinion concerning his repentance. Ibn Ghannam, the earliest Najdi chronicler, specifically states that he repented from his previous position and joined his brother in Diriyah. Ibn Bishr simply states that he moved to Diriyah with his family and remained there while receiving a stipend, which may or may not be a sign that he had changed his views. A letter attributed to Sulayman states that he repented from his earlier views.[133]

The Mufti of Mecca, Ahmad ibn al-Zayni Dahlan, wrote an anti-Wahhabi treatise, in which he listed the religious practices that the Najdi Hanbalis considered idolatrous: visiting the tomb of Muhammad, seeking the intercession of saints, venerating Muhammad and obtaining the blessings of saints.[134] He also accused Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab of not adhering to the Hanbali school and that he was deficient in learning.[134] However, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab himself considered visiting the tomb of Muhammad as a righteous deed, referring to it as "among the best of deeds" while condemning its excesses.[135][136] On the other hand, Ibn Taymiyyah allegedly considered visiting the tomb of Muhammad to be forbidden.[137][138]

In response, the British Indian Ahl-i Hadith scholar Muhammad Bashir Sahsawani (1834-1908) wrote the treatise Sayaanah al-Insaan an Waswaswah al-Shaikh Dahlaan in order to refute Dahlan. Sahsawani stated that he met more than one scholar of the followers of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and he read many of their books and he did not find any evidence for the false claim that they declared "non-Wahhabis" disbelievers.[139][140]

Islamic scholar Rashid Rida, in his introduction to al-Sahsawani's refutation of Dahlan, described Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab as a mujaddid repelling the innovations and deviations in Muslim life. Through his Al-Manar magazine, Rashid Rida greatly contributed to the spread of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings in the Islamic world. He was a strong supporter of Ibn Taymiyyah and scholars of Najd, publishing works in his magazine entitled Majmooah al-Rasaail wa al-Masaail al-Najdiyyah and al-Wahhaabiyoon wa al-Hijaaz.[141] Rida notes that given Dahlan's position in Mecca, and availability there of the works of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, he must have simply chosen to write otherwise. Rida also argued that Dahlan simply wrote what he heard from people, and criticised him for not verifying reports and seeking out the writings of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. He condemned Dahlan for his ignorance and his sanctioning of acts of kufr and shirk based on his reinterpretation of Islamic texts.[142]

Ali Bey el Abbassi, a Spanish explorer who was in Mecca in 1803, shortly after the Wahhabi conquest of Hejaz, presented a starkly different view of the Wahhabis. He was surprised to find that they were fairly moderate, reasonable and civilized. He further observed that, rather than engaging in rampant violence and destruction, the Wahhabis were actually quite orderly and peaceful. Puzzled by the contradiction between popular image and reality, Ali Bey examined the historical record for clues. He found an important difference between the reign of Muhammad bin Saud, when Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was active in political life, and that of his son, Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud, when Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab withdrew from active political activity. Ali Bey noted that Muhammad Ibn Saud had supported the teachings of Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab but did not use a "convert or die" approach to gaining adherents. This practice was used only during the reign of Abdulaziz bin Muhammad Al Saud, who made selective use of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings for the purpose of acquiring wealth and property for state consolidation—a contention supported by Ibn Bishr's chronicle. Ali Bey declared that he "discovered much reason and moderation among the Wahhabites to whom I spoke, and from whom I obtained the greater part of the information which I have given concerning their nation."[143]

British diplomat Harford Jones-Brydges, who was stationed in Basra in 1784 attributed the popular hysteria about the Wahhabis to a different cause. Unlike Ottoman depictions, Brydges believed that Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's doctrine was in keeping with the teachings of Quran, was "perfectly orthodox", "consonant to the purest and best interpretations of that volume", and that Ottomans feared its spread precisely on that basis.[144]

The Egyptian historian and Azhari Islamic scholar Abdul-Rahmaan al-Jabarti (1753–1825) was very influenced and impressed by Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his movement. He spread his thought in Egypt and saw in the Wahhabi doctrine the greatest potential to revive the Muslim world.[145] Al-Jabarti encountered scholars of Wahhabis in Egypt in 1814, and despite all the negative things heard in popular discourse, he was highly impressed by them. He found them to be friendly and articulate, knowledgeable and well versed in historical events and curiosities. Al-Jabarti stated that Wahhabis were "modest men of good morals, well trained in oratory, in the principles of religion, the branches of fiqh, and the disagreements of the Schools of Law. In all this they were extraordinary.”[146] He described Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab as a man who "summoned men to Quran and the Prophet's Sunna, bidding them to abandon innovations in worship". On doctrinal matters, Al-Jabarti emphasized that the beliefs of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab were part of Orthodox Sunni Islam and stated that Wahhabis did not bring anything new.[147]

Modern reception[edit]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is accepted by Salafi scholars as an authority and source of reference. Salafi scholars Rashid Rida and Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz considered him a mujaddid.[148] 20th-century Albanian scholar Nasiruddin Albani referred to Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's activism as Najdi dawah.[149][better source needed] According to the 20th-century Austro-Hungarian scholar Muhammad Asad, all modern Islamic Renaissance movements took inspiration from the spiritual impetus set in motion in the 18th-century by Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab.[150] Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, one of the founders of the Deobandi school, also praised Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab.[151] Hence, the contemporary ulema of Deoband mostly respect him while being critical of the Salafi movement.[152][153]

In 2010, Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz, at the time serving as the governor of Riyadh, said that the doctrine of Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was pure Islam, and said regarding his works: "I dare anyone to bring a single alphabetical letter from the Sheikh's books that goes against the book of Allah and the teachings of his prophet, Muhammad."[154]

According to various academics, the Islamic terrorist organization Al-Qaeda has been influenced by the Wahhabi doctrine.[155][156][157][158] Other scholars note that the ideology of Al-Qaeda is Salafi jihadism that emerged as a synthesis of the Qutbist doctrine with Salafism. The Taliban in Afghanistan often conflated with Wahhabis in the early 2000s; however, according to various scholars, the Taliban emerged from the Deobandi school rather than the Wahhabi movement.[159][160][161] 22 months after the September 11 attacks, when the FBI considered Al-Qaeda as "the number one terrorist threat to the United States", journalist Stephen Schwartz and U.S. Senator Jon Kyle have explicitly stated during a hearing that occurred in June 2003 before the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Homeland Security of the U.S. Senate that "Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world":[162]

Nearly 22 months have passed since the atrocity of September 11th. Since then, many questions have been asked about the role in that day's terrible events and in other challenges we face in the war against terror of Saudi Arabia and its official sect, a separatist, exclusionary and violent form of Islam known as Wahhabism. It is widely recognized that all of the 19 suicide pilots were Wahhabi followers. In addition, 15 of the 19 were Saudi subjects. Journalists and experts, as well as spokespeople of the world, have said that Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today's world, from Morocco to Indonesia, via Israel, Saudi Arabia, Chechnya. In addition, Saudi media sources have identified Wahhabi agents from Saudi Arabia as being responsible for terrorist attacks on U.S. troops in Iraq. The Washington Post has confirmed Wahhabi involvement in attacks against U.S. forces in Fallujah. To examine the role of Wahhabism and terrorism is not to label all Muslims as extremists. Indeed, I want to make this point very, very clear. It is the exact opposite. Analyzing Wahhabism means identifying the extreme element that, although enjoying immense political and financial resources, thanks to support by a sector of the Saudi state, seeks to globally hijack Islam [...] The problem we are looking at today is the State-sponsored doctrine and funding of an extremist ideology that provides the recruiting grounds, support infrastructure and monetary life blood of today's international terrorists. The extremist ideology is Wahhabism, a major force behind terrorist groups, like al Qaeda, a group that, according to the FBI, and I am quoting, is the "number one terrorist threat to the U.S. today".[162]

However, according to other sources, Salafis are fundamentally opposed to the ideology of Al-Qaeda.[163] According to various scholars, the ideology of ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh, another Islamic terrorist organization, has also been inspired by the Wahhabi doctrine,[14][25][27] alongside Salafism and Salafi jihadism.[164][165]

Contemporary recognition[edit]

The national mosque of Qatar is named after him.[166] The "Imam Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Mosque" was opened in 2011, with the Emir of Qatar presiding over the occasion.[167] The mosque can hold a congregation of 30,000 people.[168] In 2017 there has been a request published on the Saudi Arabian newspaper Okaz signed by 200 descendants of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab that the name of the mosque be changed, because according to their statement "it does not carry its true Salafi path", even though most Qataris adhere to Wahhabism.[169]

Despite Wahhabi destruction of many Islamic, cultural, and historical sites[170] associated with the early history of Islam and the first generation of Muslims (Muhammad's family and his companions),[170] the Saudi government undertook a large-scale development of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab's domain, Diriyah, turning it into a major tourist attraction.[171][172] Other features in the area include the Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab Foundation, which is planned to include a light and sound presentation[173] located near the Mosque of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahab.[174]

Works[edit]

  • Risālah Aslu Dīn Al-Islām wa Qā'idatuhu
  • Kitab al-Quran (The book of Allah)
  • Kitab at-Tawhid (The Book of the Oneness of God)
  • Kashf ush-Shubuhaat (Clarification of the Doubts)
  • Al-Usool-uth-Thalaatha (The Three Fundamental Principles)
  • Al Qawaaid Al 'Arbaa (The Four Foundations)
  • Al-Usool us Sittah (The Six Fundamental Principles)
  • Nawaaqid al Islaam (Nullifiers of Islam)
  • Adab al-Mashy Ila as-Salaa (Manners of Walking to the Prayer)
  • Usul al-Iman (Foundations of Faith)
  • Fada'il al-Islam (Excellent Virtues of Islam)
  • Fada'il al-Qur'an (Excellent Virtues of the Qur'an)
  • Majmu'a al-Hadith 'Ala Abwab al-Fiqh (Compendium of the Hadith on the Main Topics of the Fiqh)
  • Mukhtasar al-Iman (Abridgement of the Faith; i.e. the summarised version of a work on Faith)
  • Mukhtasar al-Insaf wa'l-Sharh al-Kabir (Abridgement of the Equity and the Great Explanation)
  • Mukhtasar Seerat ar-Rasul (Summarised Biography of the Prophet)
  • Kitaabu l-Kabaair (The Book of Great Sins)
  • Kitabu l-Imaan (The Book of Trust)
  • Al-Radd 'ala al-Rafida (The Refutation of the Rejectionists)

See also[edit]

Sources[edit]

There are two contemporary histories of Muhammed ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his religious movement from the point of view of his supporters: Ibn Ghannam's Rawdhat al-Afkar wal-Afham or Tarikh Najd (History of Najd) and Ibn Bishr's Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd. Husain ibn Ghannam (d. 1811), an alim from al-Hasa was the only historian to have observed the beginnings of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement first-hand. His chronicle ends at the year 1797.[175][176] Ibn Bishr's chronicle, which stops at the year 1854, was written a generation later than Ibn Ghannam's but is considered valuable partly because Ibn Bishr was a native of Najd and because he adds many details to Ibn Ghannam's account.[175]

A third account, dating from around 1817 is Lam' al-Shihab, written by an anonymous Sunni author who respectfully disapproved of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement, regarding it as a bid'ah. It is also commonly cited because it is considered to be a relatively objective contemporary treatment of the subject. However, unlike Ibn Ghannam and Ibn Bishr, its author did not live in Najd and his work is believed to contain some apocryphal and legendary material concerning the details of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life.[48][177]

Notes[edit]

  1. ↑ While there is some consensus over these details, the opinion is not unanimous over the specifics in regard to his place and date of birth. Seemingly his recognition with the Banu Tamim tribe thought is in line with the justification by some scholars of being the inheritor of the teachings of Ibn Taymiyyah.
  2. ↑ The attribution of this hadith is disputed; according to other sources it should be attributed to 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate.

References[edit]

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 Brown 2009, p. 245.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Esposito 2004, p. 123.
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 Haykel 2013, pp. 231–32.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 Laoust, H. (2012) [1993]. "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P. Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. 11. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3033. ISBN 978-9004161214.
  5. ↑ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. New York: Oxford University Press. 2020. Archived from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 15 July 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  6. ↑ Glasse, Cyril (2001). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Lanham, Maryland: AltaMira Press. pp. 469–70. The Wahhabis are often said to 'belong' to the Hanbali School of Law (madhhab), but strictly speaking, like the Ahl al-Hadith ... they are ghayr muqallidun ('non-adherents'), and do not see themselves as belonging to any school, any more than the first Muslim generations did. Search this book on
  7. ↑ Mortimer, Edward (1982). Faith and Power: The Politics of Islam. New York: Random House. p. 61. ISBN 978-0394513331. Search this book on
  8. ↑ DeLong-Bas, Natana J. (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195169913. he did not consider the opinion of any law school to be binding... Where clarification was needed from ...nonscriptural source, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab encouraged his followers to turn to the example of Muhammad's Companions rather than the opinions of the law schools. Search this book on
  9. ↑ Martin, Richard C., ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Macmillan Reference. p. 728. Among the innovations condemned by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was the centuries-long heritage of jurisprudence (fiqh) that coalesced into four Sunni schools of law... Search this book on
  10. ↑ Halverson 2010, p. 48.
  11. ↑ Khatab 2011, pp. 57–58, 62–63.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 Silverstein 2010, pp. 112–13.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 Ágoston & Masters 2009, p. 260.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Armstrong, Karen (27 November 2014). "Wahhabism to ISIS: how Saudi Arabia exported the main source of global terrorism". New Statesman. London. Archived from the original on 27 November 2014. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
  15. ↑ Khatab 2011, pp. 62–65.
  16. ↑ Delong-Bas 2004, pp. 56–65.
  17. ↑ Van Bruinessen 2009, pp. 125–57.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Khatab 2011, pp. 65–67.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Saeed 2013, pp. 29–30.
  20. ↑ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 12 July 2016. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  21. ↑ Delong-Bas 2004, pp. 41–42.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Moosa 2015, p. 97.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 White 2017, pp. 252–53.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Asad, Talal (2003). Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 222. ISBN 978-0804747684. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 8 September 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Search this book on
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Crooke, Alastair (30 March 2017) [First published 27 August 2014]. "You Can't Understand ISIS If You Don't Know the History of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia". The Huffington Post. New York. Archived from the original on 28 August 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Hubbard, Ben (10 July 2016). "A Saudi Morals Enforcer Called for a More Liberal Islam. Then the Death Threats Began". The New York Times. New York. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 15 December 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Sells, Michael (22 December 2016). "Wahhabist Ideology: What It Is And Why It's A Problem". The Huffington Post. New York. Archived from the original on 8 April 2020. Retrieved 30 September 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 28.7 Commins 2015, p. 151.
  29. ↑ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York 10016: Oxford University Press. pp. 29, 30, 117, 28, 37. ISBN 0195169913. Search this book on
  30. ↑ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies. Archived from the original on 12 July 2016. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  31. ↑ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 14, 21, 29. ISBN 0195169913. Search this book on
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Khatab 2011, pp. 56–76.
  33. ↑ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 12 July 2016. Plans for socioreligious reform in society were based on the key doctrine of tawhid (oneness of God) Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  34. ↑ J. Delong-Bass, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0195169913. Search this book on
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Traboulsi, Samer (January 2002). Brunner, Rainer, ed. "An Early Refutation of Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb's Reformist Views". Die Welt des Islams. Leiden: Brill Publishers. 42 (3: Arabic Literature and Islamic Scholarship in the 17th/18th Century: Topics and Biographies): 373–415. doi:10.1163/15700600260435038. eISSN 1570-0607. ISSN 0043-2539. JSTOR 1571420.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 Gaye 2021, p. 212.
  37. ↑ Hourani 1992: 257–58
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 Nawaf E. Obaid (September 1999). "The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders". Middle East Quarterly. Middle East Forum. 6 (3): 51–58. Archived from the original on 6 August 2011. Retrieved 8 September 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Abir 1987: 4, 5, 7
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 Metz 1992
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Philby 1930: 8
  42. ↑ Glassé 2003: 470
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 Shahi, Afshin (2013). The Politics of Truth Management in Saudi Arabia. Routledge. p. 46. ISBN 978-1134653195. Search this book on
  44. ↑ EI1: 1086
  45. ↑ Navalk Post Graduate School Thesis, September 2009, Michael R. Dillon: Wahhabism: Is it a factor in the spread of global terrorism?, p. 13 Archived 7 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Linked 3 March 2015
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 ibn Ghannam: 75–76
  47. ↑ Hopwood 1972: 55
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 EI2: 677–78
  49. ↑ Al-Nasafī, Majmūʿat al-ḥawāshī al-bahiyya ʿalā sharḥ al-ʿaqāʾid al-nasafiyya, 4 vols. (Cairo: Dār al-Muṣṭafā, 2007), 1:194: "The miracles of saints are a reality (ḥaqq)."
  50. ↑ Al-Ashʿarī, al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl al-diyāna, ed. Fawqiyya Ḥusayn Maḥmūd (Cairo: Dār al-Anṣār, 1397/1977), 31, 33: "It is possible for God to single out the righteous (ṣāliḥīn) by making signs (āyāt) appear at their hands."
  51. ↑ Al-Ṭaḥāwī, Matn al-ʿaqīda al-ṭaḥāwiyya, ed. Muḥammad Nāṣir al-Dīn al-Albānī (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islāmī, 1398/1978), 59: "[W]e believe in what has come via sound transmission through trustworthy narrators (ṣaḥḥa ʿan al-thiqāt min ruwātihim) from among their [the saints'] miracles."
  52. ↑ Al-Shaʿrānī, Laṭāʾif al-minan, 2 vols. (Cairo: al-Maṭbaʿa al-ʿĀmira, 1311/1894), 1:218: "Believing in the miracles of saints is a required truth (wājib ḥaqq)."
  53. ↑ Al-Qushayrī, al-Risāla al-qushayriyya (Cairo: [al-Maṭbaʿa al-ʿĀmira], 1870), 186–87: "Believing in the possibility of the miracles of saints is an obligation."
  54. ↑ Ibn Qudamah, cited in Ahmet T. Karamustafa, Sufism: The Formative Period (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007, p. 132).
  55. ↑ Radtke, B.; Lory, P.; Zarcone, P.; DeWeese, Th.; Gaborieau, D.; Denny, M., F. M.; Aubin, Françoise; Hunwick, J. O.; Mchugh, N. (2012) [1993]. "Walī". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P. Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. 11. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335. ISBN 978-9004161214.
  56. ↑ Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 305.
  57. ↑ Ibn Hajar al-Haythami, in Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 274.
  58. ↑ Ibn Hajar al-Haythami: "Ibn Taymiyya is a servant whom God has forsaken, led astray, made blind and deaf, and degraded. Such is the explicit verdict of the leading scholars who have exposed the rottenness of his ways and the errors of his statements" (in Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 271.
  59. ↑ Taqi al-Din al-Hisni referred to Ibn Taymiyyah as a "heretic from Harran"; see Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 271
  60. ↑ John L. Esposito (ed.), The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press (2004), p. 296
  61. ↑ Islamic Law and Society. E.J. Brill. 2006. p. 216. Search this book on
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 Voll 1975: 32–39
  63. ↑ ibn 'Hajar: 17–19
  64. ↑ Official sources on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life put his visits to these cities in different chronological orders, and the full extent of such travels remains disputed among historians. As well, dates are missing in a great many cases, making it difficult to reconstruct a chronology of his life up until his return to 'Uyayna in 1740.
  65. ↑ ibn Bishr: 7–8
  66. ↑ Lacey 1983: 56
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 Delong-Bas 2004, p. 24.
  68. ↑ ibn 'Hajar: 28
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Delong-Bas 2004, p. 34.
  70. ↑ Ibnsaud.info 2008
  71. ↑ Parker T. Hart (1998). Saudi Arabia and the United States: Birth of a Security Partnership. Indiana University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0253334608. Search this book on
  72. ↑ Sebastian Maisel; John A. Shoup (2009). Saudi Arabia and the Gulf Arab States Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Arab States. Greenwood Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0313344428. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Search this book on
  73. ↑ Hunt Janin; André Kahlmeyer (2007). Islamic Law: The Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present. McFarland. p. 92. ISBN 978-1476608815. Archived from the original on 28 May 2016. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Search this book on
  74. ↑ Obaid 1999: 51–58
  75. ↑ Faksh 1997: 89–90
  76. ↑ EBO History of Arabia 2011
  77. ↑ EBO Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb 2011
  78. ↑ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 8 June 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 Tarik K. Firro (2013). "The Political Context of Early Wahhabi Discourse of Takfir". Middle Eastern Studies. 49 (5): 770. doi:10.1080/00263206.2013.811648. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  80. ↑ Ottaway 2008: 176
  81. ↑ Nyrop 2008: 50
  82. ↑ Bligh 1985: 37–50
  83. ↑ Esposito 2003, p. 333
  84. ↑ "Allah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2008. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  85. ↑ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B. Tauris. p. 12. This brief essay is of tremendous significance for the Wahhabi mission and the subject of enduring controversy between supporters and detractors. It represents the core of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching and the foundation of the Wahhabi canon. Search this book on
  86. ↑ Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid
  87. ↑ Commins, David (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B. Tauris. p. vii. ISBN 978-1845110802. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Search this book on
  88. ↑ Commins, David (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B. Tauris. p. vii. ISBN 978-1845110802. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab included in the category of such acts popular religious practices that made holy men into intercessors with God. That was the core of the controversy between him and his adversaries, including his brother. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Search this book on
  89. ↑ Commins, David (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. New York: I.B. Tauris. p. 23. ISBN 978-1845110802. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Search this book on
  90. ↑ J DeLong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016: Oxford University Press. pp. 8, 12, 20–21, 94–95, 100, 109–110. ISBN 0-19-516991-3. Search this book on
  91. ↑ Haj, Samira (April 1997). "Reordering Islamic Orthodoxy: Muhammad ibn 'Abdul Wahhab". The Muslim World. 92 (3–4): 340, 343. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.2002.tb03747.x – via Wiley Online Library. (his criticism)... was also directed against the blind acceptance of religious authority (taqlid ) and by implication the 'ulama for confining independent reasoning (ijtihad ) and for their uncritical acceptance of medieval Islamic sources as the final authority on these questions. Instead, he maintained that final authoritative sources are those of the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet along with the precedents of the early Companions, who considered ijtihad as necessary for the continuous interpretation of Islamic law" ... "By upholding the absolute supremacy of the Qur’an and the early Sunnah, his intention was to undercut the authority of ijma, the consensus arrived at by the established 'ulama and extend the practice of independent reasoning [as against taqlid (traditionalism) ].
  92. ↑ Farquhar, Michael (2013). Expanding the Wahhabi Mission: Saudi Arabia, the Islamic University of Medina and the Transnational Religious Economy. London: The London School of Economics and Political Science. p. 64. ..Muhammad Hayya al-Sindi in Medina influenced a shift on the part of Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab towards criticism of taqlīd and many popular religious practices Search this book on
  93. ↑ ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad. "The Six Foundations" (PDF). Salafi Publications. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  94. ↑ "Guidelines for following Madhabs". Salafi Publications. Archived from the original on 24 January 2021. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  95. ↑ M. Bunzel, Cole (2018). "MANIFEST ENMITY: The Origins, Development, and Persistence of Classical Wahhabism (1153-1351/1741-1932)". Near Eastern Studies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University: 153–161. Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb employs this proof in pursuit of a more radical conclusion than the one reached by Ibn Taymiyya. He uses it to inveigh against the entire educational institution surrounding Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), which he takes as emblematic of the sad state of learning in Islam"... "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb considered the institution of fiqh as a kind of factory for the production of slavish emulators. The real task of a scholar, he argued, is to return to the texts of revelation, not to the opinions of men" ... "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb drew on both Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim... Yet neither of them wrote off the entire field of jurisprudence as irredeemable, as Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb did"... "he describes his position with respect to scholarly authority as... ittibāʿ (following)
  96. ↑ ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad. "A Letter on the Censure of Taqlid". Scribd. Archived from the original on 30 June 2021. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  97. ↑ 97.0 97.1 97.2 97.3 Ende, W.; Peskes, Esther (2012) [1993]. "Wahhābiyya". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P. Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. 11. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1329. ISBN 978-9004161214.
  98. ↑ The National, March 18, 2010: There is no such thing as Wahhabism, Saudi prince says Archived 27 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Linked 3 March 2015
  99. ↑ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. New York: I.B. Tauris. p. ix. Thus, the mission's devotees contend that 'Wahhabism' is a misnomer for their efforts to revive correct Islamic belief and practice. Instead of the Wahhabi label, they prefer either salafi, one who follows the ways of the first Muslim ancestors (salaf), or muwahhid, one who professes God's unity. Search this book on
  100. ↑ Delong-Bas 2004, p. 4.
  101. ↑ Saeed 2013, pp. 29-30.
  102. ↑ Voll, John (1975). "Muḥammad Ḥayyā al-Sindī and Muḥammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab: An Analysis of an Intellectual Group in Eighteenth-Century Madīna". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 38 (1): 32–39. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00047017. JSTOR 614196 – via JSTOR. Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb came to Madina as a relatively young scholar and studied under Muhammad Hayyā al-Sindi.... Scholars have described Muhammad Hayyā as having an impor- tant influence on Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb, encouraging him in his developing determination to denounce rigid imitation of medieval commentaries and to utilize informed individual analysis (ijtihād). Muhammad Hayyà also taught Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhāb a rejection of popular religious practices associated with saints and their tombs that is similar to later Wahhābi teachings.
  103. ↑ bin Ridha Murad, Mahmoud (2000). The Life & the Aqeedah of Muhammad Bin Abdul-Wahhab. pp. 17–20. Search this book on
  104. ↑ Hafiz Al-Makki, Mawlana Abd-Al (1 January 2011). "Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd Al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband Org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015. “From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid).” Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  105. ↑ ‘Abd al-Hafiz al-Makki, Mawlana (1 January 2011). "Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  106. ↑ "Kitab al Fiqh". Mu'allafat al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. 2. p. 4. Search this book on
  107. ↑ al-Makki, 'Abd al-Hafiz. "Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband.org. Deoband.org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  108. ↑ Rida, Rashid (1925). Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah. Egypt: Al Manar Publishers. p. 50. Search this book on
  109. ↑ al-Makki, Mawlana ‘Abd Al-Hafiz (1 January 2011). "Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  110. ↑ Rida, Rashid (1925). Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah. Egypt: Al-Manar Publishers. p. 50. Search this book on
  111. ↑ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamaal (2003). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. pp. 20–22, 44, 134–139, 164–165. ISBN 9960-29-500-1. Search this book on
  112. ↑ bin Ridha Murad, Mahmoud (2000). The Life & the Aqeedah of Muhammad Bin Abdul-Wahhab. p. 17. Search this book on
  113. ↑ C. Martin, Richard (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 6. ISBN 0-02-865603-2. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab called for the reopening of ijtihad (independent legal judgment) by qualified persons to reform Islam.. Search this book on
  114. ↑ J. DeLong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016: Oxford University Press. pp. 8, 109–110, 124, 135–136, 173, 183, 204–205. ISBN 0-19-516991-3. Search this book on
  115. ↑ 115.0 115.1 115.2 115.3 115.4 115.5 115.6 Gold, Dore (2003). Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 0895261359. Search this book on
  116. ↑ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996) Chapter 24, particularly p. 97
  117. ↑ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, p. 83)
  118. ↑ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, Chapter 9, p. 51)
  119. ↑ Delong-Bas 2004, p. 61.
  120. ↑ Ranjbar, Vahid Houston (12 September 2019). "Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Shaykh Ahmad". Medium.
  121. ↑ 121.0 121.1 El Fadl 2007: 56–57
  122. ↑ Weismann,Zachs, Itzchak,Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. New York: I.B Taurus. p. 81. ISBN 1850437572. Search this book on
  123. ↑ Weismann, Zachs, Itzchak, Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. New York: I.B Tauris. pp. 84–86. ISBN 1850437572. Search this book on
  124. ↑ 124.0 124.1 124.2 124.3 Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B. Tauris. p. 83. ISBN 978-1850437574. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Search this book on
  125. ↑ Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B. Tauris. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-1850437574. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Search this book on
  126. ↑ 126.0 126.1 Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B. Tauris. p. 89. ISBN 978-1850437574. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Search this book on
  127. ↑ Khatab 2011, pp. 63–75.
  128. ↑ Muhammad Hisham Kabbani (2004). The Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition Guidebook of Daily Practices and Devotions. Islamic Supreme Council of America. p. 187. ISBN 978-1930409224. Search this book on
  129. ↑ Eric Tagliacozzo (2009). Southeast Asia and the Middle East: Islam, Movement, and the Longue Durée. NUS Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-9971694241. Search this book on
  130. ↑ Countering Suicide Terrorism: An International Conference. International Institute for Counter-Terrorism (ICT). 2001. p. 72. ISBN 978-1412844871. Search this book on
  131. ↑ Khatab 2011, p. 71.
  132. ↑ Commins, David (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. London: I.B Tauris. p. 22. ISBN 1845110803. Later reports claim that Sulayman eventually repented his errors, but those may well represent efforts to smooth over the historical record Search this book on
  133. ↑ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamaal (2005). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. p. 209. ISBN 9960295001. There is a difference of opinion concerning whether Sulaimaan eventually gave up his opposition and joined the call of his brother Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Ibn Ghannaam, the earliest chronicler, specifically states that he repented from his previous position and joined his brother in al-Diriyyah. Ibn Bishr simply states that he moved to al-Diriyyah with his family and remained there while receiving a stipend, which may or may not be a sign that he had changed his views. There is actually a letter that was supposedly written by Sulaimaan in which he stated that he repented from his earlier views. Al-Bassaam in Ulamaa Najd presents logical evidence to show that that letter is false and Sulaimaan actually never changed his position Search this book on
  134. ↑ 134.0 134.1 Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B. Tauris. p. 91. ISBN 978-1850437574. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help) Search this book on
  135. ↑ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). "The Theology and Worldview of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab". Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 67. ISBN 0195169913. Consequently, 'Abd al-Wahhab noted that although visiting Muhammad's grave was a worthy act it must not be done in a spirit or intent that compromises monotheism. Finally, prayer should never be conducted in a cemetery Search this book on
  136. ↑ ibn Abdul Wahhab, Muhammad. "Chapter 22 The protectiveness of Al-Mustafa (May Allah be pleased with him) of Tawhid and his blockading every path leading to Shirk". Kitab At-Tauhid (PDF). Dar us Salam Publications. 4) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade visiting his grave in a certain manner, though visiting his grave is among the best of deeds. 5) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade us making excessive visits to his grave Search this book on
  137. ↑ Beranek, Tupek; Ondrej, Pavel (2009). "From Visiting Graves to Their Destruction The Question of Ziyara through the Eyes of Salafis". Brandeis University Crown Center for Middle East Studies: 2 – via Brandeis University.
  138. ↑ "Travel Towards Prophet's Resting Place". Islami Education. 17 October 2008.
  139. ↑ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamaal (2005). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. pp. 218, 234. ISBN 9960295001. Muhammad Basheer ibn Muhammad al-Sahsawaani from India (1250–1326 A.H.). He was a scholar from India who went to Makkah and met with and debated Dahlaan. Later he wrote a large volume refuting the false claims and misinterpretations of Dahlaan, entitled Sayaanah al-Insaan an Waswasah al-Shaikh Dahlaan.".. "Similarly, al-Sahsawaani stated that he met more than one scholar of the followers of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab and he read many of their books and he did not find any evidence for the false claim that they declared “non-Wahhabis” disbelievers Search this book on
  140. ↑ "[Biography] – Allamah Muhammad Bashir Sehsawani [1326H]". Salafi Research Institute. August 2015. Archived from the original on 25 January 2019. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  141. ↑ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamaal (2005). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. pp. 172–73. ISBN 9960295001. He was a strong supporter of ibn Taimiyyah—publishing his works—as well as of the scholars of Najd—publishing their works in his magazine and in a separate anthology entitled Majmooah al-Rasaail wa al-Masaail al-Najdiyyah. In his introduction to al-Sahwasaani’s refutation of Dahlaan, Ridha, in a lengthy passage, described ibn Abdul-Wahhaab as a mujaddid (“religious revivalist”), repelling the innovations and deviations in Muslim life. Through his magazine, al-Manaar, Muhammad Rasheed Ridha greatly contributed to the spread of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab’s teachings in the whole Muslim world. In fact, he published some of his articles from that magazine in a work entitled al-Wahhaabiyoon wa al-Hijaaz (“The Wahhabis and the Hijaz”). His magazine was unique in its thought and popularity. Search this book on
  142. ↑ Al Din M.Zarabazo, Jamal (2005). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. pp. 213, 242–43. ISBN 9960295001. "Muhammad Rasheed Ridha notes that given Dahlaan’s position in Makkah and the availability there of works about the call, it is hard to believe that Dahlaan was not aware of the truth about the teachings of ibn Abdul Wahhab and his followers. He must have simply chosen to write otherwise. He further argues that even if he did not see such writings and he relied simply on what he heard from people, it would have been incumbent upon him to verify those reports and to seek out ibn Abdul Wahhab’s writings to see if such reports could possibly have been true." ... "Muhammad Rasheed Ridha described the situation best when he wrote, “From the amazing aspects of the ignorance of Dahlaan and others similar to him is that they think that what Allah describes concerning the falsehood of the shirk of the polytheists applies only to them [that is, the polytheists at the time of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him)]. They think that such are not proofs against anyone who does similar to what they did. It is as if it is permissible for a Muslim to commit shirk due to his Islamic citizenship, even if he commits every type of associating of partners with Allah enumerated in the Quran. Based on that, he cannot conceive of any kind of apostasy from Islam because anyone who is called a Muslim must also have his kufr and shirk called Islamic [kufr and shirk]. Or it is considered permissible for him or, at the very least, forbidden. Indeed, they considered it sanctioned based on a reinterpretation of the texts.” Rasheed Ridha, footnotes to Siyaanah al-Insaan, pp. 479–80 Search this book on
  143. ↑ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 244–45. ISBN 0195169913. Search this book on
  144. ↑ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 245–46. ISBN 0195169913. Search this book on
  145. ↑ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamaal (2003). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhaab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. p. 171. ISBN 9960295001. The historian and Azhari scholar Abdul-Rahmaan al-Jabarti (1167–1237 A.H.) was very influenced and impressed by the followers of ibn Abdul-Wahhaab and he spread their thoughts in Egypt. He saw in them the greatest potential to revive the Muslim world. Search this book on
  146. ↑ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 245. ISBN 0195169913. "The Egyptian historian Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, who encountered Wahhabis in Egypt ten years later, in 1814, was similarly impressed by the knowledge of the Wahhabi scholars he encountered, despite all of the negative things he had heard about them. The two Wahhabis with whom al-Jabarti met had come to Egypt in search of hadith collections and Hanbali exegetical discussions of the Quran (tafsir) and jurisprudence (fiqh): “I myself met with the two Wahhabis twice and found them to be friendly and articulate, knowledgeable and well versed in historical events and curiosities. They were modest men of good morals, well trained in oratory, in the principles of religion, the branches of fiqh, and the disagreements of the Schools of Law. In all this they were extraordinary.” Search this book on
  147. ↑ Commins, David (2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. London: I.B Tauris. p. 31. ISBN 1845110803. Whereas Ottoman writers disparaged Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the Egyptian author described him as a man who summoned men to God’s book and the Prophet’s Sunna, bidding them to abandon innovations in worship. To the Wahhabis’ discredit, al-Jabarti reported the 1803 massacre at Ta’if, where Wahhabi forces slaughtered the men and enslaved the women and children. But when it came to doctrinal matters, he reproduced an epistle that the Wahhabis had sent to the religious leader of a Moroccan pilgrim caravan. The epistle set forth their views on idolatry, intercession, festooning the graves of holy men and adhering to the Sunni mainstream. It emphasized that the Wahhabis did not bring anything new but followed classical authorities Search this book on
  148. ↑ al-Din M. Zarabozo, Jamal (2003). The Life, Teachings and Influence of Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhab. Riyadh: The Ministry of Islamic Affairs, Endowments, Dawah and Guidance, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. p. 369. ISBN 9960295001. Search this book on
  149. ↑ Qadhi, Dr. Yasir. "On Salafi Islam". Muslim Matters. Archived from the original on 16 February 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  150. ↑ Assad, Muhammad (2004). The Road to Makkah. Noida (Ghaziabad): Islamic Book Service. p. 160. ISBN 8172311605. Search this book on
  151. ↑ ibn Adam, Muhammad (1 July 2004). "Shaykh Rashid Ahmad Gangohi's Stance on the Najdis". Dar ul Iftaa. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Question: What kind of a person was (Muhammad ibn) Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi?” “Answer: People call Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab a Wahhabi. He was a good person, and I have heard that he was a follower of the Hanbali School of Islamic law and acted upon the Hadith. He used to prevent people from Shirk and innovation (bid’a), but he was harsh (shadid) in his attitude.” Question: Who are the Wahhabis and what was the belief of Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi? What was his Madhhab and what type of person was he? What is the difference in belief between the people of Najd and Sunni Hanafis?” “Answer: The followers of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab are called Wahhabis. They had good (umdah) beliefs and their school of thought was Hanbali. However, they were very stringent in their attitude but he and his followers were good people. But, yes, those who exceeded the limits were overcome by wrongness (fasad). And basic beliefs of everyone are united. The difference they have in actions is (like that) of Hanafi, Shafi’i, Maliki and Hanbali.” (Fatawa Rashidiyya, pp. 241–42) ... Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  152. ↑ Desai, Mufti Ebrahim (29 July 2012). "What do ulemas of deoband consider about Molana Abdul Wahhab?". Islamqa.org. Archived from the original on 9 November 2017. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  153. ↑ "Is Muhammad ibn Abdul-Wahhab and Salafi aqidah within Ahl Sunnah al-Jamah?". Islamqa.org. 30 April 2017. Archived from the original on 18 February 2021. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  154. ↑ "There is no such thing as Wahabism, Saudi prince says". The National. 18 March 2010. Archived from the original on 20 August 2019. Retrieved 20 August 2019. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  155. ↑ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. p. 172. Search this book on
  156. ↑ Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Knopf. p. 79. ISBN 978-0375414862. Search this book on
  157. ↑ Moghadam, Assaf (2008). The Globalization of Martyrdom: Al Qaeda, Salafi Jihad, and the Diffusion of Suicide Attacks. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0801890550. Search this book on
  158. ↑ Livesey, Bruce (25 January 2005). "Special Reports – The Salafist Movement: Al Qaeda's New Front". PBS Frontline. WGBH educational foundation. Retrieved 18 October 2011.Geltzer, Joshua A. (2011). US Counter-Terrorism Strategy and al-Qaeda: Signalling and the Terrorist World-View (Reprint ed.). London and New York: Routledge. p. 83. ISBN 978-0415664523. Search this book on
  159. ↑ Maley, William (2001). Fundamentalism Reborn? Afghanistan and the Taliban. C Hurst & Co. p. 14. ISBN 978-1850653608. Search this book on
  160. ↑ "Taliban - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com.
  161. ↑ R. Dillon, Michael (September 2009). "(Thesis) Wahhabism : Is it a Factor in the Spread of Global Terrorism?". Naval Postgraduate School. the Taliban ... movement emerged more from the Deobandi School and not Wahhabism ... the Saudi government cooperated fully, ... , with U.S. operations in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom) by allowing U.S. forces to use Saudi air bases to control U.S. aircraft ... the ideology of Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda is not Wahhabi. ... The ideology of al-Qaeda is not a simple affair, and it is a serious mistake to reduce it to Wahhabism. To do so is to ignore the extent to which al-Qaeda broke with the traditional geo-political outlook of Wahhabism, which had never entered into politico-military opposition to the West and was indeed in alliance with the U.S. from 1945 onwards. ...
  162. ↑ 162.0 162.1 "Terrorism: Growing Wahhabi Influence in the United States". www.govinfo.gov. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Publishing Office. 26 June 2003. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 26 June 2021. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  163. ↑ R. Dillon, Michael (September 2009). "(Thesis) Wahhabism : Is it a Factor in the Spread of Global Terrorism?". Naval Postgraduate School. .. Saudi Arabia is serious about fighting Al-Qaeda
  164. ↑ Bunzel, Cole (March 2015). "From Paper State to Caliphate: The Ideology of the Islamic State" (PDF). The Brookings Project on U.S. Relations with the Islamic World. Washington, D.C.: Center for Middle East Policy (Brookings Institution). 19: 1–48. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  165. ↑ Wood, Graeme (March 2015). "What ISIS Really Wants". The Atlantic. Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 16 February 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  166. ↑ "Imam Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab Mosque in Doha - Qatar". Beautiful Mosque. Archived from the original on 12 June 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  167. ↑ "Qatar's state mosque opens to the public". Doha News. 6 December 2011. Archived from the original on 19 June 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  168. ↑ "Imam Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab Mosque in Doha - Qatar". Beautiful Mosque. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  169. ↑ "Descendants of Saudi Wahhabism founder distance themselves from Qatar". Reuters. 29 May 2017. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  170. ↑ 170.0 170.1 "Wahhābī (Islamic movement)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 9 June 2020. Archived from the original on 26 June 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2020. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  171. ↑ Hubbard, Ben (31 May 2015). "Saudis Turn Birthplace of Wahhabism Ideology Into Tourist Spot". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 June 2016. Retrieved 27 May 2016. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  172. ↑ Estimo Jr, Rodolfo (5 January 2017). "Diriyah on course to become world-class tourist spot". Arab News. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  173. ↑ Humaidan, Muhammad (22 November 2011). "Diriyah – a symbol of Saudi heritage". Arab News. Archived from the original on 30 July 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2017. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  174. ↑ "Mosque of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahab". Saudi Tour. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  175. ↑ 175.0 175.1 Vasilʹev 1998: 13
  176. ↑ EI2
  177. ↑ Vasilʹev 1998: 14

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