Vineyards of the Basque Country
| The D.O. Navarra: Behe Erribera or Ribera Baja Goi Erribera or Ribera Alta Izarbeibarra or Valdizarbe Behe Mendialdea or Baja Montaña | Vineyards of La Rioja: The D.O.C. Rioja Irouléguy Vineyard: Irulegiko Arnoa The Txakoli: From Álava From Biscay From Getaria |
The vineyards of the Basque Country (Euskal herriko mahastiak in Basque) span both the French Basque Country (or Iparralde) and the Spanish Basque Country (or Hegoalde), each with a long-standing tradition of viticulture reflected in various designations of origin and distinct terroirs.
Viticulture in the region began with the Bituriges Vivisques, who cultivated vines between the mouth of the Gironde and the Pyrenean foothills. The presence of wild vines in the valleys of Cantabria, the Basque Country, and Béarn eallowed for the selection of Pyreneo-Atlantic grape varieties. This indigenous viticulture developed independently of Roman influence, which is rare in Western Europe.
In the Middle Ages, pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela encouraged vineyard development by the monks of Roncesvalles Abbey, who operated hospices along the way. They cultivated vineyards from the priory of Irouléguy to Fontarrabie, using grape varieties similar to those still found in the region today. These historic varieties, though slightly altered over time, remain present in the vineyards of Irouléguy, Rioja, Txakoli, and Navarre.
The use of high or semi-high vine training systems contributes to the distinctiveness of Basque wines, with their characteristics shaped primarily by the diversity of local terroirs.
History
Viticulture in the Basque region began with the Bituriges Vivisques, a Celtic people who settled near the mouth of the Gironde around the first century BCE. Through trade with Roman Narbonnaise, they adopted vine cultivation and began selecting plants suited to the region's terroir and climate.[1] This process led to the development of the Biturica grape, considered an ancestor of modern Cabernet varieties, capable of thriving in the rainy conditions of the Iberian and Aquitanian coasts.[2]
The Bituriges also interacted with the Aquitanians, or Proto-Basques,[note 1][3] and by 72 BCE, a major land route linked Bordeaux and Astorga (Asturica Augusta), passing along the Basque coast[1] and through the settlement of Iruña-Veleia. Pliny the Elder, in Natural History, refers to a grape variety introduced by the Bituriges to establish vineyards in the region. The presence of wild vines in the Pyrenean foothills and cultivated vines along the Bay of Biscay supported the early development of viticulture before the Roman conquest of Aquitaine.[4]
In this area, a distinct grape variety emerged through the empirical selection of wild, hermaphroditic vine forms from the valleys of Cantabria, the Basque Country, and Béarn. These selections produced varieties capable of yielding quality wine.[1]
During the Middle Ages, pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela—originating in Le Puy-en-Velay, Vézelay, Orléans, or Arles—converged in this region. Monks from the Abbey of Roncesvalles cultivated vineyards with native grape varieties between Irouléguy and Fontarrabie (Hondarribia), including early forms of Tannat, Manseng, and Courbu.[1] Despite modifications in the 19th and 20th centuries, these varieties remain present in the vineyards of Irouléguy, Rioja, Txakoli, and Navarre.[1]
The presence of lambrusks (wild vines) in the Pyrenean valleys facilitated the development of new grape varieties through seedling selection and hybridization. Cistercian monks from wealthy abbeys likely contributed to this process of varietal development.[1] The typical layout of Basque vineyards—on high or semi-high slopes—continues to define the character of the region’s wines, which are distinguished primarily by the grape varieties adapted to each terroir.
A notable feature of these vineyards is the preservation of wild vine populations that were not affected by phylloxera. These vines have provided valuable genetic material for ampelographic studies, notably by Pierre Durquéty, whose research on grape variety development drew on this unique resource.[1]
Etymology
In the Basque language, wine is referred to as arnoa in the northern (French) Basque Country and ardoa in the southern region and in standard Basque (batua), with ardua also used in the Souletin dialect. Linguist Koldo Mitxelena traced the term ardano as the proto-Basque word for wine, which is the root of the modern terms. This root appears in related words such as ardanozpin (“wine vinegar”) and the river name Ardanabia, a tributary of the Adour, derived from ardan-habia, meaning “river course of vines.”[5]
Basque terminology also reflects specific characteristics of wine. Red wine is called ardo beltza (“black wine”), while rosé is ardo gorria (“red wine”). The term arnoa is used as a suffix for fermented beverages, such as garagarnoa (beer, from garagarra, meaning barley) and sagarnoa (cider, from sagara, meaning apple).[5]
Geographical origin and history of grape varieties
A study by INRA Bordeaux and Montpellier, in collaboration with ENSAM Montpellier,[6] concluded that the grape varieties cultivated in the Basque Country originated near the bottom of the Bay of Biscay and parts of the humid Pyrenean foothills. During the Ice Ages, this region served as a refuge for Vitis vinifera L., the common grapevine. Over time, both wild and cultivated forms of the vine evolved and spread throughout adjacent areas, contributing to a diverse regional viticulture.[7]
Vine-growing methods
Vines in the Basque Country are typically trained using half-shoots at a height of approximately 1.10 meters, with long pruning methods. Historically, vine height ranged between 1.50 and 2 meters throughout the region and the vineyards of the Pyrenean foothills.[8]
Ampelographers P.M. Durquéty[note 2] and P. Robert observed notable similarities in grape varieties cultivated on both sides of the Pyrenees.[8] Their research led to the identification of a distinct “Basque vineyard” characterized by varieties believed to descend from the Carmenets (sorto-type) family, which includes Bouchy (Cabernet Franc), Cabernet Sauvignon, Courbu, and Petit Verdot. These are thought to share a common ancestor in the historical Biturica grape.[8]
The terroir
The vineyards are located in areas with minimal spring frost, low rainfall, and south-facing slopes—conditions well-suited to viticulture. As a result, and unlike many other French wine regions, vineyards in the Pyrenean foothills tend to be discontinuous, established primarily in the most favorable microclimates, possibly even predating Roman cultivation.[9]
A vineyard untouched by phylloxera
Some vineyard plots in the Basque region were unaffected by the phylloxera epidemic. In these areas, "old vines" can exceed a century in age.[9]
The region extending from Pau to Bilbao, including the Pyrenean valleys, is notable for the presence of wild grapevines—known as lambrusques (Vitis vinifera subsp. silvestris)—which grow naturally along hedgerows and riverbanks. In Europe, aside from vineyards planted on sandy soils (supporting non-grafted vines or pieds francs), wild Vitis vinifera subsp. silvestris still exist in only a few areas: the Pyrenees, the Caucasus, and some Swiss valleys.[note 3] This subspecies is strictly protected in mainland France.[9]
Appellations of origin
Among Basque wine regions, only the Irouléguy appellation (AOC) is located in the French Basque Country; others are situated in the Spanish Basque Country.[10]
AOC Irouléguy
AOC Irouléguy is one of the smallest appellations in France and Europe, encompassing 240 hectares[10] across approximately 15 communes[note 4] surrounding Saint-Étienne-de-Baïgorry, Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, and Bidarray. It is named after the village of Irouléguy in Basse-Navarre, which has a population of about 300.
The appellation includes 46 producers: 35 cooperative members cultivating 130 hectares, and 11 independent winegrowers managing the remaining 90 hectares.[11]
History of the Irouléguy vineyards
Middle Ages
In the 13th century, Augustinian monks from the Roncesvalles monastery established a vineyard in the Aldudes Valley, with Irouléguy as its administrative center.[note 5] Due to the mountainous terrain, the vines were planted in terraces[12] on the slopes of the Arradoy and Jara rivers. The primary purpose of the vineyard was to supply wine to pilgrims traveling the Camino Francés to Santiago de Compostela.[13]
Modern Era
Following the Treaty of the Pyrenees in the 17th century, a new border separated the area from the Roncesvalles monastery. As a result, the monks abandoned the vineyard, which was subsequently maintained by the local population. By this time, the Irouléguy vineyards covered approximately 500 hectares. Winegrowing was further promoted by the Viscount of Urdos, who encouraged cultivation on steep slopes.[13]
In the 18th century, increased demand for wine across France boosted production and employment, particularly for vin de pays. However, production declined steadily in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with the vineyards suffering significant losses due to phylloxera in 1912.[13]
Contemporary period
In 1952, a cooperative was established under the leadership of Alexandre Bergouignan to support winegrowers and work toward official recognition. The wines of Baigorri, Anhauze, and Irouléguy received the AO VDQS label in 1953, and the Irouléguy vineyard was granted AOC status in October 1970.[note 6]
By the 1980s, vineyard area had decreased to about 70 hectares. A downturn in cheese production led to renewed interest in viticulture, with approximately 15 new producers planting 150 hectares—110 of which were on terraced slopes referred to as “Swiss terraces.”[11] Today, around 220 hectares are under cultivation.
Grape varieties and production
Red wines are produced using Tannats, Cabernet Franc, and Cabernet Sauvignon, resulting in tannic profiles.[14] White wines use traditional southwestern grape varieties, including Courbu Blanc, Petit Manseng, and Gros Manseng. Yields are limited to 50 hl/ha for red and rosé wines, and 55 hl/ha for whites.[15] Harvesting is conducted manually.
Annual production totals approximately 5,500 hectoliters, composed of 70% red wine, 20% rosé, and 10% white wine.[14]
The Rioja D.O.C.
The Rioja D.O.C. (Denominación de Origen Calificada) is a prominent Spanish wine region recognized primarily for its red wines. While its production is centered in the Rioja region, it also encompasses parts of the Basque province of Alava (Rioja Alavesa) and the region of Navarre.[note 7] Rioja is classified as a Denominación de Origen Calificada, a designation that signifies strict quality controls.
The region covers approximately 57,000 hectares and produces an average of 2.5 million hectoliters of wine annually.[16] Red wine constitutes about 85% of this total production.
History of Rioja vineyards
Antiquity and the Middle Ages
Viticulture in Rioja has ancient origins, with influences attributed to the Phoenicians[17] and Celtiberians. The earliest known written reference to vineyards in the region appears in a document dated 873 from the notary public of San Millán de la Cogolla.This document, concerning a donation to the Monastery of San Andrés de Trepeana, also represents one of the earliest written examples of the Castilian language.[18] During the medieval period, monastic communities played a central role in the development and promotion of viticulture in Rioja.
In 1063, the “Carta de población de Longares” (Charter of Settlement of Longares) includes the first known mention of viticulture in the area.[19] In 1102, King Peter I of Aragon issued the first legal recognition of Rioja wines.[20]
The 13th-century Castilian poet Gonzalo de Berceo,[21] who served as abbot of the Suso monastery (part of San Millán de la Cogolla), referenced wine in his literary works.
Renaissance
In 1560, grape growers from Longares adopted a symbol to identify the quality of their wines.[22]
Further regulatory developments occurred in 1635, when the mayor of Logroño prohibited cart traffic on streets with wine cellars to prevent vibrations from affecting wine storage. In 1650, the first known document aimed at protecting the quality of Rioja wines was drafted.[23]
The modern period
In 1790,[22] the inaugural meeting of the Real Sociedad Económica de Cosecheros de Rioja (Royal Economic Society of Rioja Winegrowers) addressed strategies for constructing, repairing, and maintaining infrastructure to improve wine transportation. The Society was established to support the cultivation and commercialization of Rioja wines, with participation from fifty-two localities.[22]
In 1852, Luciano Murrieta produced the first wine in the Duque de la Victoria region after acquiring winemaking knowledge in Bordeaux.[22]
Contemporary period
In 1892, quality control sections for viticulture and oenology were established at the Haro railway station.[22] A royal decree issued in 1902 formally defined the origin of Rioja wines.
The Consejo Regulador (Regulatory Council) was formed in 1926[23] to delineate production zones, ensure quality assurance, and regulate the use of the "Rioja" designation.[22] The Council was granted a legal structure in 1945 and officially inaugurated in 1953.
In 1970, the regulations governing the Denominación de Origen and the Regulatory Council were formally approved.[23] Rioja achieved further recognition in 1991 when it became the first Spanish wine region to receive the status of Denominación de Origen Calificada (DOCa).[24]
In 2008, the Regulatory Council introduced a new logo for bottles under the Rioja appellation, featuring a Tempranillo grape symbol intended to represent heritage, innovation, and vitality.[24]
Territorial division
Based on topographical and climatic variation, Rioja is divided into three wine-producing sub-zones with distinct characteristics: Errioxa Beherea (Rioja Baja), Arabako Errioxa (Rioja Alavesa), and Errioxa Garaia (Rioja Alta), with the latter located exclusively within the Rioja region.[24]
Arabako Errioxa / Rioja Alavesa
Rioja Alavesa cencompasses approximately 12,000 hectares of vineyards,[25] with an average annual wine production of nearly 400,000 hectoliters. These wines are produced under the supervision of the Consejo Regulador de la Denominación de Origen Calificada Rioja and have gained international recognition.[26]
The quality of the wine is attributed primarily to the region’s clay-limestone soil, which retains moisture effectively. The vineyards’ location, situated just beyond the Sierra Cantabria mountain range, provides protection from cold northerly winds and supports heat retention, contributing to favorable growing conditions.[26]
Approximately 79% of the wine produced in Rioja Alava is made from the Tempranillo grape variety,[note 8] which offers good color along with a balanced alcohol-to-acidity ratio. Other grape varieties cultivated include Viura (also known as Macabeu),[27] Grenache Noir (originating from Aragon), Mazuelo (or Carignan), Graciano, Grenache Blanc and Malvasia. Graciano, in particular, is noted for its aromatic profile and is often used for blending.
Wines from this region are generally characterized by a bright color, dried fruit aromas, and a fruity flavor profile. They typically exhibit moderate to high alcohol content, firm tannins, and a balanced palate. Optimal alcohol levels range between 11% and 13%. The most representative style is tinto, the red wine of Rioja Alavesa.[27]
Most of the young red wines, or vino joven, are produced using the traditional method of carbonic maceration. In this process, grapes undergo fermentation for seven to ten days before the skins and stems are removed. The must is then transferred to fermentation tanks for completion. The resulting wines are noted for their fresh, fruity taste.[27]
| Alavese Municipalities | Red Wine (ha) | White Wine (ha) | Wineries |
|---|---|---|---|
| Baños de Ebro-Mañueta | 450.19 | 59.42 | 24 |
| Barriobusto | 229.57 | 34.02 | 1 |
| Kripan | 139.00 | 10.75 | 2 |
| Elciego | 1082.70 | 56.72 | 21 |
| Elvillar-Bilar | 750.15 | 66.25 | 13 |
| Labastida | 1001.72 | 77.83 | 12 |
| Labraza | 122.64 | 16.76 | 0 |
| Laguardia | 3313.61 | 248.69 | 61 |
| Lanciego | 1005.64 | 98.48 | 17 |
| Lapuebla de Labarca | 310.57 | 28.78 | 40 |
| Leza | 345.44 | 31.50 | 6 |
| Moreda de Álava | 277.63 | 33.79 | 2 |
| Navaridas | 563.43 | 53.11 | 11 |
| Oyón-Oion | 790.97 | 47.14 | 7 |
| Buradon Gatzaga[note 9] | 56.69 | 3.91 | 0 |
| Samaniego | 483.49 | 49.01 | 14 |
| Villabuena de Álava-Eskuernaga | 490.92 | 54.10 | 42 |
| Yécora-Iekora | 449.86 | 26.04 | 5 |
| Total in Álava | 11,864.22 | 996.30 | 280 |
Crianza, Reserva, and Gran Reserva wines from the Rioja region follow aging practices similar to those used in Bordeaux. Crianza wines require a minimum aging period of two years, including at least one year in oak barrels and one year in the bottle. Reserva wines must be aged for at least three years, with a minimum of one year in oak and two years in the bottle. Gran Reserva wines undergo a minimum of two years of aging in oak barrels, followed by at least three years in the bottle, totaling a minimum aging period of five years. Laguardia serves as a central hub for the region, housing 53 of the 278 wineries within the appellation.[29]
| Year | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1960 | Good | Good | Very Good | Normal | Excellent | Average | Normal | Normal | Very Good | Normal |
| 1970 | Very Good | Average | Average | Good | Good | Very Good | Good | Normal | Very Good | Normal |
| 1980 | Good | Very Good | Excellent | Good | Normal | Good | Good | Very Good | Good | Good |
| 1990 | Good | Very Good | Good | Good | Excellent | Excellent | Very Good | Good | Very Good | Good |
| 2000 | Good | Excellent | Good | Good | Excellent | Excellent | Very Good | Very Good |
Rioja Baja / Errioxa Beherea
The Rioja Baja sub-region encompasses 20,907 hectares of vineyards, with 6,785 hectares located in Navarre.[31] This area includes eight municipalities and fifteen vineyards, all situated in a zone influenced by a Mediterranean climate.[32] Here are the Navarre municipalities:
| Navarrese
Municipalities |
Red Wine (ha) | White Wine (ha) | Wineries |
|---|---|---|---|
| Andosilla | 882.54 | 24.57 | 5 |
| Aras | 74.43 | 2.05 | 1 |
| Azagra | 1377.00 | 23.33 | 2 |
| Bargota | 361.25 | 13.54 | 1 |
| Viana | 1443.59 | 99.49 | 3 |
| Mendavia | 1510.44 | 18.41 | 2 |
| San Adrián | 532.85 | 20.19 | 1 |
| Sartaguda | 29.82 | 0.37 | 0 |
| Total in Navarre | 6,211.92 | 201.95 | 15 |
Culture
As in many Spanish wine-producing regions, wine plays a significant role in the cultural and culinary traditions of the area..[31]
-
Ysios upategia created by architect Santiago Calatrava in Laguardia.
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Panoramic view of Elciego from a row of vines.
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Cone-shaped shelter in Laguardia for farmers in case of storms.
Txakoli
Txakoli is a white wine with slight effervescence, notable for its high acidity and relatively low alcohol content, typically between 9.5% and 11.5%. It is produced in all three provinces of the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country.[31]
Commonly served as an aperitif, txakoli is intended to be consumed within the year of bottling, as it does not age well. The most prevalent variety is pale green, although red and rosé versions are also produced. It is traditionally poured into tall-stemmed glasses and is often paired with pintxos, a type of Basque snack.[32]
Historically, txakoli was aged in foudres, large oak casks, but modern production primarily relies on stainless steel fermentation tanks.[32]
Most txakoli originates from vineyards located near the Bay of Biscay, where annual rainfall ranges from 1,000 to 1,600 mm and average temperatures fall between 7.5°C and 18.7°C. Despite favorable conditions, vines in the region are occasionally affected by frost.[33]
A museum dedicated to txakoli, the Museo del Txakoli – Txakolinaren Museoa, is housed in the 18th-century Mendibile Palace in Leioa, near Bilbao. The museum documents the history of txakoli and features a collection of traditional winemaking equipment.[33][34]
Etymology
The term txakoli or txakolina in Basque (pronounced [tʃakoˈliɲa]) is of Basque origin, with the suffix "-in" often used for liquids, as seen in words like ozpin ("vinegar"). However, the exact origin of the root remains unclear, according to linguist Resurrección María Azkue.[35]
In Spanish, the wine is referred to as chacolí, although the Basque form is more commonly used in the Basque Country and in its commercial labeling. Examples include Txakoli de Bizkaia (also rendered as chacolí de Viscaya)[36] andTxakoli de Guetaria.[37]
History of Txakoli vineyards
Modern times
By the mid-19th century, txakoli production had significantly declined and was at risk of disappearing entirely. This situation persisted until the 1980s. During this period, txakoli was primarily produced domestically by individual owners and consumed almost exclusively within the Basque Country.[37]
Contemporary period
Beginning in 1994, certain txakoli vintages began to meet the requirements for Denominación de Origen (DO) certification.[13] As production standards improved, both demand and distribution of the wine increased. Today, txakolindegi—establishments dedicated to the production and tasting of txakoli—are commonly found, often with popularity comparable to that of Sagardotegi, or cider houses.[38]
The different Txakoli
here are three officially recognized designations for txakoli, each with its own Denominación de Origen status:[36]
- D.O. Getariako Txakolina: Produced around the town of Getaria in the province of Guipuscoa; granted DO status in 1990.
- D.O. Bizkaiako Txakolina: Produced along the coast of Biscay (Vizcaya); received DO status in 1994.
- D.O. Arabako Txakolina: Produced in the province of Alava, particularly around the town of Amurrio; granted DO status in 2001.
Txakoli de Getaria
Known as Getariako Txakolina in Basque and Chacolí de Guetaria in Spanish,[37] this variety is produced in a small area of Guipuscoa that includes the municipalities of Getaria, Zarautz, and Aia. and has a very yellow to green color. It was the first txakoli to receive DO certification, in 1989.[37] Since that time, the cultivated area has grown from 60 to 177 hectares, although it remains the smallest of the three DO regions. Approximately 9,000 hectolitres are produced annually, primarily from vineyards situated on southeast-facing slopes to provide shelter from Atlantic weather systems.[37]
Vine training in this region employs the parra method, a trellis system that raises vines above the ground. This technique, similar to those used in Portugal's vinhos verdes production, creates a canopy of foliage that enhances the microclimate around the vines.[37]
Authorized white grape varieties include Hondarribi Zuri (Courbu), Hondarribi Zuri Zerratia (Petit Courbu), Izkiriota (Gros Manseng), as well as Riesling and Chardonnay. For rosé and red wines, the permitted variety is Hondarribi Beltza.[39]
In recent years, production has expanded to other municipalities in the region, including Orio, Zumaia, Arrasate, Eibar, Mutriku, Deba, Zestoa, Fontarrabie, Villabona, Urnieta, Oñati, Beizama, Zerain and Olaberria.[37]
Txakoli d'Alava
The Txakoli of Álava—known as Arabako Txakolina in Basque and Chacolí de Álava in Spanish—is produced in the extreme northwest of the province of Alava.It was granted Denominación de Origen (DO) status in 2001. This variety is typically yellowish in color, high in acidity, and slightly effervescent. It is cultivated on approximately 55 hectares surrounding the towns of Aiara, Amurrio, Artziniega, Laudio, and Okondo. Viticulture in this region dates back to at least 760 AD.[40]
The principal grape variety used is Hondarribi Zuri (White Hondarribi). Other authorized varieties include Bordeleza Zuria (Folle Blanche), Izkiriota Ttipia (Petit Manseng), Izkiriota (Gros Manseng) and Courbu.[39]
Txakoli de Biscaye
Txakoli de Biscaye—referred to as Bizkaiko Txakolina in Basque and Chacolí de Vizcaya in Spanish—is produced throughout most of the province of Biscay,[note 10] with the exception of its westernmost comarca, Enkarterri.[note 11]
The wine is cultivated on roughly 150 hectares across 85 municipalities, with an annual production of approximately 7,000 hectoliters. Historical references to txakoli production in this region date back to the 8th century. Wine quality and microclimatic conditions vary throughout the region.[39]
Authorized grape varieties include Hondarribi Beltza, Hondarribi Zuri, Ondarrabi Zuri Zerratia (Petit Courbu), Mune Mahatsa (Folle Blanche), Izkiriota (Gros Manseng), Izkiriota Ttipia (Petit Manseng), Sauvignon Blanc, Riesling, and Chardonnay.[39]
Txakoli outside the Basque Country
Txakoli was historically produced in various municipalities in provinces bordering the Basque Country, particularly in the Cantabrian region of Trasmiera, until the late 19th century. Today, production continues on a small scale in Cantabria. Additionally, txakoli is made in the municipality of Valle de Mena in the province of Burgos, where producers are working toward obtaining DO certification.[41]
| Txakoli | Area (ha) | Producers | Warehouses | Volume (hl) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arabako Txakolina[42] | 60 | 13 | 1 | 2400 |
| Bizkaiko Txakolina | 255 | 254 | 73 | 9585.71 |
| Getariako Txakolina | 180 • | 40 | 17 | 10000 • [43] |
• Getariako Txakolina is expected to reach 30,000 hectoliters annually with the inclusion of vineyards from Hondarribia, Oñati, Arrasate, and Zumaia. The total vineyard area will expand to 300 hectares, increasing production by one million liters per year.[44]
The Denominación de Origen (D.O.) Navarra encompasses the production of red, rosé, and white wines. Located in the southern part of the Comunidad Foral de Navarra, the vineyard area spans 18,841.45 hectares.[45]
A small southwestern portion of Navarre (approximately 5%) falls within the D.O.C. Rioja appellation zone.[45]
The D.O. Navarra is divided into five sub-regions, each with distinct geographical and climatic characteristics.
Behe Erribera or Ribera Baja
Located in southern Navarre, Ribera Baja is the largest sub-region[46] in terms of vineyard area, covering 5,666 hectares. It also has the highest number of wineries and produces an average yield of 74.0508 quintals per hectare.[45] The region receives an average annual rainfall of 448 mm and approximately 241 days of sunshine per year.[47]
The sub-region includes fourteen wine-producing municipalities[note 12] and exhibits strong Mediterranean climatic influences. The soil is typically brownish-gray, with a limestone substratum on the plains and alluvial deposits near the river. Ribera Baja contributes 40.29% of the total production under the D.O. Navarra.[47]
Goi Erribera or Ribera Alta
Situated in the central and southern parts of Navarre, along the Ebro Valley, Ribera Alta covers 5,944 hectares and yields an average of 63.6089 quintals per hectare. Annual rainfall ranges between 444 mm and 513 mm, and the area receives between 238 and 245 days of sunshine.[46][47]
This sub-region includes twenty-six municipalities.[note 13] The climate is dry, and the soil composition consists mainly of limestone marl and alluvial deposits. Ribera Alta accounts for 22.90% of the D.O.'s total wine production.
Izarbeibar or Valdizarde
Located near the route to Santiago de Compostela,[46] Valdizarbe lies between the Arga and Cidacos river valleys, partially within the Puente la Reina comarca. The region encompasses 1,275 hectares and has an average yield of 59.1877 quintals per hectare. It receives around 593 mm of annual rainfall and an average of 218 days of sunshine.[47]
Comprising twenty-five municipalities, Valdizarbe has a dry climate and contributes approximately 11% of the total production within the D.O. Navarra.[note 14]
Behe Mendialdea or Baja Montaña
In eastern Navarre, within the Aragon River valley, vineyards cover an area of 2,655 hectares.[46] The average yield is 52.9826 quintals per hectare. This region experiences an average annual rainfall of approximately 683 mm and receives around 232 days of sunshine per year.[47] It includes twenty-two municipalities and is characterized by a dry climate and chalky soils, ranging in color from yellowish to reddish. This sub-region accounts for 14.79% of the total wine production under the Denominación de Origen (D.O.) Navarra.[note 15]
Lizarraldea or Tierra de Estrella
Located in the valleys of the Odron, Ega, and Linares rivers, the Lizarraldea sub-region comprises 3,083 hectares of vineyards.[46] It produces an average of 58.9412 quintals per hectare.[¹] Annual rainfall averages 680 mm,[47] and grape varieties benefit from approximately 232 days of sunshine each year.[note 16] Thirty-eight municipalities produce wine in this area, which contributes around 11% of total D.O. Navarra production.
Prehistory
Evidence of vine growth in Navarre dates back to prehistoric times. Fossilized remains of vitis species have been discovered in Tertiary geological formations around the Mediterranean. In northern Navarre, Vitis silvestris, a wild grape species, was present during prehistoric periods.[48] These vines were primarily used for their roots, rather than for wine production.
Antiquity
The history of winemaking in Navarre can be traced to the 1st century BCE, based on archaeological discoveries of winemaking tools and equipment. Cultivation of Vitis silvestris appears to have continued following the arrival of the Romans.[49]
Artifacts related to wine culture, including ornaments and mosaics with Bacchic motifs, have been uncovered. Two wine amphorae dating from the 1st century BCE were found in Cintruénigo and Cascante.[49] Archaeological evidence from sites such as Funes, Arellano, Liédena, and Falces indicates that wine production was an established activity in Roman times, with industrial-scale methods employed between the 1st and 5th centuries.[50]
Middle Ages and Renaissance
During the High Middle Ages (5th to 12th centuries), the Roman influence in Navarre had largely faded. Following the incursions of the Alans, Vandals, and Swabians from Gaul, many settlements were left in disrepair or abandoned.[48] The arrival of the Visigoths arrived in 457 marked a significant shift in agricultural practices.[51] At the time, Navarre had a low population density, and the agrarian system saw a reorganization influenced by earlier Roman models, though adapted to new social and ownership structures. A notable development was the growing control of winegrowing by monastic institutions.[51]
Although Muslim and Jewish communities participated in viticulture and winemaking, their involvement remained limited.[52] The primary consumers of Navarrese wine during this period were Christian institutions such as the court, monasteries, and establishments serving pilgrims traveling to Santiago de Compostela.
Between the 13th and 15th centuries, viticulture expanded into several Pyrenean valleys and along the banks of the Ebro River. However, overall production remained modest due to the sparse population in rural areas. Vineyards were established in villages such as Anue, Ezcabarte, Ibilcieta, Arakil, and Urraul Alto. Some communities produced wine primarily for local consumption, while others engaged in wine trade as a main economic activity. Monasteries, especially Iratxe, played a central role in viticulture and served as centers for agricultural education and development.[52]
The Camino de Santiago, which passes through Navarre from east to west, became a key corridor for viticulture. Vines were cultivated along the route, particularly near Pamplona and extending to Viana. Wine was commonly available in the hospitals, inns, and guesthouses that accommodated pilgrims. Historical chronicles by various travelers include references to the quality of Navarrese wine.[52]
Navarrese wine held a notable reputation, as reflected in regional folk songs that reference its quality and cultural significance.[53] An example from popular tradition is:
Auxen duk arno ona / Here's some good wine
Peraltakoa, Peraltakoa / Only Peralta's, Peralta's
San Antonek gorde dezala / May Saint Anthony protect
au karri duen mandoa, / the mule that brought it,
to the karri duen mandoa, / the mule that brought it.
Modern times
Following the Renaissance and continuing into the 18th century, viticulture in Navarre experienced significant expansion, resulting in increased production levels. This growth led to challenges related to overproduction. In response, authorities implemented restrictions on foreign wine imports and prohibited the planting of new vines. With a surplus of wine, Navarre began exporting to Castile and other parts of Europe, primarily through the port of San Sebastian.[53]
Pamplona emerged as a notable wine-producing center. Many residents owned vineyards on the outskirts of the city, and municipal regulations aimed to protect local production by restricting the entry of wines from the Ribera region, which were considered of higher quality. Wine was primarily consumed domestically and in public establishments such as taverns and inns.[53]
In the 19th century, faced with growing production volumes, vineyard owners increasingly engaged in the commercial distribution of their wines. Viticulture expanded northward into areas now known as La Barranca, the Ribera, and the Pamplona basin, although only limited vine cultivation persists in these areas today. Mid-century outbreaks of powdery mildew and the phylloxera crisis in France generated heightened demand for wine, contributing to a temporary boom in Navarre’s wine industry.[53]
This period saw substantial investment in viticulture. Vineyard areas expanded, and many traditional wineries were converted into larger-scale production facilities. At its peak, Navarre had nearly 50,000 hectares under vine. Over a thousand producers presented their wines at international exhibitions in Bordeaux, Madrid, and Chicago, receiving various awards and recognition.[45]
However, the industry faced significant setbacks. In 1885, vineyards were affected by rust disease.[54] In 1892, the arrival of phylloxera was officially confirmed. The insect infestation caused widespread destruction of the region’s vines, reducing the cultivated area from approximately 50,000 hectares to 700 hectares within a few years.[48]
Contemporary times
The first two decades of the 20th century focused on restoring Navarre’s vineyards following the devastation caused by phylloxera. The 1912 National Viticultural Congress held in Pamplona provided renewed motivation for winegrowers. The Autonomous Council implemented measures to support the struggling wine sector, and the Navarre Winegrowers' Association, established later that year, played a key role in revitalization efforts.[55]
The agrarian cooperative movement, supported by figures such as priests Victoriano Flamarique and Antonio Yoldi,[55] contributed to the development of rural credit institutions and cooperative wineries. The first of these, Bodega Cooperativa Olitense, was established in Olite in 1911.[56] The number of cooperative wineries expanded significantly after the Spanish Civil War, reaching a total of seventy.
A new phase in the development of Navarrese wine began in 1980 with the founding of EVENA (Estación de Viticultura y Enología de Navarra). This institution facilitated the establishment of numerous private wineries and promoted improvements in wine quality, including bottling and the use of oak barrels. The Navarra Denominación de Origen (D.O.) now plays a key role in the regional economy and supports the reputation of Navarrese wines in national and international markets, with production encompassing red, rosé, white, and muscatel varieties.[55]
Types of grape
Navarre cultivates a range of grape varieties tailored to different wine types:
- Red wine: Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Merlot, Tempranillo and Grenache, or Garnatxa in Basque.
- Rosé wine: Grenache
- White wine: Chardonnay
The overall distribution of grape varieties is approximately as follows: Grenache 70%, Tempranillo 12%, Macabeu 7%, Cabernet Sauvignon 3%, Merlot 2.5%, Carignan 2%, and Graciano 1%.[23]
Production
| Year | Production (kg) | Quality | Year | Production (kg) | Quality |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1985 | 93,802,186 | Good | 1995 | 69,172,608 | Excellent |
| 1986 | 71,998,186 | Good | 1996 | 95,031,176 | Very good |
| 1987 | 52,920,474 | Good | 1997 | 85,669,681 | Good |
| 1988 | 47,946,167 | Very good | 1998 | 79,481,524 | Very good |
| 1989 | 72,993,873 | Very good | 1999 | 72,334,047 | Very good |
| 1990 | 66,873,090 | Good | 2000 | 125,224,590 | Very good |
| 1991 | 58,087,291 | Good | 2001 | 94,166,199 | Excellent |
| 1992 | 85,149,627 | Good | 2002 | 80,048,719 | Very good |
| 1993 | 68,711,120 | Very good | 2003 | 107,937,450 | - |
| 1994 | 68,108,739 | Very good | 2004 | 145,101,241 | Excellent |
| 2005 | 113,099,521 | Excellent |
Wine production yields less than 70 liters from every 100 kilograms of grapes.[57]
See also
Notes
- ↑ The latter term is used less frequently, to avoid any confusion between protohistoric populations and today's Basques.
- ↑ For P.M. Durquéty's work on grape varieties, see Arinarnoa, Arriloba, Egiodola, Ekigaïna, Liliorila, Perdea and Semebat.
- ↑ This observation helps us to better understand the naming of the Pic de Vignemale, the highest peak in the Pyrenees, and the village of Vignec, near the ski resort of Saint-Lary. These two toponyms are undoubtedly formed from the Basque root gwinn: vine, to which is added, for the first, mala: mountain (cf. Bethmal in Ariège). Still in the Hautes-Pyrénées department, the communes of Vidou and Vidouze most certainly have identical origins.
- ↑ List of towns: Aincille, Anhaux, Ascarat, Bidarray, Bussunarits-Sarrasquette, Bustince-Iriberry, Irouléguy, Ispoure, Jaxu, Lasse, Lecumberry, Ossès, Saint-Étienne-de-Baïgorry, Saint-Jean-le-Vieux and Saint-Martin-d'Arrossa.
- ↑ This AOC is located on the hills surrounding Irouléguy in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department.
- ↑ The vineyard covered 183 hectares and produced 4,000 hectoliters.
- ↑ Rioja wines were awarded D.O.C. (Denominación de Origen Calificada) status in 1991.
- ↑ Its name means “early ripening.”
- ↑ It is part of the municipality of Labastida.
- ↑ List of counties and municipalities: Enkarterri: Zalla and Balmaseda, Txorierri: Lezama and Zamudio, Durangaldea, Mungialdea and Lea-Artibai.
- ↑ In the comarca of Enkarterri, the municipalities of Zalla and Balmaseda are the only ones among the seventeen to produce txaloli.
- ↑ List of municipalities: Ablitas, Arguedas, Barillas, Cascante, Castejón, Cintruénigo, Corella, Fitero, Monteagudo, Murchante, Tudela, Tulebras and Valtierra.
- ↑ List of municipalities: Artajona, Beire, Berbinzana, Cadreita, Caparroso, Cárcar, Carcastillo, Falces, Funes, Larraga, Lerín, Lodosa, Marcilla, Mélida, Miracle, Miranda de Arga, Murillo el Cuende, Murillo el Fruto, Olite, Peralta, Pitillas, Sansoáin, Santacara, Sesma, Tafalla et Villafranca.
- ↑ List of towns: Adiós, Añorbe, Artazu, Barásoain, Biurrun-Olcoz, Cirauqui, Echauri, Enériz, Garínoain, Guirguillano, Legarda, Leoz, Mañeru, Mendigorría, Muruzábal, Obanos, Olóriz, Orísoain, Pueyo, Puente la Reina, Tiebas-Muruarte de Reta, Tirapu, Úcar, Unzué, Uterga.
- ↑ List of municipalities: Aibar, Cáseda, Eslava, Ezprogui, Gallipienzo, Javier, Leache, Lerga, Liédena, Lumbier, Sada, Sangüesa, San Martín de Unx et Ujué.
- ↑ List of municipalities: Aberin, Allo, Arellano, Armañanzas, Arróniz, Ayegui, Barbarin, Dicastillo, Desojo, El Busto, Espronceda, Estella, Igúzquiza, Lazagurría, Los Arcos, Luquin, Mendaza, Morentin, Murieta, Oteiza, Sansol, Torralba del Río, Torres del Río, Yerri, Villamayor de Monjardín et Villatuerta.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Bordenave, L.; Lacombe, T.; Laucou, V.; Boursiquot, J.M. (2007). Étude historique, génétique et ampélographique des cépages Pyrénéo Atlantiques [Historical, genetic and ampelographic study of Pyrenean-Atlantic grape varieties] (in français). Search this book on
- ↑ Dion, Roger (1959). Histoire de la vigne et du vin en France des origines au XIXe siècle [History of vines and wine in France from the origins to the 19th century] (in français). Paris: Éd. Flammarion. p. 768. Search this book on
- ↑ Tassaux, F. (2005–2006). "Pratiques funéraires au Premier age du Fer : Analyse comparative de part et d'autre des Pyrénées" [Funerary practices in the Early Iron Age: Comparative analysis across the Pyrenees] (PDF). archeolandes.com (in français). Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ "Revue internationale de viticulture, oenologie, économie, droit viti-vinicole" [International journal of viticulture, oenology, economics and wine law]. Bulletin de l'OIV (in français). 558: 920-922. 2007. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Mitxelena, Koldo (1985). Fonética histórica vasca [Historical Basque phonetics] (in español). Saint-Sébastien: Gipuzkoako Aldundia. p. 596. Search this book on
- ↑ Laucou, Valerie V.; Boursiquot, Jean-Michel; Lacombe, Thierry; Bordenave, Louis; Decroocq, Stephane; Ollat, Nathalie (2008). "Parentage of grapevine rootstock 'Fercal' finally elucidated". Vitis. 47 (3): 163-167. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ "Revue internationale de viticulture, oenologie, économie, droit viti-vinicole" [International review of viticulture, oenology, economics, wine law]. Bulletin de l'OIV (in français). 920-922: 583-586. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Durquety & Robert (1973)
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Bourrouilh & Delfaud (1984)
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Bachelier, Virginie (2021). "L'irouleguy, pépite basque" [Irouleguy, a Basque nugget]. ouest-france.fr (in français). Retrieved February 8, 2025.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Vins AOC d'Irouléguy" [AOC Irouléguy wines]. Atlas du Vin (in français). October 5, 2007. Archived from the original on 5 October 2007. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ "Le vignoble d'Irouléguy" [The Irouléguy vineyard]. infobasque.free.fr (in français). October 22, 2004. Archived from the original on 22 October 2004. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Facaros, Dana; Pauls, Michael (2001). Bilbao & the Basque Lands. Cadogan. p. 288. ISBN 978-1-86011-835-7. Search this book on
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Irouleguy vin basque AOC" [Irouleguy AOC Basque wine]. aquitaineonline.com (in français). August 5, 2009. Archived from the original on 5 August 2009. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ "AOC « Irouléguy »" [AOC Irouléguy]. vins-emotions.com (in français). November 24, 2011. Archived from the original on 24 November 2007. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ Castel, Luc; Niermans, Marianne. "Les caves se rebiffent!" [The wineries are rebelling!] (PDF). lightmediation.net (in français). Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ "Les vins espagnols" [Spanish wines]. academieduvin.fr (in français). August 9, 2008. Archived from the original on 9 August 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ "Turismo en San Millán de la Cogolla" [Tourism in San Millán de la Cogolla]. Spain.info (in español). Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ "Torre Fuerte de Alberite" [Torre Fuerte de Alberite]. valvanera.com (in français). July 8, 2011. Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ "Familia de fueros y cartas pueblas de La Rioja" [Family of charters and charters of La Rioja]. vallenajerilla.com (in español). Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ Pellen, René (1997). "Los Milagros de Nuestra Señora de Berceo, Étude linguistique et index lemmatisé, Tome I" [Los Milagros de Nuestra Señora de Berceo, Linguistic study and lemmatized index, Volume I]. Cahiers d'Études Hispaniques Médiévales (in français). 9 (1): 3–49. doi:10.3406/cehm.1997.2195.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 "Historia del vino de Rioja" [History of Rioja wine] (PDF). lariojaturismo.com (in español). Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 "Historia de La cultura vitivinícola" [History of wine culture]. Consejo Regulador DOCa Rioja (in español). Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 "Projet Tourvin : Gobierno de la Comunidad de la Rioja" [Projet Tourvin : Government of the Community of La Rioja]. tourvin.eu (in español). September 12, 2010. Archived from the original on 12 September 2010. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "Rioja Alavesa Wine Region". Whatsonwhen. August 17, 2011. Archived from the original on 17 August 2011. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 "INFORMES SECTORIALES DE LA CAPV" [CAPV SECTOR INFORMATION]. fcavn.es (in français). June 28, 2012. Archived from the original on 28 June 2012. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 "Grape varietals of La Rioja, the country of Tempranillo". Larioja New York. May 9, 2008. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "Annual Report 2007" (PDF). Control Board of the Rioja Designation of Origin. 2007. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "Liste des Bodégas dans la Rioja Alavesa" [List of Bodégas in Rioja Alavesa]. turismoriojaalavesa.com (in français). November 11, 2007. Archived from the original on 11 November 2007. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "ASOCIACIÓN | ABRA Asociación de Bodegas de Rioja Alavesa". ABRA (in español). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 "Evolución del viñedo inscrito por Comunidades Autonomas de la D. O. C. La Rioja. (Hectareas)" [Evolution of registered vineyards by Autonomous Community of the D. O. C. La Rioja (Hectares)] (PDF). riojawine.com (in español). 2022. p. 9. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 "Distribution de la production de vin par localité" [Distribution of wine production by locality] (PDF). riojawine.com (in español). 2008. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Musée du txakoli" [Txakoli Museum]. museoak.bizkaia.eus (in français). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "Leioa, lleno de barrios por descubrir" [Leioa, full of neighborhoods to discover]. hiru.com (in español). November 29, 2009. Archived from the original on 29 November 2009. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ Azkue, Resurrección María de (1905). Diccionario Vasco-Español-Francés [Dictionaire Basque-Espagnol-Français] (in español). Direccion del autor. Search this book on
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Origen". bizkaikotxakolina.eus (in español). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.5 37.6 "El Txakoli de Guetaria" [The Txakoli of Guetaria]. Terra (in español). August 8, 2004. Archived from the original on 5 August 2004. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "Sagarra". sagarra.blogsome.com (in euskara). January 20, 2007. Archived from the original on 20 January 2007. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 "GETARIAKO TXAKOLINA CHACOLI DE GETARIA". DiccionarioDelVino.com (in español). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "Histoire du txakoli en Alava" [History of txakoli in Alava]. oeoui.com (in français). April 28, 2007. Archived from the original on 28 April 2007. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Livre blanc pour les Pyrénées" [White paper for the Pyrenees]. ACAP (in français). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "Arabako txakolina". oeoui.com. January 4, 2005. Archived from the original on 4 January 2005. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "Chacolí de Guetaria". winesfromspain.com (in español). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "La D.O en datos" [The D.O. in data]. getariakotxakolina.eus (in español). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 "Consejo Regulador Denominacion de Origen Navarra" [Navarra Denomination of Origin Regulatory Council]. D.O.Navarra (in español). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 46.4 "La Denominación de Origen Navarra" [The Designation of Origin Navarra]. navarra-wine.com (in español). August 14, 2003. Archived from the original on 14 August 2003. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 47.5 "Climatologie" [Climatology] (PDF). eustat.eus (in euskara). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 "Historia del Vino de Navarra" [History of Navarra Wine]. navarra-wine.com (in español). August 5, 2003. Archived from the original on 5 August 2003. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 49.0 49.1 "El periodo romano en la Vasconia Peninsular" [The Roman Period in Peninsular Vasconia] (PDF). eusko-ikaskuntza.eus (in español). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "Aspectos sobre la cultura material de época romana en Navarra" [Aspects on the material culture of the Roman period in Navarre] (PDF). eusko-ikaskuntza.eus (in español). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 51.0 51.1 Ferreiro, Alberto (1988). The Visigoths in Gaul and Spain: A.D. 418-711 : a Bibliography. BRILL. p. 822. ISBN 978-90-04-08793-4. Search this book on
- ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 Cardaillac-Hermosilla, Yvette. "El moro en fiestas y rituales: ¿Un elemento de multiculturalismo en el País Vasco-Navarro?" [The Moor in festivals and rituals: An element of multiculturalism in the Basque Country-Navarre?]. euskonews.eus (in español). Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 53.3 "Histoire de la langue basque" [History of the Basque language]. En Pays Basque (in français). August 28, 2023. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ Mateo, María José Lacalzada de (1982). "La Crisis del 1885 en La Rioja" [The Crisis of 1885 in La Rioja]. Berceo (in español) (103): 89–112. ISSN 0210-8550.
- ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 Soto, Ángel Pascual Martínez (2003). "Los orígenes del cooperativismo de crédito agrario en España, 1890-1934" [The origins of agricultural credit cooperativism in Spain, 1890-1934]. CIRIEC-España, revista de economía pública, social y cooperativa (in español) (44): 57–104.
- ↑ "Lista de Productos Principales de Navarra" [List of Main Products of Navarra]. bidasoa.com (in español). September 19, 2015. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ↑ "Denominaciones de Origen del vino español" [Denominations of Origin of Spanish wine]. fichasddoo.com (in español). August 29, 2007. Archived from the original on 29 August 2007. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
Bibliography
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- Bourrouilh, R.; Delfaud, J. (1984). Terroirs et vins de France : itinéraires oenologiques et géologiques [Terroirs and wines of France: oenological and geological itineraries] (in français). B.R.G.M. ISBN 978-2-7159-0106-3. Search this book on
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- Marin, Sagrario Arrizabalaga; Oyarbide, Lourdes Odriozola (2008). Ardoa gipuzkoan (in euskara). Ggipuzkoako Foru Aldundia. p. 256. ISBN 978-84-7907-465-4. Search this book on
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