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List of largest stars

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki
Relative sizes of the planets in the Solar System and several well-known stars:
  1. Mercury < Mars < Venus < Earth
  2. Earth < Neptune < Uranus < Saturn < Jupiter
  3. Jupiter < Proxima Centauri < Sun < Sirius
  4. Sirius < Pollux < Arcturus < Aldebaran
  5. Aldebaran < Rigel < Antares < Betelgeuse
  6. Betelgeuse < Mu Cephei < VV Cephei A < VY Canis Majoris

Below is an ordered list of the largest stars currently known by radius. The unit of measurement used is the radius of the Sun (approximately 695,700 km; 432,288 mi).

The exact order of this list remains very incomplete, as there currently remains great uncertainties especially when deriving various important parameters used in calculations, such as stellar luminosity and effective temperature. Often stellar radii can only be expressed as an average or within a large range of values. Values for stellar radii do vary significantly in sources and throughout the literature, mostly as the boundary of the very tenuous atmosphere (opacity) greatly differs depending on the wavelength of light in which the star is observed.

Several stars can have their radii directly obtained by stellar interferometry. Other methods can use lunar occultations or from eclipsing binaries, which can be used to test other indirect methods of determining true stellar size. Only a few useful supergiant stars can experience occultations by the Moon, including Antares and Aldebaran. Examples of eclipsing binaries include Epsilon Aurigae, VV Cephei, HR 5171, and the red-giant binary system KIC 9246715 in the constellation of Cygnus.[1]

Caveats[edit]

VY Canis Majoris (brightest star in the image) and its surrounding molecular cloud complex

Complex issues exist in determining the true radii of the largest stars, which in many cases do display significant errors. The following lists are generally based on various considerations or assumptions that include:

  • Largest stars are usually expressed in units of the solar radius (R☉), where 1.00 R☉ equals 695,700 kilometres.
  • Stellar radii or diameters are usually only approximated using Stefan–Boltzmann law for the deduced stellar luminosity and effective surface temperature;
  • Stellar distances, and their errors, for most, remain uncertain or poorly determined;
  • Many supergiant stars have extended atmospheres and many are embedded within opaque dust shells, making their true effective temperatures highly uncertain;
  • Many extended supergiant atmospheres also significantly change in size over time, regularly or irregularly pulsating over several months or years as variable stars. This makes adopted luminosities poorly known and may significantly change the quoted radii;
  • Other direct methods for determining stellar radii, rely on lunar occultations or from eclipses in binary systems. This is only possible for a very small number of stars;
  • Based on various theoretical evolutionary models, few stars will exceed 1,500–2,000 times the Sun (roughly 3,715 K and Mbol = −9). Such limits maybe also depend on the stellar metallicity.[2]

Extragalactic large stars[edit]

Included within this list are some examples of more distant extragalactic stars, which may have slightly different properties and natures than the currently largest known stars in the Milky Way:

  • Some red supergiants in the Magellanic Clouds are suspected to have slightly different limiting temperatures and luminosities. Such stars may exceed accepted limits by undergoing large eruptions or change their spectral types over just a few months. Humphreys et al., for example, calculates the maximum size for a Magellanic cloud star as ~2,600 R☉.[citation needed]
  • A survey of the Magellanic Clouds have catalogued many red supergiants, where more than 50 of them exceed 700 R☉ (490,000,000 km; 3.3 AU; 300,000,000 mi). Largest of these is about 1,200-1,300 R☉.[3]

List[edit]

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
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List of the largest stars
Star name Solar radii
(Sun = 1) 		Method[lower-alpha 1] Notes
VY Canis Majoris 2,069[4][5]
(1,420 ± 120)[6][7]		 AD Used to be described as the largest known star based on a radius of 1,800–2,100 R☉.[8] Older estimates gave the radius of VY CMa as above 3,000 R☉,[9] or as little as 600 R☉.[10]
LGGS J004539.99+415404.1 1,980[11]–2,377[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
Orbit of Saturn 1,940–2,169 Reported for reference
MSX LMC 597 (W60 A27) 1,882–1,953[13] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
LGGS J004520.67+414717.3 1,870[11]–2,510[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
UY Scuti 1,708 ± 192[14] AD This value was based on an angular diameter and distance of 2.9 kpc. Gaia Data Release 2 suggests a distance of 1.55 kpc and a consequently smaller radius of 755 R☉.[15] However, the Gaia parallax is considered unreliable (until further observations) due to a very high level of astrometric noise.[16]
LGGS J003919.11+404319.2 1,685[17] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
WOH S71 (LMC 23095) 1,662[18]–1,896[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
HV 2242 (WOH S69) 1,645[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
LGGS J013339.28+303118.8 1,565[20]–1,863[12] L/Teff Located in the Triangulum Galaxy
WOH G64 1,540 ± 77[21][22] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
LGGS J013312.26+310053.3 1,537[20]–1,765[12] L/Teff Located in the Triangulum Galaxy
MSX LMC 1204 (WOH S72) 1,537–1,709[13] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
W61 8-88 (WOH S465) 1,491[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
HV 888 (WOH S140) 1,477[23]–1,974[24] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Another recent estimate gives 1,765 R☉.[19]
UCAC4 116-007944 (MSX LMC 810) 1,468[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
W60 A78 (WOH S459) 1,445[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
HV 12998 (WOH S369) 1,443[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
W60 A72 (WOH S453) 1,441[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
WOH S286 1,417[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
AH Scorpii 1,411 ± 124[14] AD AH Sco is a variable by nearly 3 magnitudes in the visual range, and an estimated 20% in luminosity. The variation in diameter is not clear because the temperature also varies.
LGGS J004428.48+415130.9 1,410[11]–1,504[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
MG73 46 (MSX LMC 891) 1,385[24]–1,838[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
WOH S281 (IRAS 05261-6614) 1,376[25]–1,459[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
IRAS 05280-6910 1,367[18]–1,738[26] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
S Persei 1,364 ± 6[27] AD A red supergiant located in the Perseus Double Cluster. Levesque et al. 2005 calculated radii of 780 R☉ and 1,230 R☉ based on K-band measurements.[2] Older estimates gave up to 2,853 R☉ based on higher luminosities.[28]
PHL 293B 1,348–1,463[29] L/Teff A luminous blue variable star located in the low metallicity galaxy PHL 293B. It is thought to have disappeared.
LGGS J013414.27+303417.7 1,342[20]–1,953[12] L/Teff Located in the Triangulum Galaxy
HV 5993 (WOH S464) 1,319[24]–1,531[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
SW Cephei 1,308[30] AD

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LGGS J004312.43+413747.1 1,270[11]–1,630[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
LGGS J004514.91+413735.0 1,250[11]–1,575[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
LGGS J004428.12+415502.9 1,240[11]–1,259[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
IRAS 05346-6949 1,211[21]–2,064[13] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
LGGS J004125.23+411208.9 1,200[11]–1,602[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
HD 90587 1,191[30] AD

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NML Cygni 1,183[31] L/Teff
LGGS J004524.97+420727.2 1,170[11]–1,476[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
Westerlund 1-26 1,165–1,221[32] L/Teff Very uncertain parameters for an unusual star with strong radio emission. The spectrum is variable but apparently the luminosity is not.

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W60 B90 (WOH S264) 1,149[25]–2,555[19] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
HD 62745 1,145[30] AD
LGGS J004047.22+404445.5 1,140[11]–1,379[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
LGGS J004035.08+404522.3 1,140[11]–1,354[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
MY Cephei 1,134[33]–2,061[34] L/Teff Not to be confused with Mu Cephei (see below). Older estimates have given up to 2,440 R☉ based on much cooler temperatures.[35]
LGGS J004124.80+411634.7 1,130[11]–1,423[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
ST Cephei 1,109[30] AD

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HD 102115 1,100[30] AD
LGGS J004107.11+411635.6 1,100[11]–1,207[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
LGGS J004031.00+404311.1 1,080[11]–1,383[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy

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V366 Andromedae 1,076[30] AD
Trumpler 27-1 1,073[15] L/Teff Located in the massive possible open cluster Trumpler 27
LGGS J004531.13+414825.7 1,070[11]–1,420[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
IM Cassiopeiae 1,068[30] AD

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Orbit of Jupiter 1,064–1,173 Reported for reference

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HR 5171 Aa (V766 Centauri Aa) 1,060–1,160[36] L/Teff
SU Persei 1,048[30] AD

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LGGS J004114.18+403759.8 1,040[11]–1,249[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
AS Cephei 1,026[30] AD
LGGS J004125.72+411212.7 1,020[11]–1,359[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
LGGS J004059.50+404542.6 1,020[11]–1,367[12] L/Teff Located in the Andromeda Galaxy
HD 167861 1,016[30] AD
HV 986 (WOH S368) 1,010[38] L/Teff Located in the Large Magellanic Cloud
The following stars with sizes below 1,000 solar radii are shown for comparison.
CZ Hydrae 986[39] L/Teff One of the coolest stars at 2000 K.[39]
Mu Cephei (Herschel's "Garnet Star") 972 ± 228[40] L/Teff Prototype of the obsolete class of the Mu Cephei variables and also one of reddest stars in the night sky in terms of the B-V color index.[41] Other estimates have given as high as 1,650 R☉ based on angular diameter.[42]
V602 Carinae 932[15]–1,151[30] AD
Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis) 764+116
−62[43]		 AD Star with the third largest apparent size after R Doradus and the Sun. Brightest red supergiant in the night sky. Another estimate gives 955±217 R☉[44]
Antares A (Alpha Scorpii A) 707[30] AD Antares was originally calculated to be over 850 R☉,[45][46] but those estimates are likely to have been affected by asymmetry of the atmosphere of the star.[47]
V354 Cephei 685[15] L/Teff
KY Cygni 672[15]–1,420[2][48] L/Teff
119 Tauri (CE Tauri) 587–593[49] AD Can be occulted by the Moon, allowing accurate determination of its apparent diameter.
CW Leonis 580–686[50] L/Teff Prototype of carbon stars. CW Leo was mistakenly identified as the claimed planet "Nibiru" or "Planet X".
Mira A (Omicron Ceti) 541[31] AD Prototype Mira variable. De beck et al. 2010 calculates 541 R☉.[31]
VV Cephei A 516[51]–1,000[52] EB VV Cep A is a highly distorted star in a close binary system, losing mass to the secondary for at least part of its orbit. Data from the most recent eclipse has cast additional doubt on the accepted model of the system. Older estimates give up to 1,900 R☉[2]
V382 Carinae (x Carinae) 485 ± 40[53] AD Yellow hypergiant, one of the rarest types of a star.
Pistol Star 435[54] AD Blue hypergiant, among the most massive and luminous stars known.
HD 179821 400–450[36] DSKE V1427 Aquilae may be a yellow hypergiant or a much less luminous star.
V509 Cassiopeiae 390–910[55] AD Yellow hypergiant, one of the rarest types of a star.
Inner limits of the asteroid belt 380 Reported for reference
IRC +10420 380[56] L/Teff A yellow hypergiant that has increased its temperature into the LBV range. De beck et al. 2010 calculates 1,342 R☉ based on a much cooler temperature.[31]
V688 Monocerotis 372[39] L/Teff Also one of the coolest stars at 2000 K.[39]
R Doradus 298 ± 21[57] AD Star with the second largest apparent size after the Sun.
Orbit of Mars 297–358 Reported for reference
La Superba (Y Canum Venaticorum) 289[30]–352[58] AD and L/Teff Referred to as La Superba by Angelo Secchi. Currently one of the coolest and reddest stars.
Sun's red giant phase 256[59] At this point, the Sun will engulf Mercury and Venus, and possibly the Earth although it will move away from its orbit since the Sun will lose a third of its mass. During the helium burning phase, it will shrink to 10 R☉ but will later grow again and become an unstable AGB star, and then a white dwarf after making a planetary nebula.[60][61] Reported for reference
Rho Cassiopeiae 242[30] AD Yellow hypergiant, one of the rarest types of a star.
Eta Carinae A ~240[62] Previously thought to be the most massive single star, but in 2005 it was realized to be a binary system. During the Great Eruption, the size was much larger at around 1,400 R☉.[63] η Car is calculated to be between 60 R☉ and 881 R☉.[64]
Orbit of Earth 215 (211–219) Reported for reference
Solar System Habitable Zone 200–520[65] (uncertain) Reported for reference
Orbit of Venus 154–157 Reported for reference
Epsilon Aurigae A (Almaaz A) 143–358[66] AD ε Aurigae was incorrectly claimed in 1970 as the largest star with a size between 2,000 R☉ and 3,000 R☉,[67] even though it later turned out not to be an infrared light star but rather a dusk torus surrounding the system.
Deneb (Alpha Cygni) 99.84[30] AD Prototype Alpha Cygni variable.
Peony Star 92[68] AD Candidate for most luminous star in the Milky Way.
Canopus (Alpha Carinae) 71[69] AD Second brightest star in the night sky.
Orbit of Mercury 66–100 Reported for reference
LBV 1806-20 46–145[70] L/Teff Formerly a candidate for the most luminous star in the Milky Way with 40 million L☉,[71] but the luminosity has been revised later only 2 million L☉.[72][73]
Aldebaran (Alpha Tauri) 44.13 ± 0.84[74] AD Fourteenth brightest star in the night sky
R136a1 39.2[75] L/Teff Also on record as one of the most massive and luminous stars known (215 M☉ and 6.2 million L☉).
Polaris (Alpha Ursae Minoris) 37.5[76] AD The current northern pole star.
Arcturus (Alpha Boötis) 24.25[30] AD Brightest star in the northern celestial hemisphere.
HDE 226868 20–22[77] The supergiant companion of black hole Cygnus X-1. The black hole is around 500,000 times smaller than the star.
Sun 1 The largest object in the Solar System.
Reported for reference

References[edit]

Taken from List of largest stars at Wikipedia, licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Unported License. All authors are listed here.

  1. ↑ Hełminiak, K.G.; Ukita, N.; Kambe, E.; Konacki, M. (2015). "Absolute Stellar Parameters of KIC 09246715: A Double-giant Eclipsing System with a Solar-like Oscillator". The Astrophysical Journal Letters. 813 (2): L25. arXiv:1509.03340. Bibcode:2015ApJ...813L..25H. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/813/2/L25.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Table 4 in Levesque, Emily M.; Massey, Philip; Olsen, K. A. G.; Plez, Bertrand; Josselin, Eric; Maeder, Andre; Meynet, Georges (2005). "The Effective Temperature Scale of Galactic Red Supergiants: Cool, but Not as Cool as We Thought". The Astrophysical Journal. 628 (2): 973. arXiv:astro-ph/0504337. Bibcode:2005ApJ...628..973L. doi:10.1086/430901. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "levesqueetal2005" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "levesqueetal2005" defined multiple times with different content
  3. ↑ Levesque, Emily M.; Massey, Philip; Olsen, K.A.G.; Plez, Bertrand; Meynet, Georges; Maeder, Andre (2006). "The Effective Temperatures and Physical Properties of Magellanic Cloud Red Supergiants: The Effects of Metallicity". The Astrophysical Journal. 645 (2): 1102. arXiv:astro-ph/0603596. Bibcode:2006ApJ...645.1102L. doi:10.1086/504417. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "mc" defined multiple times with different content Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "mc" defined multiple times with different content
  4. ↑ Matsuura, Mikako; Yates, J. A.; Barlow, M. J.; Swinyard, B. M.; Royer, P.; Cernicharo, J.; Decin, L.; Wesson, R.; Polehampton, E. T.; Blommaert, J. A. D. L.; Groenewegen, M. A. T. (2013-10-30). "Herschel SPIRE and PACS observations of the red supergiant VY CMa: analysis of the molecular line spectra". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 437 (1): 532–546. arXiv:1310.2947. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1906. ISSN 0035-8711. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  5. ↑ Neufeld, David A.; Menten, Karl M.; Durán, Carlos; Güsten, Rolf; Kaufman, Michael J.; Kraus, Alex; Mazumdar, Parichay; Melnick, Gary J.; Ortiz-Leon, Gisela; Wiesemeyer, Helmut; Wyrowski, Friedrich (2020-11-03). "Terahertz Water Masers: II. Further SOFIA/GREAT Detections toward Circumstellar Outflows, and a Multitransition Analysis". arXiv:2011.01807 [astro-ph.GA].
  6. ↑ Gordon, Michael S.; Jones, Terry J.; Humphreys, Roberta M.; Ertel, Steve; Hinz, Philip M.; Hoffman, William F.; Stone, Jordan; Spalding, Eckhart; Vaz, Amali (February 2019). "Thermal Emission in the Southwest Clump of VY CMa". The Astronomical Journal. 157 (2): 57. arXiv:1811.05998. Bibcode:2019AJ....157...57G. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aaf5cb. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ Wittkowski, M.; Hauschildt, P. H.; Arroyo-Torres, B.; Marcaide, J. M. (2012). "Fundamental properties and atmospheric structure of the red supergiant VY Canis Majoris based on VLTI/AMBER spectro-interferometry". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 540: L12. arXiv:1203.5194. Bibcode:2012A&A...540L..12W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219126. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  8. ↑ Humphreys, Roberta M. (2006). "VY Canis Majoris: The Astrophysical Basis of Its Luminosity". pp. astro–ph/0610433. arXiv:astro-ph/0610433.
  9. ↑ Monnier, J. D; Millan-Gabet, R; Tuthill, P. G; Traub, W. A; Carleton, N. P; Coudé Du Foresto, V; Danchi, W. C; Lacasse, M. G; Morel, S; Perrin, G; Porro, I. L; Schloerb, F. P; Townes, C. H (2004). "High-Resolution Imaging of Dust Shells by Using Keck Aperture Masking and the IOTA Interferometer". The Astrophysical Journal. 605 (1): 436–461. arXiv:astro-ph/0401363. Bibcode:2004ApJ...605..436M. doi:10.1086/382218. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  10. ↑ Massey, Philip; Levesque, Emily M.; Plez, Bertrand (August 2006). "Bringing VY Canis Majoris Down to Size: An Improved Determination of Its Effective Temperature". The Astrophysical Journal. 646 (2): 1203–1208. arXiv:astro-ph/0604253. Bibcode:2006ApJ...646.1203M. doi:10.1086/505025. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 11.14 11.15 11.16 Massey, Philip; Evans, Kate Anne (2016). "The Red Supergiant Content of M31". The Astrophysical Journal. 826 (2): 224. arXiv:1605.07900. Bibcode:2016ApJ...826..224M. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/826/2/224. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  12. ↑ 12.00 12.01 12.02 12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 12.09 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16 12.17 12.18 12.19 Gordon, Michael S.; Humphreys, Roberta M.; Jones, Terry J. (July 2016). "Luminous and Variable Stars in M31 and M33. III. The Yellow and Red Supergiants and Post-red Supergiant Evolution". The Astrophysical Journal. 825 (1): 50. arXiv:1603.08003. Bibcode:2016ApJ...825...50G. doi:10.3847/0004-637X/825/1/50. ISSN 0004-637X. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Jones, O. C.; Woods, P. M.; Kemper, F.; Kraemer, K. E.; Sloan, G. C.; Srinivasan, S.; Oliveira, J. M.; van Loon, J. Th.; Boyer, M. L.; Sargent, B. A.; McDonald, I.; Meixner, M.; Zijlstra, A. A.; Ruffle, P. M. E.; Lagadec, E.; Pauly, T.; Sewiło, M.; Clayton, G. C.; Volk, K. (2017-05-08). "The SAGE-Spec Spitzer Legacy program: the life-cycle of dust and gas in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Point source classification – III". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 470 (3): 3250–3282. arXiv:1705.02709. Bibcode:2017MNRAS.470.3250J. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx1101. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Arroyo-Torres, B.; Wittkowski, M.; Marcaide, J. M.; Hauschildt, P. H. (6 June 2013). "The atmospheric structure and fundamental parameters of the red supergiants AH Scorpii, UY Scuti, and KW Sagittarii". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 554: A76. arXiv:1305.6179. Bibcode:2013A&A...554A..76A. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220920.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Messineo, M.; Brown, A. G. A. (2019). "A Catalog of Known Galactic K-M Stars of Class I Candidate Red Supergiants in Gaia DR2". The Astronomical Journal. 158 (1): 20. arXiv:1905.03744. Bibcode:2019AJ....158...20M. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab1cbd. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  16. ↑ Brown, A. G. A.; et al. (Gaia collaboration) (August 2018). "Gaia Data Release 2: Summary of the contents and survey properties". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 616. A1. arXiv:1804.09365. Bibcode:2018A&A...616A...1G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833051. Gaia DR2 record for this source at VizieR.
  17. ↑ Massey, Philip; Kathryn F., Neugent; Levesque, Emily M.; Drout, Maria R.; Courteau, Stéphane (February 2021). "The Red Supergiant Content of M31 and M33". arXiv:2011.13279. Bibcode:2021AJ....161...79M.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Steven R. Goldman; Jacco Th. van Loon (2016). "The wind speeds, dust content, and mass-loss rates of evolved AGB and RSG stars at varying metallicity". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 465 (1): 403–433. arXiv:1610.05761. Bibcode:2017MNRAS.465..403G. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2708. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  19. ↑ 19.00 19.01 19.02 19.03 19.04 19.05 19.06 19.07 19.08 19.09 19.10 19.11 19.12 Ren, Yi; Jiang, Bi-Wei (2020-07-20). "On the Granulation and Irregular Variation of Red Supergiants". The Astrophysical Journal. 898 (1): 24. arXiv:2006.06605. Bibcode:2020ApJ...898...24R. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab9c17. ISSN 1538-4357.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Maria R. Drout; Philip Massey; Georges Meynet (2012). "The yellow and red supergiants of M33". The Astrophysical Journal. 750 (2): 97. arXiv:1203.0247. Bibcode:2012ApJ...750...97D. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/750/2/97. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 University, Keele (December 2017). Research, Keele University (doctoral thesis). Keele University.
  22. ↑ Levesque, E. M.; Massey, P.; Plez, B.; Olsen, K. A. G. (2009). "The Physical Properties of the Red Supergiant WOH G64: The Largest Star Known?". The Astronomical Journal. 137 (6): 4744. arXiv:0903.2260. Bibcode:2009AJ....137.4744L. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/137/6/4744. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  23. ↑ Kamath, D.; Wood, P. R.; Van Winckel, H. (December 2015). "Optically visible post-AGB stars, post-RGB stars and young stellar objects in the Large Magellanic Cloud". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 454 (2): 1468–1502. arXiv:1508.00670. Bibcode:2015MNRAS.454.1468K. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1202. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Groenewegen, M. A. T.; Sloan, G. C. (2018). "Luminosities and mass-loss rates of Local Group AGB stars and red supergiants". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 609: A114. arXiv:1711.07803. Bibcode:2018A&A...609A.114G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731089. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Groenewegen, Martin A. T.; Sloan, Greg C. (January 2018). "Luminosities and mass-loss rates of Local Group AGB stars and Red Supergiants". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 609: A114. arXiv:1711.07803. Bibcode:2018A&A...609A.114G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731089. ISSN 0004-6361.
  26. ↑ Matsuura, Mikako; Sargent, B.; Swinyard, Bruce; Yates, Jeremy; Royer, P.; Barlow, M. J.; Boyer, Martha; Decin, L.; Khouri, Theo; Meixner, Margaret; Van Loon, Jacco Th.; Woods, Paul M. (2016). "The mass-loss rates of red supergiants at low metallicity: Detection of rotational CO emission from two red supergiants in the Large Magellanic Cloud". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 462 (3): 2995. arXiv:1608.01729. Bibcode:2016MNRAS.462.2995M. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1853. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  27. ↑ Norris, Ryan P. (2019). Seeing Stars Like Never Before: A Long-term Interferometric Imaging Survey of Red Supergiants (PDF) (PhD). Georgia State University.
  28. ↑ De Jager, C; Nieuwenhuijzen, H; Van Der Hucht, K. A (1988). "Mass loss rates in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series. 72: 259. Bibcode:1988A&AS...72..259D. ISSN 0365-0138.
  29. ↑ Allan, Andrew P.; Groh, Jose H.; Mehner, Andrea; Smith, Nathan; Boian, Ioana; Farrell, Eoin J.; Andrews, Jennifer E. (2020). "The possible disappearance of a massive star in the low-metallicity galaxy PHL 293B". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 496 (2): 1902. arXiv:2003.02242. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.496.1902A. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1629. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  30. ↑ 30.00 30.01 30.02 30.03 30.04 30.05 30.06 30.07 30.08 30.09 30.10 30.11 30.12 30.13 30.14 30.15 Cruzalèbes, P.; Petrov, R. G.; Robbe-Dubois, S.; Varga, J.; Burtscher, L.; Allouche, F.; Berio, P.; Hofmann, K. H.; Hron, J.; Jaffe, W.; Lagarde, S.; Lopez, B.; Matter, A.; Meilland, A.; Meisenheimer, K.; Millour, F.; Schertl, D. (2019). "A catalogue of stellar diameters and fluxes for mid-infrared interferometry". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 490 (3): 3158–3176. arXiv:1910.00542. Bibcode:2019MNRAS.490.3158C. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz2803. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 De Beck, E.; Decin, L.; De Koter, A.; Justtanont, K.; Verhoelst, T.; Kemper, F.; Menten, K. M. (2010). "Probing the mass-loss history of AGB and red supergiant stars from CO rotational line profiles. II. CO line survey of evolved stars: Derivation of mass-loss rate formulae". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 523: A18. arXiv:1008.1083. Bibcode:2010A&A...523A..18D. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913771. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  32. ↑ Arévalo, Aura (2019). The Red Supergiants in the Supermassive Stellar Cluster Westerlund 1 (Thesis). doi:10.11606/D.14.2019.tde-12092018-161841.
  33. ↑ Beasor, Emma R; Davies, Ben; Arroyo-Torres, B; Chiavassa, A; Guirado, J. C; Marcaide, J. M; Alberdi, A; De Wit, W. J; Hofmann, K. -H; Meilland, A; Millour, F; Mohamed, S; Sanchez-Bermudez, J (2018). "The evolution of red supergiant mass-loss rates". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 475 (1): 55. arXiv:1712.01852. Bibcode:2018MNRAS.475...55B. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx3174. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  34. ↑ Humphreys, Roberta M.; Helmel, Greta; Jones, Terry J.; Gordon, Michael S. (August 2020). "Exploring the Mass Loss Histories of the Red Supergiants". The Astronomical Journal. 160 (3): 145. arXiv:2008.01108. Bibcode:2020AJ....160..145H. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abab15. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  35. ↑ Fawley, W. M; Cohen, M (1974). "The open cluster NGC 7419 and its M7 supergiant IRC +60375". Astrophysical Journal. 193: 367. Bibcode:1974ApJ...193..367F. doi:10.1086/153171.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 van Genderen, A. M.; Lobel, A.; Nieuwenhuijzen, H.; Henry, G. W.; De Jager, C.; Blown, E.; Di Scala, G.; Van Ballegoij, E. J. (2019). "Pulsations, eruptions, and evolution of four yellow hypergiants". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 631: A48. arXiv:1910.02460. Bibcode:2019A&A...631A..48V. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834358. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  37. ↑ McDonald, I.; Zijlstra, A. A.; Boyer, M. L. (2012). "Fundamental Parameters and Infrared Excesses of Hipparcos Stars". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 427 (1): 343–57. arXiv:1208.2037. Bibcode:2012MNRAS.427..343M. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2012.21873.x. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  38. ↑ Levesque, Emily M.; Massey, Philip; Olsen, K. A. G.; Plez, Bertrand (20 September 2007). "Late‐Type Red Supergiants: Too Cool for the Magellanic Clouds?". The Astrophysical Journal. 667 (1): 202–212. arXiv:0705.3431. Bibcode:2007ApJ...667..202L. doi:10.1086/520797.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 Siderud, Emelie (2020). Dust emission modelling of AGB stars. Search this book on Amazon.com Logo.png
  40. ↑ Montargès, M.; Homan, W.; Keller, D.; Clementel, N.; Shetye, S.; Decin, L.; Harper, G. M.; Royer, P.; Winters, J. M.; Le Bertre, T.; Richards, A. M. S. (2019). "NOEMA maps the CO J = 2 − 1 environment of the red supergiant μ Cep". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 485 (2): 2417–2430. arXiv:1903.07129. Bibcode:2019MNRAS.485.2417M. doi:10.1093/mnras/stz397. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  41. ↑ Ahad, Abdul (May 1, 2004). "The second 'Garnet Star' after Mu Cephei must be 119 Tauri!". Google Groups. Archived from the original on January 30, 2018. Retrieved January 30, 2018. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  42. ↑ "Jim Kaler-Garnet star".
  43. ↑ Joyce, Meridith; Leung, Shing-Chi; Molnár, László; Ireland, Michael; Kobayashi, Chiaki; Nomoto, Ken'Ichi (2020). "Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: New Mass and Distance Estimates for Betelgeuse through Combined Evolutionary, Asteroseismic, and Hydrodynamic Simulations with MESA". The Astrophysical Journal. 902 (1): 63. arXiv:2006.09837. Bibcode:2020ApJ...902...63J. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abb8db. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  44. ↑ Neilson, H. R.; Lester, J. B.; Haubois, X. (December 2011). "Weighing Betelgeuse: Measuring the Mass of α Orionis from Stellar Limb-darkening". Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 9th Pacific Rim Conference on Stellar Astrophysics. Proceedings of a conference held at Lijiang, China in 14–20 April 2011. ASP Conference Series, Vol. 451: 117. arXiv:1109.4562. Bibcode:2010ASPC..425..103L.
  45. ↑ Pugh, T.; Gray, D. F. (2013-02-01). "On the Six-year Period in the Radial Velocity of Antares A". The Astronomical Journal. 145 (2): 38. Bibcode:2013AJ....145...38P. doi:10.1088/0004-6256/145/2/38. ISSN 0004-6256.
  46. ↑ Baade, R.; Reimers, D. (2007-10-01). "Multi-component absorption lines in the HST spectra of alpha Scorpii B". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 474 (1): 229–237. Bibcode:2007A&A...474..229B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077308. ISSN 0004-6361.
  47. ↑ Ohnaka, K.; Hofmann, K.-H.; Schertl, D.; Weigelt, G.; Baffa, C.; Chelli, A.; Petrov, R.; Robbe-Dubois, S. (2013). "High spectral resolution imaging of the dynamical atmosphere of the red supergiant Antares in the CO first overtone lines with VLTI/AMBER". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 555: A24. arXiv:1304.4800. Bibcode:2013A&A...555A..24O. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321063. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  48. ↑ Dorn-Wallenstein, Trevor Z.; Levesque, Emily M.; Neugent, Kathryn F.; Davenport, James R. A.; Morris, Brett M.; Gootkin, Keyan (2020). "Short Term Variability of Evolved Massive Stars with TESS II: A New Class of Cool, Pulsating Supergiants". The Astrophysical Journal. 902 (1): 24. arXiv:2008.11723. Bibcode:2020ApJ...902...24D. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abb318. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  49. ↑ Montargès, M.; Norris, R.; Chiavassa, A.; Tessore, B.; Lèbre, A.; Baron, F. (June 2018). "The convective photosphere of the red supergiant CE Tau. I. VLTI/PIONIER H-band interferometric imaging". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 614 (12): A12. arXiv:1802.06086. Bibcode:2018A&A...614A..12M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731471. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  50. ↑ Schmidt, M. R.; He, J. H.; Szczerba, R.; Bujarrabal, V.; Alcolea, J.; Cernicharo, J.; Decin, L.; Justtanont, K.; Teyssier, D.; Menten, K. M.; Neufeld, D. A.; Olofsson, H.; Planesas, P.; Marston, A. P.; Sobolev, A. M.; De Koter, A.; Schöier, F. L. (2016). "Herschel/HIFI observations of the circumstellar ammonia lines in IRC+10216". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 592: A131. arXiv:1606.01878. Bibcode:2016A&A...592A.131S. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527290. PMC 5217166. PMID 28065983.
  51. ↑ Stassun K.G.; et al. (October 2019). "The revised TESS Input Catalog and Candidate Target List". The Astronomical Journal. 158 (4): 138. arXiv:1905.10694. Bibcode:2019AJ....158..138S. doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab3467. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  52. ↑ Pollmann, E.; Bennett, P. D.; Vollmann, W.; Somogyi, P. (July 2018). "Periodic Hα Emission in the Eclipsing Binary VV Cephei". Information Bulletin on Variable Stars. 6249 (6249): 1. Bibcode:2018IBVS.6249....1P. doi:10.22444/IBVS.6249.
  53. ↑ Groenewegen, M. A. T. (March 2020). "Analysing the spectral energy distributions of Galactic classical Cepheids". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 635: A33. arXiv:2002.02186. Bibcode:2020A&A...635A..33G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201937060. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)CS1 maint: Date and year (link)
  54. ↑ Lau, R. M.; Herter, T. L.; Morris, M. R.; Adams, J. D. (2014). "Nature Versus Nurture: Luminous Blue Variable Nebulae in and Near Massive Stellar Clusters at the Galactic Center". The Astrophysical Journal. 785 (2): 120. arXiv:1403.5298. Bibcode:2014ApJ...785..120L. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/785/2/120. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  55. ↑ Nieuwenhuijzen, H.; De Jager, C.; Kolka, I.; Israelian, G.; Lobel, A.; Zsoldos, E.; Maeder, A.; Meynet, G. (2012). "The hypergiant HR 8752 evolving through the yellow evolutionary void" (PDF). Astronomy & Astrophysics. 546: A105. Bibcode:2012A&A...546A.105N. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117166.
  56. ↑ Wong, K. T.; Menten, K. M.; Kamiński, T.; Wyrowski, F.; Lacy, J. H.; Greathouse, T. K. (2018). "Circumstellar ammonia in oxygen-rich evolved stars". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 612: A48. arXiv:1710.01027. Bibcode:2018A&A...612A..48W. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731873. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  57. ↑ Ohnaka, Keiichi; Weigelt, Gerd; Hofmann, Karl-Heinz (2019). "Infrared Interferometric Three-dimensional Diagnosis of the Atmospheric Dynamics of the AGB Star R Dor with VLTI/AMBER". The Astrophysical Journal. 883 (1): 89. arXiv:1908.06997. Bibcode:2019ApJ...883...89O. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab3d2a. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  58. ↑ Tram, L. N.; Lesaffre, P.; Cabrit, S.; Nhung, P. T. (2018). "Bow-shock chemistry in the interstellar medium". arXiv:1808.01439 [astro-ph.SR].
  59. ↑ Rybicki, K. R.; Denis, C. (2001). "On the Final Destiny of the Earth and the Solar System". Icarus. 151 (1): 130–137. Bibcode:2001Icar..151..130R. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6591.
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  61. ↑ Vassiliadis, E.; Wood, P.R. (1993). "Evolution of low- and intermediate-mass stars to the end of the asymptotic giant branch with mass loss". The Astrophysical Journal. 413: 641. Bibcode:1993ApJ...413..641V. doi:10.1086/173033.
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  63. ↑ Smith, Nathan (2011). "Explosions triggered by violent binary-star collisions: Application to Eta Carinae and other eruptive transients". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 415 (3): 2020–2024. arXiv:1010.3770. Bibcode:2011MNRAS.415.2020S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18607.x. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  64. ↑ D. John Hillier; K. Davidson; K. Ishibashi; T. Gull (June 2001). "On the Nature of the Central Source in η Carinae". Astrophysical Journal. 553 (837): 837. Bibcode:2001ApJ...553..837H. doi:10.1086/320948.
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  67. ↑ "Ask Andy: The Biggest Star". Ottawa Citizen. Nov 27, 1970. p. 23.
  68. ↑ Barniske, A.; Oskinova, L. M.; Hamann, W. -R. (2008). "Two extremely luminous WN stars in the Galactic center with circumstellar emission from dust and gas". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 486 (3): 971. arXiv:0807.2476. Bibcode:2008A&A...486..971B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200809568. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
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  70. ↑ Eikenberry, S. S.; Matthews, K.; Lavine, J. L.; Garske, M. A.; Hu, D.; Jackson, M. A.; Patel, S. G.; Barry, D. J.; Colonno, M. R.; Houck, J. R.; Wilson, J. C.; Corbel, S.; Smith, J. D. (2004). "Infrared Observations of the Candidate LBV 1806‐20 and Nearby Cluster Stars". The Astrophysical Journal. 616 (1): 506–518. arXiv:astro-ph/0404435. Bibcode:2004ApJ...616..506E. doi:10.1086/422180. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  71. ↑ Kennedy, Meghan. "LBV 1806-20 AB?". SolStation.com. Archived from the original on 2017-11-13. Retrieved 2017-10-28. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  72. ↑ Figer, D. F.; Najarro, F.; Kudritzki, R. P. (2004). "The Double-lined Spectrum of LBV 1806-20". The Astrophysical Journal. 610 (2): L109–L112. arXiv:astro-ph/0406316. Bibcode:2004ApJ...610L.109F. doi:10.1086/423306. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  73. ↑ Nazé, Y.; Rauw, G.; Hutsemékers, D. (2012). "The first X-ray survey of Galactic luminous blue variables". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 538 (47): A47. arXiv:1111.6375. Bibcode:2012A&A...538A..47N. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201118040. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  74. ↑ Farr, Will M.; Pope, Benjamin J. S.; Davies, Guy R.; North, Thomas S. H.; White, Timothy R.; Barrett, Jim W.; Miglio, Andrea; Lund, Mikkel N.; Antoci, Victoria; Fredslund Andersen, Mads; Grundahl, Frank; Huber, Daniel (2018). "Aldebaran b's Temperate Past Uncovered in Planet Search Data" (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal. 865 (2): L20. arXiv:1802.09812. Bibcode:2018ApJ...865L..20F. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aadfde. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-03-03. Retrieved 2019-12-16. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  75. ↑ Bestenlehner, Joachim M.; Crowther, Paul A.; Caballero-Nieves, Saida M.; Schneider, Fabian R. N.; Simón-Díaz, Sergio; Brands, Sarah A.; De Koter, Alex; Gräfener, Götz; Herrero, Artemio; Langer, Norbert; Lennon, Daniel J.; Maíz Apellániz, Jesus; Puls, Joachim; Vink, Jorick S. (2020). "The R136 star cluster dissected with Hubble Space Telescope/STIS. II. Physical properties of the most massive stars in R136". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 499 (2): 1918. arXiv:2009.05136. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.499.1918B. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2801. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  76. ↑ Fadeyev, Y. A. (2015). "Evolutionary status of Polaris". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 449 (1): 1011–1017. arXiv:1502.06463. Bibcode:2015MNRAS.449.1011F. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv412. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  77. ↑ Ziółkowski, J. (2005). "Evolutionary constraints on the masses of the components of HDE 226868/Cyg X-1 binary system". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 358 (3): 851–859. arXiv:astro-ph/0501102. Bibcode:2005MNRAS.358..851Z. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.08796.x. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help) Note: For radius, see Table 1 with d=2 kpc.

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Other articles of the topic Star : Sirius, Rigel, Star
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  • Constellation
  • Lists of stars
  • List of most massive stars
  • List of most luminous stars
  • List of hottest stars
  • List of coolest stars
  • List of most massive black holes
  • List of largest nebulae
  • List of largest galaxies
  • List of largest cosmic structures
  • List of largest exoplanets
  • List of star extremes

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