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Nations and intelligence

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki



The measurement, correlates and cause of average intelligence score variation between nations has been a controversial issue in the fields of psychology and economics. It has been claimed that national intelligence correlates to some extent with GDP, health, fertility rate and other variables. However, if there is such a correlation, it is far more probable that it is the effect of differences in national Wealth, along with associated increases in investment in Education and Health Care, rather than an independent cause, according to a review of this research in Nature, which stated that theorists who have claimed that inherent differences in intelligence cause differences in Wealth have the causal connection backwards, writing "the average IQ of a population is simply an index of the size of its middle class, both of which are results of industrial development", and concluding "This is not so much science, then, as a social crusade."[1] Some fringe scientific theorists such as J. Phillipe Rushton have theorized that genetic effects could explain the differences, though these genetic explanations are widely believed to have been debunked within the scientific community, and are generally regarded as Pseudoscience [2] and alleged to be racist in motive.[3]

The 2002 book IQ and the Wealth of Nations by Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen has been nearly universally criticized as pseudoscientific and employing comparisons which are largely meaningless and unable to be intepreted. [4]Prior to this study, Lynn stated the following on his research on racial and national differences in intellect: “What is called for here is not genocide, the killing off of the population of incompetent cultures. But we do need to think realistically in terms of the ‘phasing out’ of such peoples…. Evolutionary progress means the extinction of the less competent. To think otherwise is mere sentimentality.”[5] Lynn and Vanhanen's studies have been severely criticized for relying on low quality data and for choosing sources in ways that are biased severely towards underestimating the average IQ potential of developing nations, particularly in Africa [6][7][8]. The American Psychological Association has stated of their work that "we see an edifice built on layer upon layer of arbitrary assumptions and selective data manipulation. The data on which the entire book is based are of questionable validity and are used in ways that cannot be justified." as well as writing that their cross country comparisons are "virtually meaningless."[9]. Likewise, the American Economic Association has stated of their research : "(the book's) sweeping conclusions based on relatively weak statistical evidence and dubious presumptions seem misguided at best and quite dangerous if taken seriously. It is therefore difficult to find much to recommend in this book."[10] Its methods and conclusions have thus been almost unanimously rejected by nearly all other researchers.[11][12][1]

Background[edit]

Earl B. Hunt writes that economists traditionally view differences in wealth between nations in terms of human capital, which is a general term for the abilities of the workforce.

According to Hunt, international studies of intelligence are important because they measure which populations possess the cognitive skills that are necessary in a post-industrial world.

Studies of national cognitive ability[edit]

IQ of various European countries[edit]

The 1981 article "Average IQ values in various European countries" by Vinko Buj is the only international IQ study that over a short time period has compared IQs using the same IQ test. It was probably done in the 1970s in the capital cities or in the biggest town in 21 European countries and Ghana.[13]

Researchers believe the data from this study are of dubious quality: except for a two-page-long publication, nothing about the study detail nor the author is known. The author didn't even work at a university.[14] However, according to the Croatian newspaper website Slobodna Dalmacija, Vinko Buj spent many years in training in Germany, in 1977 specialized in clinical (medical) psychology, and later received his doctorate of psychological sciences at the University of Hamburg.[15] Nevertheless, the data yielded correlations with student assessment studies of only around -.10 to .07, thus figures in the study seem not to be ideal for differences within Europe.[16]

Lynn and Vanhanen[edit]

Average national IQs according to IQ and the Wealth of Nations
Average national IQs according to IQ and the Global Inequality

In the 2002 book IQ and the Wealth of Nations, and IQ and Global Inequality in 2006, Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen created estimates of average IQs for 113 nations. They estimated IQs of 79 other nations based on neighboring nations or other via other manners. They also created an estimate of "quality of human conditions" for each nation based on gross national product per capita, adult literacy rate, fraction of the population to enrolled in secondary education, life expectancy, and rate of democratization. Lynn and Vanhanen found a substantial correlation between the national IQ scores they created and these various socioeconomic factors. They conclude that national IQ influences these measures of well-being, and that national differences in IQ are heavily influenced by genetics, although they also allow for some environmental contributions to it. They regard nutrition as the most important environmental factor, and education a secondary factor.[17]

Though the collection has been praised as "landmark" by Rindermann,[18] the books and their argument have been roundly criticized on methodological and analytical grounds: for some countries test samples were very small or unrepresentative; different tests by different researchers conducted the test surveys; measurements of intelligence stem from different years, though the authors tried to correct it; missing data were estimated by using unweighted arithmetic means of neighboring countries with similar people.[18][18][19][20][21][22]

In a 2010 paper, Lynn updated his estimates of national IQs from IQ and Global Inequality, and presented new estimated national IQs for 25 countries which had previously only been estimated from neighboring nations.[23] Lynn and Vanhanen updated their estimates again in the 2013 book Intelligence: A Unifying Construct for the Social Sciences.[24]

International student assessment studies[edit]

In regard of serval methodology issues of IQ and the Wealth of Nations, Hunt and Wittmann compared contemporary educational data from the Program for International Student Assessment with national wealth. They concluded that Lynn and Vanhanen's empirical conclusion is correct, but they questioned the simple explanation that national intelligence causes national wealth.[25]

In 2010, Lynn and Meisenberg integrated all the international studies of reading comprehension, math and science understanding and showed that they are perfectly correlated with national IQs. Lynn and Vanhanen's national IQ estimates was validated.[26]

Estimation of African’s IQ[edit]

Wicherts and colleagues[edit]

In 2009 Jelte M. Wicherts, Conor V. Dolan, and Han L.J. van der Maas conducted a new analysis of IQ in sub-Saharan Africa, which was critical of many of Lynn and Vanhanen's methods.[27] Wicherts et al. concluded that Lynn and Vanhanen had relied on unsystematic methodology by failing to publish their criteria for including or excluding studies. They found that Lynn and Vanhanen's exclusion of studies had depressed their IQ estimate for sub-Saharan Africa, and that including studies excluded in "IQ and Global Inequality" resulted in average IQ of 82 for sub-Saharan Africa, lower than the average in Western countries, but higher than Lynn and Vanhanen's estimate of 67. Wicherts at al. conclude that this difference is likely due to sub-Saharan Africa having limited access to modern advances in education, nutrition and health care.[28]

Lynn and Meisenberg criticized their method of analysis are based on unrepresentative elite samples. They analysis samples considered to be acceptably representative and give an IQ of 68 as the IQ in sub-Saharan Africa.[29]

Jelte M. Wicherts, Conor V. Dolan, Jerry S. Carlson, and Han L.J. van der Maas replied that their selection of research is still unsystematic. They showed that figures calculated from some works considered representative by Lynn and Meisenberg, the IQ is still higher than the original estimates.[30]

Rindermann[edit]

Rindermann (2007) states that the correlations between international student assessment studies and measures of national IQ are very high. Using the same statistical method used to measure the general intelligence factor (g) he finds evidence for that the "student achievement assessments and intelligence tests primarily measure a common cognitive ability". The international student assessment studies have the advantages of standardized testing over a short time period. A disadvantage is that unlike IQ-data collections, it does not include older people or more developing nations.[14]

Rindermann's analysis found many of the same groupings and correlations found by Lynn and Vanhanen, with the lowest scores in sub-Saharan Africa, and a correlation of .60 between cognitive skill and GDP per capita. According to Hunt, due to there being far more data available, Rindermann's analysis was more reliable than those by Lynn and Vanhanen. By measuring the relationship between educational data and social well-being over time, this study also performed a causal analysis, finding that nations investing in education leads to increased well-being later on.[31]

In 2013, Rindermann compared previous research on cognitive ability estimates for African IQ with new psychometric test studies, student assessment studies, variables correlate most strongly with intelligence outside Africa, and other indicators of cognitive ability. After correction, he made a guess for average African IQ of 75.[32]

Implications[edit]

At a demographic level there is an inverse statistical relationship between Fertility and intelligence, and the intelligence difference is possibly partly genetic. Hence, assuming a 35% ratio of the national IQ difference due to genetic differences, Lynn and Harvey proposed that the data suggested a dysgenic decline in genotypic IQ of 0.86 IQ points for the years 1950–2000, and projected a 1.28 IQ points for the years 2000–2050.[33] Meisenberg calculated a 1.31 points per generation to the decline of genotypic intelligence among the young world population today.[34] For such dysgenic trend, Woodley and Figueredo wrote their "strong disinclinations" to endorse any "expansionist between-group military policies at the expense of other peoples".[35]

Hunt wrote that genetics cannot be ruled out as a possible cause, but that education surely plays a major role, so one should not conclude that human capital in poor countries can never be improved.[36]

Rindermann warned the danger of political misuse of such research. He argued that persons have to be treated as individuals and not as a mere representative of any group. He believes that both environmental and genetic (evolutionary, therefore past environmental) caused these differences. He emphasized environmental effect on the improvement of intelligence and wrote "overcoming the most serious environmental obstacles as deficits in health care, nutrition and education could lead in Africa within one generation to a rise of 10 to 15 IQ."[32]

Limitations and criticisms[edit]

Limitations of IQ test[edit]

See also: IQ and the Wealth of Nations § Criticism, and IQ and Global Inequality § Reception

Rindermann (2007) writes that the mixture of many different tests and the not always clear representativeness of the samples seem to be the most serious problems. Furthermore, the measurement years vary, which is problematic because of the Flynn effect. Using the same adjustment for all nations is likely sometimes incorrect because since the 1970s developing nations have seen higher increases than the developed world. The method of averaging neighboring countries for an estimation for the many nations that did not have measured IQs, while having a high correlation (0.92) with the measured results in the case of the 32 nations that changed from the estimated to the measured categories between the two books, is likely problematic since some research indicates that absence of IQ tests indicates conditions such as poverty or war that may affect IQs. "In addition, some errors in the data have been observed".[14]

The claim that the tests are culturally neutral and unbiased has been criticized.[37][38][39]

Limitations of the international student assessment studies[edit]

Rindermann (2007) writes that data from many developing nations are missing which is the case for more nations than for IQ data. The Flynn effect has to be adjusted for. In some nations school attendance is low. Even for the same test national organizers sometimes differ in implementation and exclusion rates differ.[14]

Correlates with national IQ[edit]

Rindermann and Ceci describes the calculation of national IQs and their correlates as "a new development in the study of cognitive ability: following a century of conceptual and psychometric development in which individual and group (socioeconomic, age, and ethnic) differences were examined, researchers have turned their attention to national and international differences in cognitive competence. The goal is to use cognitive differences to understand and predict national differences in a variety of outcomes: societal development, rate of democratization, population health, productivity, gross domestic product (GDP), and wage inequality".[40]

Partial correlations between IQ and society attributes (GDP partialed out)[18]
Attribute Partial correlation
educational level of young adults 0.64
quality and quantity of school education of pupils 0.59
number of books 0.42
quality and speed of bureaucracy 0.28
rule of law 0.27
economic growth 0.27
democracy 0.21
rate of solved cases for homicide 0.22
interpersonal trust 0.19
speed of life 0.18
low corruption 0.09
economic freedom 0.07
war -0.04
homicide rate -0.17
government speeding ratio -0.24
gini-coefficient, income inequality -0.40
HIV-infection rate -0.45
children rate -0.48

In IQ and the Wealth of Nations, Lynn and Vanhanen claims that national IQs are correlated with per capita income at .73. However, when use log GDP (1975 – 2003), the correlation have increased to .82 for 81 nations.[41] Further study confirmed the result for 185 countries (r =.65)[42] and for 152 countries (r =.76).[43]

Jones and Schneider (2010) write that a country’s average IQ score is a useful predictor of the wages that immigrants from that country earn in the U.S., whether or not one adjusts for immigrant education.[44]

In a macro-level analysis of 126 nations, Kanazawa have shown that national IQ, rather than income inequality, or economic development has a significant effect on the health of the population indicated by life expectancy, infant mortality rate and the age-specific mortality rate of males and females aged 15–19.[45]

Voracek (2008) states that lower national IQs is associated with higher prevalence of suicide and that this is independent of the "quality of human conditions".[46]

In a study by Gelade, higher national IQ have shown to be associated with more patents per person.[47]

Lynn, Harvy, and Nyborg (2009) write that atheism is associated with higher national IQ.[48]

Higher national education levels and IQ have a strong positive impact on democracy, rule of law and political liberty independent from GDP according to a study by Rindermann (2008).[49]

Using path analyses, Rindermann and Meisenberg have shown cognitive abilities (seen as depending on education) show a strong negative effect on HIV-infection rates, whereas gross domestic product and modernization each has a small positive effect.[50] A higher proportion of Muslims in the population reduces the HIV-infection rate.

Meisenberg have found that national IQ is correlated with total fertility rate in 170 countries.[34]

Rushton and Templer have shown "violent crime was found to be lower in countries with higher IQs, higher life expectancies, lighter skin color, and lower rates of HIV/AIDS, although not with higher national incomes or higher rates of infant mortality."[51]

In a 2006 paper, Templer and Arikawa examined the correlation between several traits with IQ. They have found the highest correlations were − 0.92 (rho = − 0.91) for skin color, − 0.76 (rho = − 0.76) for mean high winter temperature, − 0.66 (rho = − 0.68) for mean low winter temperature, and 0.63 (rho = 0.74) for real gross domestic product per capita.[52] In regard of controversial nature of such paper, the editor of the journal it published on, issued an editorial note explaining their decision to publish.[53] Two papers commented on Templer and Arikawa's paper, along their rely was also published on that issue of Intelligence. Hunt and Sternberg commented that their "data collection and analyses are seriously flawed. Even if their methods were technically adequate and if the claimed correlations existed, the correlations would be uninterpretable and hence of no scientific value."[54] Jensen commented that "the main limitation of such a study design is that correlations obtained from this type of analysis are completely non-informative regarding any causal or functional connection between individual differences in skin pigmentation and and individual differences in IQ, nor are they informative regarding the causal basis of the correlation, e.g., simple genetic association due to cross-assortative mating for skin color and IQ versus a pleiotropic correlation in which both of the phenotypically distinct but correlated traits are manifested by one and the same gene."[55] Templer and Arikawa praised the comment by Jensen, but regard the most of the contentions of Hunt and Sternberg as "absurd".[56]

Causes of the national differences[edit]

See also: Race and intelligence

Both genetic and environmental effects could explain national differences in IQ. It should be noted that genetic theories are not excluded by showing strong environmental effects and the environment is not excluded by assuming genetic effects.[32]

Environmental causes[edit]

See also: Flynn effect § Proposed explanations, and Impact of health on intelligence

Since the 20th century, there have been worldwide continual increases in measured IQ. It was termed a "Flynn effect". Nations that have recently begun to modernize, including Kenya,[57] Sudan[58] and the Caribbean nations,[59] show extremely high rates of gain. Raletively earlier modernized nations, including Argentina,[60] Brazil,[61] China,[62] Estonia,[63] and Spain[64] also shows high rates of gain. Conversely, for those nations began modernization as far back as the 19th century, IQ gains was not so fast (UK,[65] US[66]), stopped (Denmark[67]) or even began to decline (Sweden,[68] Norway,[69] and France[70]). Wicherts et al. have suggested that national differences in IQ could be because African countries have not yet experienced the improvements that cause the Flynn effect in the developed world, such as improvements in nutrition and health, and educational attainment.[28]

Hunt argues and the correlation between IQ and measures of social well-being probably is partially driven by large differences in prosperity and intelligence test scores between regions of the world, with the values highest for North America, Europe and Northeast Asia, lowest for sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, and in between for South America and the Middle East. However, substantial correlations between intelligence test scores and measures of well-being also exist when the analysis is limited to developed countries, where the IQ results are more likely to be accurate.[71] Hunt and Wittman (2008) conclude that although the correlation between national IQ and economic well-being is clear, the direction of causality between them is more difficult to determine. They suggest some methods which could be used to determine the direction of causality in future studies.[72]

Wicherts, Borsbooma, and Dolana (2010) have shown that national IQs are strongly confounded with the current developmental status of countries and correlate with all the variables that have been suggested to have caused the Flynn Effect in the developed world.[73] They have also criticized evolutionary studies for problems such as ignoring or assuming that the Flynn effect is equal worldwide and assuming that there have been no migrations and changes in climate over the course of evolution.

Eppig, Fincher, and Thornhill (2010) states that distance from Africa, temperature, and most importantly by a large margin, prevalence of infectious disease predicts national IQs. Education, literacy, GDP, and nutrition were not important as independent factors (however, the prevalence of infectious diseases is likely greatly affected by these factors). The authors argue that "From an energetics standpoint, a developing human will have difficulty building a brain and fighting off infectious diseases at the same time, as both are very metabolically costly tasks" and that "the Flynn effect may be caused in part by the decrease in the intensity of infectious diseases as nations develop."[74]

Genetic causes[edit]

There are serval evidence suggesting the possibility of genetic causes.

Kanazawa (2008) writes that cold climate and harsh winters (the study uses mean annual temperature) as well as environment novelty (the study uses three different measures of distance from the ancestral environment in sub-Saharan Africa: ordinary distance and differences in latitudes and longitudes) have been proposed as important factors behind the genetic evolution of human intelligence. The study found independent support for both theories and argues that they together explain half to two-thirds of variance in national IQ.[75]

Study conducted in South Africans have shown evolutionary-ethnic background is a more important predictor than SES.[32] However, it can reflect environmental and cultural differences not covered by SES environmental and cultural differences.

Another study finds that the impact of living conditions is of much smaller magnitude than is suggested by just looking at correlations between average IQ scores and socioeconomic indicators. The study has found that after having test-takers' region of ancestry controlled, the impact of parasitic diseases on average IQ is found to be statistically insignificant when test results from the Caribbean are included in the analysis. The author concludes that "differences in average IQ across world regions may change in the years ahead insofar as the strength of Flynn effects may not be uniform, but some regional differences in average g levels seem likely to continue indefinitely."[76]

Using GWAS method, several SNPs for intelligence have been found. A study found the average frequency and the factor score of nine GWAS hits are strongly correlated to country IQ (r = 0.91).[77] However, this study employs a novel method which need to be validated by further research.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Book Review: IQ and the Wealth of Nations Heredity April 2004, Volume 92, Number 4, Pages 359–360. K Richardson.
  2. ↑ See, for example:
    • Graves, J. L. (2002). "What a tangled web he weaves: Race, reproductive strategies and Rushton's life history theory". Anthropological Theory. 2 (2): 131–154. doi:10.1177/1469962002002002627. ISSN 1463-4996.
    • Brace, C. Loring (March 1996). "Review: Racialism and Racist Agendas". American Anthropologist, New Series. 98 (1): 176–7. doi:10.1525/aa.1996.98.1.02a00250. JSTOR 682972.
    • Francisco Gil-White, Resurrecting Racism, Chapter 10
    • Anderson, Judith L. (1991). "Rushton's racial comparisons: An ecological critique of theory and method". Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne. 32 (1): 51–62. doi:10.1037/h0078956. ISSN 1878-7304.
    • Douglas Wahlsten (2001) Book Review of Race, Evolution and Behavior
    • Leslie, Charles (2002). New Horizons in Medical Anthropology. New York: Routledge. p. 17. ISBN 0-415-27793-0. Search this book on
    • Kuznar, Lawrence (1997). Reclaiming a Scientific Anthropology. Walnut Creek: AltaMira Press. p. 104. ISBN 0-7619-9114-X. Search this book on
  3. ↑ See, for example:
  4. ↑ Hunt, Earl. Human Intelligence. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 436-437. 'Richard Lynn, whose work on sex and race/ethnic differences was discussed earlier in this chapter, and Tutu Vanhanen, a Finnish economist, invigorated the field with the publication of two challenging books and some related papers. I shall be highly critical of their empirical work, and even more so of their interpretations. They do deserve credit for raising important questions in a way that has resulted in interesting and important findings.'
  5. ↑ "Racism Resurgent". FAIR. Jim Naureckas. Retrieved 2015-12-21.
  6. ↑ Hunt 2010, pp. 426–445.
  7. ↑ Wicherts, Dolan & van der Maas 2009, p. 10.
  8. ↑ Barnett, Susan M. and Williams, Wendy (August 2004). "National Intelligence and the Emperor's New Clothes". Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books. 49 (4): 389–396. doi:10.1037/004367. we see an edifice built on layer upon layer of arbitrary assumptions and selective data manipulation. The data on which the entire book is based are of questionable validity and are used in ways that cannot be justified.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ↑ Barnett, Susan M. and Williams, Wendy (August 2004). "National Intelligence and the Emperor's New Clothes". Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books. 49 (4): 389–396. doi:10.1037/004367.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ↑ Thomas J. Nechyba, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 42, No. 1 (Mar., 2004), pp. 220-221
  11. ↑ Hunt, Earl. Human Intelligence. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 436-437. 'Richard Lynn, whose work on sex and race/ethnic differences was discussed earlier in this chapter, and Tutu Vanhanen, a Finnish economist, invigorated the field with the publication of two challenging books and some related papers. I shall be highly critical of their empirical work, and even more so of their interpretations. They do deserve credit for raising important questions in a way that has resulted in interesting and important findings.'
  12. ↑ The Impact of National IQ on Income and Growth: A Critique of Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanens Recent Book by Thomas Volken
  13. ↑ Buj, V (1981). "Average IQ values in various European countries". Personality and Individual Differences. 2: 168–169. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(81)90013-1.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Rindermann, H (2007). "The g-factor of international cognitive ability comparisons: The homogeneity of results in PISA, TIMSS, PIRLS and IQ-tests across nations". European Journal of Personality. 21 (6): 67–706. doi:10.1002/per.634.
  15. ↑ "Jelšanin Vinko Buj postao akademik". www.slobodnadalmacija.hr. Slobodna Dalmacija.
  16. ↑ Rindermann, Heiner (August 2007). "The bigg-factor of national cognitive ability". European Journal of Personality. 21 (5): 767–787. doi:10.1002/per.658.
  17. ↑ Hunt, Earl. Human Intelligence. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 437-439.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Rindermann, Heiner (March 2008). "Relevance of education and intelligence at the national level for the economic welfare of people". Intelligence. 36 (2): 127–142. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.02.002.
  19. ↑ Barnett, Susan M.; Williams, Wendy (2004). "National Intelligence and The Emperor's New Clothes". PsycCRITIQUES. 49 (4): 389–396. doi:10.1037/004367.
  20. ↑ Richards, Marcus (November 2002). "IQ and the wealth of nations". Intelligence. 30 (6): 574–576. doi:10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00138-1.
  21. ↑ Volken, T. (1 September 2003). "IQ and the Wealth of Nations. A Critique of Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen's Recent Book". European Sociological Review. 19 (4): 411–412. doi:10.1093/esr/19.4.411.
  22. ↑ Ervik, Astrid Oline (June 2003). "IQ and the Wealth of Nations". The Economic Journal. 113 (488): F406–F408. doi:10.1111/1468-0297.13916.
  23. ↑ Mankind Quarterly, Vol. 50, No. 4 (Summer 2010) pp. 275-296, "National IQs updated for 41 Nations", Richard Lynn. http://www.mankindquarterly.org/summer2010_lynn.html
  24. ↑ Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen. Intelligence: A Unifying Construct for the Social Sciences. Ulster Institute for Social Research, 2013.
  25. ↑ Hunt, Earl; Wittmann, Werner (January 2008). "National intelligence and national prosperity". Intelligence. 36 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.11.002.
  26. ↑ Lynn, Richard; Meisenberg, Gerhard (July 2010). "National IQs calculated and validated for 108 nations". Intelligence. 38 (4): 353–360. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2010.04.007.
  27. ↑ Hunt, Earl. Human Intelligence. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 439-440.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Wicherts, Jelte M.; Dolana, Conor V.; van der Maas, Han L.J. "A systematic literature review of the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans". Intelligence. 38 (1): 1–20. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.05.002.
  29. ↑ Lynn, Richard; Meisenberg, Gerhard (January 2010). "The average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans: Comments on Wicherts, Dolan, and van der Maas". Intelligence. 38 (1): 21–29. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2009.09.009.
  30. ↑ Wicherts, Jelte M.; Dolan, Conor V.; Carlson, Jerry S.; van der Maas, Han L.J. (June 2010). "Another failure to replicate Lynn's estimate of the average IQ of sub-Saharan Africans". Learning and Individual Differences. 20 (3): 155–157. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.03.010.
  31. ↑ Hunt, Earl. Human Intelligence. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 440-443.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Rindermann, Heiner (July 2013). "African cognitive ability: Research, results, divergences and recommendations". Personality and Individual Differences. 55 (3): 229–233. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.06.022.
  33. ↑ Lynn, Richard; Harvey, John (March 2008). "The decline of the world's IQ". Intelligence. 36 (2): 112–120. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.03.004.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 MEISENBERG, GERHARD (27 March 2009). "WEALTH, INTELLIGENCE, POLITICS AND GLOBAL FERTILITY DIFFERENTIALS". Journal of Biosocial Science. 41 (04): 519. doi:10.1017/S0021932009003344.
  35. ↑ Woodley, M. A., & Figueredo, A. J. (2013). Historical variability in heritable general intelligence: Its evolutionary origins and socio-cultural consequences.
  36. ↑ Hunt, Earl. Human Intelligence. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Page 443-445.
  37. ↑ Case for Non-Biased Intelligence Testing Against Black Africans Has Not Been Made: A Comment on Rushton, Skuy, and Bons (2004) 1*, Leah K. Hamilton1, Betty R. Onyura1 and Andrew S. Winston International Journal of Selection and Assessment Volume 14 Issue 3 Page 278 - September 2006
  38. ↑ Culture-Fair Cognitive Ability Assessment Steven P. Verney Assessment, Vol. 12, No. 3, 303-319 (2005)
  39. ↑ The attack of the psychometricians. DENNY BORSBOOM. PSYCHOMETRIKA VOL 71, NO 3, 425–440. SEPTEMBER 2006.
  40. ↑ Rindermann, Heiner; Ceci, Stephen J. (November 2009). "Educational Policy and Country Outcomes in International Cognitive Competence Studies". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 4 (6): 551–577. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01165.x.
  41. ↑ Meisenberg, G. (2004). "Talent, character and the dimensions of national culture". Mankind Quarterly. 45: 123–169.
  42. ↑ Whetzel, Deborah L.; McDaniel, Michael A. (September 2006). "Prediction of national wealth". Intelligence. 34 (5): 449–458. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.003.
  43. ↑ MORSE, STEPHEN (September 2008). "The geography of tyranny and despair: development indicators and the hypothesis of genetic inevitability of national inequality". Geographical Journal. 174 (3): 195–206. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4959.2008.00296.x.
  44. ↑ JONES, GARETT; SCHNEIDER, W. JOEL (6 February 2009). "IQ IN THE PRODUCTION FUNCTION: EVIDENCE FROM IMMIGRANT EARNINGS". Economic Inquiry. 48 (3): 743–755. doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.2008.00206.x.
  45. ↑ Kanazawa, Satoshi (November 2006). "Mind the gap…in intelligence: Re-examining the relationship between inequality and health". British Journal of Health Psychology. 11 (4): 623–642. doi:10.1348/135910705X69842.
  46. ↑ VORACEK, MARTIN (April 2008). "CROSS-NATIONAL SOCIAL ECOLOGY OF INTELLIGENCE AND SUICIDE PREVALENCE: INTEGRATION, REFINEMENT, AND UPDATE OF STUDIES". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 106 (2): 550–556. doi:10.2466/pms.106.2.550-556.
  47. ↑ Gelade, Garry A. (November 2008). "IQ, cultural values, and the technological achievement of nations". Intelligence. 36 (6): 711–718. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2008.04.003.
  48. ↑ Lynn, Richard; Harvey, John; Nyborg, Helmuth (January 2009). "Average intelligence predicts atheism rates across 137 nations". Intelligence. 37 (1): 11–15. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2008.03.004.
  49. ↑ Rindermann, Heiner (July 2008). "Relevance of education and intelligence for the political development of nations: Democracy, rule of law and political liberty". Intelligence. 36 (4): 306–322. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2007.09.003.
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