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Reign of Elizabeth II

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki


Reign of Elizabeth II
1952–2022
Queen Elizabeth II official portrait for 1959 tour
Preceded byReign of George VI
Followed byReign of Charles III
Monarch(s)Elizabeth II
Leader(s)
Part of a series on the
History of the United Kingdom
BRITANNIA prout divisa fuit temporibus ANGLO-SAXONUM, praesertim durante illorum HEPTARCHIA
Periods in English history
 
Prehistoric Britainuntil c. 43 AD
British Iron Agec. 800 BC
Roman Britainc. 43–410
Sub-Roman Britainc. 400s – late 500s
Anglo-Saxonc. 500–1066
Norman1066–1154
Plantagenet1154–1485
Tudor1485–1603
Elizabethan1558–1603
Stuart1603–1714
Jacobean1603–1625
Caroline1625–1649
(Interregnum)1649–1660
Restoration1660–1714
Georgian Britain1714–1837
Regency Britain1811–1820
Victorian Britain1837–1901
Edwardian Britain1901–1914
First World War1914–1918
Interwar Britain1919–1939
Second World War1939–1945
Postwar Britain (Political)1945–1979
Postwar Britain (Social)1945–1979
See also
Timeline
Part of a series on the
History of Scotland
Arms of Scotland
SCOTIA REGNUM cum insulis adjacentibus

In the history of the United Kingdom, the reign of Elizabeth II was from 6 February 1952 until her death on 8 September 2022. During this period the United Kingdom went through a series of changes, including the creation of the Commonwealth, entry to the European Economic Community and withdrawal from the European Union. The period also saw changes within the monarchy after events which affected them, such as the Death of Princess Diana and sex scandals involving Prince Andrew.

The reign of Elizabeth II began with Winston Churchill as the Prime Minister and the United Kingdom scaling back the British Empire. During the 1950s the British Empire was declining, with many countries given independence over this period. As a result of this the Commonwealth was coming into being, with many former colonies joining this institution. The Suez Crisis demonstrated the weakness of British power and forced the resignation of Anthony Eden.

The 1960s saw a period of social change with the election of Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson and reforms on issues such as homosexuality and abortion. The 1970s saw the Conservatives return to power and the entry of Britain into the EEC. However Labour returned to power four years later.

The 1979-1990 premiership of Margaret Thatcher saw a rise in deregulation and privatisation. This period also saw the thawing of the Cold War, leading to the end of the Soviet Union. During the 1980s several of the Queen's children married, however the marriage of Charles and Diana broke down and they eventually divorced.

In 1997 Labour returned to power under Tony Blair. Later that year Charles ex-wife Diana died in a car crash. The Royal Family was criticised for their reaction to it. The Blair Ministry saw devolution to the different regions of the United Kingdom. The Queen celebrated her Golden Jubilee in 2002, the same year her sister and mother passed away.

The 2008 Recession weakened the Labour Government, leading to the Conservatives returning to power through a coalition in 2010. Under them a period of austerity occurred. The 2016 referendum on membership of the European Union saw a narrow win for the Leave campaign, leading to the United Kingdom leaving the European Union in 2020. Later that year the United Kingdom was forced to go into lockdown due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

The Queen finally passed away in 2022, shortly after appointing her last Prime Minister, Liz Truss.

Accession and coronation

Main article: Coronation of Elizabeth II
File:Elizabeth and Philip 1953.jpg
Coronation portrait with husband Philip, 1953

George VI's health declined during 1951, and Elizabeth frequently stood in for him at public events. When she toured Canada and visited President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C., in October 1951, her private secretary, Martin Charteris, carried a draft accession declaration in case of the King's death while she was on tour.[1] In early 1952, Elizabeth and Philip set out for a tour of Australia and New Zealand by way of the British colony of Kenya. On 6 February 1952, they had just returned to their Kenyan home, Sagana Lodge, after a night spent at Treetops Hotel, when word arrived of the death of George VI and Elizabeth's consequent accession to the throne with immediate effect. Philip broke the news to the new queen.[2] She chose to retain Elizabeth as her regnal name;[3] thus she was called Elizabeth II, which offended many Scots, as she was the first Elizabeth to rule in Scotland.[4] She was proclaimed queen throughout her realms and the royal party hastily returned to the United Kingdom.[5] Elizabeth and Philip moved into Buckingham Palace.[6]

With Elizabeth's accession, it seemed probable that the royal house would bear the Duke of Edinburgh's name, in line with the custom of a wife taking her husband's surname on marriage. Lord Mountbatten advocated the name House of Mountbatten. Philip suggested House of Edinburgh, after his ducal title.[7] The British prime minister, Winston Churchill, and Elizabeth's grandmother Queen Mary favoured the retention of the House of Windsor, so Elizabeth issued a declaration on 9 April 1952 that Windsor would continue to be the name of the royal house. Philip complained, "I am the only man in the country not allowed to give his name to his own children."[8] In 1960, the surname Mountbatten-Windsor was adopted for Philip and Elizabeth's male-line descendants who do not carry royal titles.[9]

Amid preparations for the coronation, Princess Margaret told her sister she wished to marry Peter Townsend, a divorcé 16 years Margaret's senior with two sons from his previous marriage. Elizabeth asked them to wait for a year; in the words of her private secretary, "the Queen was naturally sympathetic towards the Princess, but I think she thought—she hoped—given time, the affair would peter out."[10] Senior politicians were against the match and the Church of England did not permit remarriage after divorce. If Margaret had contracted a civil marriage, she would have been expected to renounce her right of succession.[11] Margaret decided to abandon her plans with Townsend.[12]

Despite the death of Queen Mary on 24 March 1953, the coronation went ahead as planned on 2 June, as Mary had requested before she died.[13] The coronation ceremony in Westminster Abbey, with the exception of the anointing and communion, was televised for the first time.[14][lower-alpha 1] On Elizabeth's instruction, her coronation gown was embroidered with the floral emblems of Commonwealth countries.[18]

Continuing evolution of the Commonwealth

Further information: Commonwealth realm § From the accession of Elizabeth II
File:British Empire in February 1952.png
Elizabeth's realms (light red and pink) and their territories and protectorates (dark red) at the beginning of her reign in 1952

From Elizabeth's birth onwards, the British Empire continued its transformation into the Commonwealth of Nations.[19] By the time of her accession in 1952, her role as head of multiple independent states was already established.[20] In 1953, Elizabeth and her husband embarked on a seven-month round-the-world tour, visiting 13 countries and covering more than 40,000 miles (64,000 kilometres) by land, sea and air.[21] She became the first reigning monarch of Australia and New Zealand to visit those nations.[22] During the tour, crowds were immense; three-quarters of the population of Australia were estimated to have seen her.[23] Throughout her reign, Elizabeth made hundreds of state visits to other countries and tours of the Commonwealth; she was the most widely travelled head of state.[24]

In 1956, the British and French prime ministers, Sir Anthony Eden and Guy Mollet, discussed the possibility of France joining the Commonwealth. The proposal was never accepted and the following year France signed the Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community, the precursor to the European Union.[25] In November 1956, Britain and France invaded Egypt in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to capture the Suez Canal. Lord Mountbatten said Elizabeth was opposed to the invasion, though Eden denied it. Eden resigned two months later.[26]

A formal group of Elizabeth in tiara and evening dress with eleven politicians in evening dress or national costume.
With Commonwealth leaders at the 1960 Commonwealth Conference

The absence of a formal mechanism within the Conservative Party for choosing a leader meant that, following Eden's resignation, it fell to Elizabeth to decide whom to commission to form a government. Eden recommended she consult Lord Salisbury, the Lord President of the Council. Lord Salisbury and Lord Kilmuir, the Lord Chancellor, consulted the British Cabinet, Churchill, and the chairman of the backbench 1922 Committee, resulting in Elizabeth appointing their recommended candidate: Harold Macmillan.[27]

The Suez crisis and the choice of Eden's successor led, in 1957, to the first major personal criticism of Elizabeth. In a magazine, which he owned and edited,[28] Lord Altrincham accused her of being "out of touch".[29] Altrincham was denounced by public figures and slapped by a member of the public appalled by his comments.[30] Six years later, in 1963, Macmillan resigned and advised Elizabeth to appoint the Earl of Home as the prime minister, advice she followed.[31] Elizabeth again came under criticism for appointing the prime minister on the advice of a small number of ministers or a single minister.[31] In 1965, the Conservatives adopted a formal mechanism for electing a leader, thus relieving the Queen of her involvement.[32]

File:Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip sit on thrones before a full Parliament.jpg
Seated with Philip on thrones at Canadian parliament, 1957

In 1957, Elizabeth made a state visit to the United States, where she addressed the United Nations General Assembly on behalf of the Commonwealth. On the same tour, she opened the 23rd Canadian Parliament, becoming the first monarch of Canada to open a parliamentary session.[33] Two years later, solely in her capacity as Queen of Canada, she revisited the United States and toured Canada.[33][34] In 1961, she toured Cyprus, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Iran.[35] On a visit to Ghana the same year, she dismissed fears for her safety, even though her host, President Kwame Nkrumah, who had replaced her as head of state, was a target for assassins.[36] Harold Macmillan wrote, "The Queen has been absolutely determined all through ... She is impatient of the attitude towards her to treat her as ... a film star ... She has indeed 'the heart and stomach of a man' ... She loves her duty and means to be a Queen."[36] Before her tour through parts of Quebec in 1964, the press reported extremists within the Quebec separatist movement were plotting Elizabeth's assassination.[37][38] No attempt was made, but a riot did break out while she was in Montreal; Elizabeth's "calmness and courage in the face of the violence" was noted.[39]

Elizabeth gave birth to her third child, Prince Andrew, on 19 February 1960, which was the first birth to a reigning British monarch since 1857.[40] Her fourth child, Prince Edward, was born on 10 March 1964.[41]

In addition to performing traditional ceremonies, Elizabeth also instituted new practices. Her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970.[42]

Acceleration of decolonisation

File:Elizabeth II in Queensland, Australia, 1970.jpg
In Queensland, Australia, 1970
File:Stevan Kragujevic, Elizabeth II i Josip Broz Tito,1972, u Beogradu.jpg
With President Tito of Yugoslavia in Belgrade, 1972

The 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. More than 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however, the Rhodesian prime minister, Ian Smith, in opposition to moves towards majority rule, unilaterally declared independence while expressing "loyalty and devotion" to Elizabeth, declaring her "Queen of Rhodesia".[43] Although Elizabeth formally dismissed him, and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime survived for over a decade.[44] As Britain's ties to its former empire weakened, the British government sought entry to the European Community, a goal it achieved in 1973.[45]

Elizabeth toured Yugoslavia in October 1972, becoming the first British monarch to visit a communist country.[46] She was received at the airport by President Josip Broz Tito, and a crowd of thousands greeted her in Belgrade.[47]

In February 1974, the British prime minister, Edward Heath, advised Elizabeth to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain.[48] The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath's Conservatives were not the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. When discussions on forming a coalition foundered, Heath resigned as prime minister and Elizabeth asked the Leader of the Opposition, Labour's Harold Wilson, to form a government.[49]

A year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Australian prime minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam's budget proposals.[50] As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to Elizabeth to reverse Kerr's decision. She declined, saying she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the Governor-General.[51] The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.[50]

Silver Jubilee

File:Jimmy Carter with Queen Elizabeth - NARA - 174724.jpg
Leaders of the G7 states, members of the royal family and Elizabeth (centre), London, 1977

In 1977, Elizabeth marked the Silver Jubilee of her accession. Parties and events took place throughout the Commonwealth, many coinciding with her associated national and Commonwealth tours. The celebrations re-affirmed Elizabeth's popularity, despite virtually coincident negative press coverage of Princess Margaret's separation from her husband, Lord Snowdon.[52] In 1978, Elizabeth endured a state visit to the United Kingdom by Romania's communist leader, Nicolae Ceaușescu, and his wife, Elena,[53] though privately she thought they had "blood on their hands".[54] The following year brought two blows: one was the unmasking of Anthony Blunt, former Surveyor of the Queen's Pictures, as a communist spy; the other was the assassination of her relative and in-law Lord Mountbatten by the Provisional Irish Republican Army.[55]

According to Paul Martin Sr., by the end of the 1970s Elizabeth was worried the Crown "had little meaning for" Pierre Trudeau, the Canadian prime minister.[56] Tony Benn said Elizabeth found Trudeau "rather disappointing".[56] Trudeau's supposed republicanism seemed to be confirmed by his antics, such as sliding down banisters at Buckingham Palace and pirouetting behind Elizabeth's back in 1977, and the removal of various Canadian royal symbols during his term of office.[56] In 1980, Canadian politicians sent to London to discuss the patriation of the Canadian constitution found Elizabeth "better informed ... than any of the British politicians or bureaucrats".[56] She was particularly interested after the failure of Bill C-60, which would have affected her role as head of state.[56]

Press scrutiny and Thatcher premiership

Elizabeth in red uniform on a black horse
Riding Burmese at the 1986 Trooping the Colour ceremony

During the 1981 Trooping the Colour ceremony, six weeks before the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer, six shots were fired at Elizabeth from close range as she rode down The Mall, London, on her horse, Burmese. Police later discovered the shots were blanks. The 17-year-old assailant, Marcus Sarjeant, was sentenced to five years in prison and released after three.[57] Elizabeth's composure and skill in controlling her mount were widely praised.[58] That October Elizabeth was the subject of another attack while on a visit to Dunedin, New Zealand. Christopher John Lewis, who was 17 years old, fired a shot with a .22 rifle from the fifth floor of a building overlooking the parade, but missed.[59] Lewis was arrested, but never charged with attempted murder or treason, and sentenced to three years in jail for unlawful possession and discharge of a firearm. Two years into his sentence, he attempted to escape a psychiatric hospital with the intention of assassinating Charles, who was visiting the country with Diana and their son Prince William.[60]

Elizabeth and Ronald Reagan on black horses. He bare-headed; she in a headscarf; both in tweeds, jodhpurs and riding boots.
Riding at Windsor with President Reagan, June 1982

From April to September 1982, Elizabeth's son, Prince Andrew, served with British forces in the Falklands War, for which she reportedly felt anxiety[61] and pride.[62] On 9 July, she awoke in her bedroom at Buckingham Palace to find an intruder, Michael Fagan, in the room with her. In a serious lapse of security, assistance only arrived after two calls to the Palace police switchboard.[63] After hosting US president Ronald Reagan at Windsor Castle in 1982 and visiting his California ranch in 1983, Elizabeth was angered when his administration ordered the invasion of Grenada, one of her Caribbean realms, without informing her.[64]

Intense media interest in the opinions and private lives of the royal family during the 1980s led to a series of sensational stories in the press, not all of which were entirely true.[65] As Kelvin MacKenzie, editor of The Sun, told his staff: "Give me a Sunday for Monday splash on the Royals. Don't worry if it's not true—so long as there's not too much of a fuss about it afterwards."[66] Newspaper editor Donald Trelford wrote in The Observer of 21 September 1986: "The royal soap opera has now reached such a pitch of public interest that the boundary between fact and fiction has been lost sight of ... it is not just that some papers don't check their facts or accept denials: they don't care if the stories are true or not." It was reported, most notably in The Sunday Times of 20 July 1986, that Elizabeth was worried that Margaret Thatcher's economic policies fostered social divisions and was alarmed by high unemployment, a series of riots, the violence of a miners' strike, and Thatcher's refusal to apply sanctions against the apartheid regime in South Africa. The sources of the rumours included royal aide Michael Shea and Commonwealth Secretary-General Shridath Ramphal, but Shea claimed his remarks were taken out of context and embellished by speculation.[67] Thatcher reputedly said Elizabeth would vote for the Social Democratic Party—Thatcher's political opponents.[68] Thatcher's biographer, John Campbell, claimed "the report was a piece of journalistic mischief-making".[69] Reports of acrimony between them were exaggerated,[70] and Elizabeth gave two honours in her personal gift—membership in the Order of Merit and the Order of the Garter—to Thatcher after her replacement as prime minister by John Major.[71] Brian Mulroney, Canadian prime minister between 1984 and 1993, said Elizabeth was a "behind the scenes force" in ending apartheid.[72][73]

In 1986, Elizabeth paid a six-day state visit to the People's Republic of China, becoming the first British monarch to visit the country.[74] The tour included the Forbidden City, the Great Wall of China, and the Terracotta Warriors.[75] At a state banquet, Elizabeth joked about the first British emissary to China being lost at sea with Queen Elizabeth I's letter to the Wanli Emperor, and remarked, "fortunately postal services have improved since 1602".[76] Elizabeth's visit also signified the acceptance of both countries that sovereignty over Hong Kong would be transferred from the United Kingdom to China in 1997.[77]

By the end of the 1980s, Elizabeth had become the target of satire.[78] The involvement of younger members of the royal family in the charity game show It's a Royal Knockout in 1987 was ridiculed.[79] In Canada, Elizabeth publicly supported politically divisive constitutional amendments, prompting criticism from opponents of the proposed changes, including Pierre Trudeau.[72] The same year, the elected Fijian government was deposed in a military coup. As monarch of Fiji, Elizabeth supported the attempts of Governor-General Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau to assert executive power and negotiate a settlement. Coup leader Sitiveni Rabuka deposed Ganilau and declared Fiji a republic.[80]

Turbulent 1990s and annus horribilis

In the wake of coalition victory in the Gulf War, Elizabeth became the first British monarch to address a joint meeting of the United States Congress in May 1991.[81]

Elizabeth, in formal dress, holds a pair of spectacles to her mouth in a thoughtful pose
Philip and Elizabeth in Germany, October 1992

On 24 November 1992, in a speech to mark the Ruby Jubilee of her accession to the throne, Elizabeth called 1992 her annus horribilis (a Latin phrase, meaning "horrible year").[82] Republican feeling in Britain had risen because of press estimates of Elizabeth's private wealth—contradicted by the Palace—and reports of affairs and strained marriages among her extended family.[83] In March, her second son, Prince Andrew, separated from his wife, Sarah, and Mauritius removed Elizabeth as head of state; her daughter, Princess Anne, divorced Captain Mark Phillips in April;[84] angry demonstrators in Dresden threw eggs at Elizabeth during a state visit to Germany in October;[85] and a large fire broke out at Windsor Castle, one of her official residences, in November. The monarchy came under increased criticism and public scrutiny.[86] In an unusually personal speech, Elizabeth said that any institution must expect criticism, but suggested it might be done with "a touch of humour, gentleness and understanding".[87] Two days later, British prime minister John Major announced plans to reform the royal finances, drawn up the previous year, including Elizabeth paying income tax from 1993 onwards, and a reduction in the civil list.[88] In December, Prince Charles and his wife, Diana, formally separated.[89] At the end of the year, Elizabeth sued The Sun newspaper for breach of copyright when it published the text of her annual Christmas message two days before it was broadcast. The newspaper was forced to pay her legal fees and donated £200,000 to charity.[90] Elizabeth's solicitors had taken action against The Sun five years earlier for breach of copyright, after it published a photograph of her daughter-in-law the Duchess of York and her granddaughter Princess Beatrice. The case was solved with an out-of-court settlement that ordered the newspaper to pay $180,000.[91]

In January 1994, Elizabeth broke the scaphoid bone in her left wrist as the horse she was riding at Sandringham House tripped and fell.[92] In October 1994, she became the first reigning British monarch to set foot on Russian soil.[lower-alpha 2][95] During the four-day visit, which is considered to be one of the most important foreign trips of Elizabeth's reign,[96] she and Philip attended events in Moscow and St. Petersburg.[97] In October 1995, Elizabeth was tricked into a hoax call by Montreal radio host Pierre Brassard impersonating Canadian prime minister Jean Chrétien. Elizabeth, who believed that she was speaking to Chrétien, said she supported Canadian unity, and would try to influence Quebec's referendum on proposals to break away from Canada.[98][99]

In the year that followed, public revelations on the state of Charles and Diana's marriage continued.[100] In consultation with her husband and John Major, as well as the Archbishop of Canterbury, George Carey, and her private secretary, Robert Fellowes, Elizabeth wrote to Charles and Diana at the end of December 1995, suggesting that a divorce would be advisable.[101]

In August 1997, a year after the divorce, Diana was killed in a car crash in Paris. Elizabeth was on holiday with her extended family at Balmoral. Diana's two sons, Princes William and Harry, wanted to attend church, so Elizabeth and Philip took them that morning.[102] Afterwards, for five days the royal couple shielded their grandsons from the intense press interest by keeping them at Balmoral where they could grieve in private,[103] but the royal family's silence and seclusion, and the failure to fly a flag at half-mast over Buckingham Palace, caused public dismay.[73][104] Pressured by the hostile reaction, Elizabeth agreed to return to London and address the nation in a live television broadcast on 5 September, the day before Diana's funeral[105] In the broadcast, she expressed admiration for Diana and her feelings "as a grandmother" for the two princes.[106] As a result, much of the public hostility evaporated.[106]

In October 1997, Elizabeth and Philip made a state visit to India, which included a controversial visit to the site of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre to pay her respects. Protesters chanted "Killer Queen, go back",[107] and there were demands for her to apologise for the action of British troops 78 years earlier.[108] At the memorial in the park, she and Philip paid their respects by laying a wreath and stood for a 30‑second moment of silence.[108] As a result, much of the fury among the public softened and the protests were called off.[107] That November, Elizabeth and her husband held a reception at Banqueting House to mark their golden wedding anniversary.[109] Elizabeth made a speech and praised Philip for his role as a consort, referring to him as "my strength and stay".[109]

In 1999, as part of the process of devolution within the UK, Elizabeth formally opened newly-established legislatures for Wales and Scotland: the National Assembly for Wales at Cardiff in May,[110] and the Scottish Parliament at Edinburgh in July.[111]

Golden Jubilee

File:Queen Elizabeth II with her British Prime Ministers during her Golden Jubilee in 2002.jpg
At a Golden Jubilee dinner with British prime minister Tony Blair and former prime ministers, 2002. From left to right: Blair, Margaret Thatcher, Edward Heath, Elizabeth, James Callaghan and John Major

On the eve of the new millennium, Elizabeth and Philip boarded a vessel from Southwark, bound for the Millennium Dome. Before passing under Tower Bridge, Elizabeth lit the National Millennium Beacon in the Pool of London using a laser torch.[112][113] Shortly before midnight, she officially opened the Dome.[114] During the singing of Auld Lang Syne, Elizabeth held hands with Philip and British prime minister Tony Blair.[115][116]

In 2002, Elizabeth marked her Golden Jubilee, the 50th anniversary of her accession. Her sister and mother died in February and March respectively, and the media speculated on whether the Jubilee would be a success or a failure.[117] She again undertook an extensive tour of her realms, beginning in Jamaica in February, where she called the farewell banquet "memorable" after a power cut plunged the King's House, the official residence of the governor-general, into darkness.[118] As in 1977, there were street parties and commemorative events, and monuments were named to honour the occasion. One million people attended each day of the three-day main Jubilee celebration in London,[119] and the enthusiasm shown for Elizabeth by the public was greater than many journalists had anticipated.[120]

File:Queen at NASA.jpg
Greeting NASA employees at the Goddard Space Flight Center, Maryland, May 2007

In 2003, Elizabeth sued Daily Mirror for breach of confidence and obtained an injunction which prevented the outlet from publishing information gathered by a reporter who posed as a footman at Buckingham Palace.[121] The newspaper also paid £25,000 towards her legal costs.[122] Though generally healthy throughout her life, in 2003 Elizabeth had keyhole surgery on both knees. In October 2006, she missed the opening of the new Emirates Stadium because of a strained back muscle that had been troubling her since the summer.[123]

In May 2007, citing unnamed sources, The Daily Telegraph reported that Elizabeth was "exasperated and frustrated" by the policies of Tony Blair, that she was concerned the British Armed Forces were overstretched in Iraq and Afghanistan, and that she had raised concerns over rural and countryside issues with Blair.[124] She was, however, said to admire Blair's efforts to achieve peace in Northern Ireland.[125] She became the first British monarch to celebrate a diamond wedding anniversary in November 2007.[126] On 20 March 2008, at the Church of Ireland St Patrick's Cathedral, Armagh, Elizabeth attended the first Maundy service held outside England and Wales.[127]

Elizabeth addressed the UN General Assembly for a second time in 2010, again in her capacity as Queen of all Commonwealth realms and Head of the Commonwealth.[128] The UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon, introduced her as "an anchor for our age".[129] During her visit to New York, which followed a tour of Canada, she officially opened a memorial garden for British victims of the September 11 attacks.[129] Elizabeth's 11-day visit to Australia in October 2011 was her 16th visit to the country since 1954.[130] By invitation of the Irish president, Mary McAleese, she made the first state visit to the Republic of Ireland by a British monarch in May 2011.[131]

Diamond Jubilee and longevity

File:Day 194 - West Midlands Police - Royal Diamond Jubilee Visit (7555521830).jpg
Visiting Birmingham in July 2012 as part of the Diamond Jubilee tour

Elizabeth's 2012 Diamond Jubilee marked 60 years on the throne, and celebrations were held throughout her realms, the wider Commonwealth, and beyond. She and her husband undertook an extensive tour of the United Kingdom, while her children and grandchildren embarked on royal tours of other Commonwealth states on her behalf.[132][133] On 4 June, Jubilee beacons were lit around the world.[134] While touring Manchester as part of her Jubilee celebrations, Elizabeth made a surprise appearance at a wedding party at Manchester Town Hall, which then made international headlines.[135] In November, Elizabeth and her husband celebrated their blue sapphire wedding anniversary (65th).[136] On 18 December, she became the first British sovereign to attend a peacetime Cabinet meeting since George III in 1781.[137]

Elizabeth, who opened the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, also opened the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in London, making her the first head of state to open two Olympic Games in two countries.[138] For the London Olympics, she played herself in a short film as part of the opening ceremony, alongside Daniel Craig as James Bond.[139] On 4 April 2013, she received an honorary BAFTA for her patronage of the film industry and was called "the most memorable Bond girl yet" at the award ceremony.[140]

File:Official Opening of the Borders Rail - 21086557488.jpg
Opening the Borders Railway on the day she became the longest-reigning British monarch, 2015. In her speech, she said she had never aspired to achieve that milestone.[141]

On 3 March 2013, Elizabeth stayed overnight at King Edward VII's Hospital as a precaution after developing symptoms of gastroenteritis.[142] A week later, she signed the new Charter of the Commonwealth.[143] Because of her age and the need for her to limit travelling, in 2013 she chose not to attend the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting for the first time in 40 years. She was represented at the summit in Sri Lanka by Prince Charles.[144] On 20 April 2018, the Commonwealth heads of government announced that she would be succeeded by Charles as Head of the Commonwealth, which she stated was her "sincere wish".[145] She underwent cataract surgery in May 2018.[146] In March 2019, she gave up driving on public roads, largely as a consequence of a car crash involving her husband two months earlier.[147]

Elizabeth surpassed her great-great-grandmother, Queen Victoria, to become the longest-lived British monarch on 21 December 2007, and the longest-reigning British monarch and longest-reigning queen regnant and female head of state in the world on 9 September 2015.[148][149][150] She became the oldest current monarch after King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia died on 23 January 2015.[151][152] She later became the longest-reigning current monarch and the longest-serving current head of state following the death of King Bhumibol of Thailand on 13 October 2016,[153][154] and the oldest current head of state on the resignation of Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe on 21 November 2017.[155] On 6 February 2017, she became the first British monarch to commemorate a Sapphire Jubilee,[156] and on 20 November, she was the first British monarch to celebrate a platinum wedding anniversary.[157] Philip had retired from his official duties as the Queen's consort in August 2017.[158]

COVID-19 pandemic

On 19 March 2020, as the COVID-19 pandemic hit the United Kingdom, Elizabeth moved to Windsor Castle and sequestered there as a precaution.[159] Public engagements were cancelled and Windsor Castle followed a strict sanitary protocol nicknamed "HMS Bubble".[160]

File:A private audience with Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.jpg
In a virtual meeting with Dame Cindy Kiro during the COVID-19 pandemic, October 2021

On 5 April, in a televised broadcast watched by an estimated 24 million viewers in the UK,[161] she asked people to "take comfort that while we may have more still to endure, better days will return: we will be with our friends again; we will be with our families again; we will meet again."[162] On 8 May, the 75th anniversary of VE Day, in a television broadcast at 9 p.m.—the exact time at which her father George VI had broadcast to the nation on the same day in 1945—she asked people to "never give up, never despair".[163] In October, she visited the UK's Defence Science and Technology Laboratory in Wiltshire, her first public engagement since the start of the pandemic.[164] On 4 November, she appeared masked for the first time in public, during a private pilgrimage to the Tomb of the Unknown Warrior at Westminster Abbey, to mark the centenary of his burial.[165] In 2021, she received her first and second COVID-19 vaccinations in January and April respectively.[166][167]

Prince Philip died on 9 April 2021, after 73 years of marriage, making Elizabeth the first British monarch to reign as a widow or widower since Queen Victoria.[168][169] She was reportedly at her husband's bedside when he died,[170] and remarked in private that his death had "left a huge void".[171] Due to the COVID-19 restrictions in place in England at the time, Elizabeth sat alone at Philip's funeral service, which evoked sympathy from people around the world.[172][173] In her Christmas broadcast that year, she paid a personal tribute to her "beloved Philip", saying, "That mischievous, inquiring twinkle was as bright at the end as when I first set eyes on him".[174][175]

Despite the pandemic, Elizabeth attended the 2021 State Opening of Parliament in May,[176] and the 47th G7 summit in June.[177] On 5 July, the 73rd anniversary of the founding of the UK's National Health Service, she announced that the NHS will be awarded the George Cross to "recognise all NHS staff, past and present, across all disciplines and all four nations".[178] In October 2021, she began using a walking stick during public engagements for the first time since her operation in 2004.[179] Following an overnight stay in hospital on 20 October, her previously scheduled visits to Northern Ireland,[180] the COP26 summit in Glasgow,[181] and the 2021 National Service of Remembrance were cancelled on health grounds.[182]

Platinum Jubilee

File:Platinum Jubilee- A Corgi display (cropped).jpg
Drones forming a corgi above Buckingham Palace at the Platinum Party at the Palace on 4 June 2022

Elizabeth's Platinum Jubilee began on 6 February 2022, marking 70 years since she acceded to the throne on her father's death. On the eve of the date, she held a reception at Sandringham House for pensioners, local Women's Institute members and charity volunteers.[183] In her Accession Day message, Elizabeth renewed her commitment to a lifetime of public service, which she had originally made in 1947.[184]

Later that month, Elizabeth had "mild cold-like symptoms" and tested positive for COVID-19, along with some staff and family members.[185][186] She cancelled two virtual audiences on 22 February,[187] but held a phone conversation with British prime minister Boris Johnson the following day amid a crisis on the Russo-Ukrainian border,[lower-alpha 3][188] following which she made a donation to the Disasters Emergency Committee (DEC) Ukraine Humanitarian Appeal.[189] On 28 February, she was reported to have recovered and spent time with her family at Frogmore.[190] On 7 March, Elizabeth met Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau at Windsor Castle, in her first in-person engagement since her COVID diagnosis.[191] She later remarked that COVID infection "leave[s] one very tired and exhausted ... It's not a nice result".[192]

Elizabeth was present at the service of thanksgiving for Prince Philip at Westminster Abbey on 29 March,[193] but was unable to attend the annual Commonwealth Day service that month[194] or the Royal Maundy service in April.[195] She missed the State Opening of Parliament in May for the first time in 59 years. (She did not attend in 1959 and 1963 as she was pregnant with Prince Andrew and Prince Edward, respectively.)[196] In her absence, Parliament was opened by the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Cambridge as counsellors of state.[197]

During the Platinum Jubilee celebrations, Elizabeth was largely confined to balcony appearances, and missed the National Service of Thanksgiving.[198] For the Jubilee concert, she took part in a sketch with Paddington Bear, that opened the event outside Buckingham Palace.[199] [200] On 13 June 2022, she became the second-longest reigning monarch in history among those whose exact dates of reign are known, with 70 years, 127 days reigned—surpassing King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand.[201] On 6 September 2022, she appointed her 15th British prime minister, Liz Truss, at Balmoral Castle in Scotland, the first and only time she did not receive a new prime minister at Buckingham Palace during her reign.[202] No other British reign had seen so many prime ministers.[203]

Elizabeth never planned to abdicate,[204] though she took on fewer public engagements as she grew older and Prince Charles took on more of her duties.[205] In June 2022, she met with the Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, who "came away thinking there is someone who has no fear of death, has hope in the future, knows the rock on which she stands and that gives her strength."[206]

Notes

  1. ↑ Television coverage of the coronation was instrumental in boosting the medium's popularity; the number of television licences in the United Kingdom doubled to 3 million,[15] and many of the more than 20 million British viewers watched television for the first time in the homes of their friends or neighbours.[16] In North America, almost 100 million viewers watched recorded broadcasts.[17]
  2. ↑ The only previous state visit by a British monarch to Russia was made by King Edward VII in 1908. The King never stepped ashore, and met Nicholas II on royal yachts off the Baltic port of what is now Tallinn, Estonia.[93][94]
  3. ↑ Russia invaded Ukraine one day later.

References

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  2. ↑ Brandreth 2004, pp. 245–247; Lacey 2002, p. 166; Pimlott 2001, pp. 173–176; Shawcross, p. 16
  3. ↑ Bousfield & Toffoli 2002, p. 72; Bradford 2002, p. 166; Pimlott 2011, p. 179; Shawcross, p. 17
  4. ↑ Mitchell, James (2003), "Scotland: Cultural Base and Economic Catalysts", in Hollowell, Jonathan, Britain Since 1945, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 113, doi:10.1002/9780470758328.ch5, ISBN 978-0-631-20967-6
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  6. ↑ Pimlott 2001, pp. 186–187.
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  9. ↑ "No. 41948", The London Gazette (Supplement), 5 February 1960, p. 1003
  10. ↑ Brandreth 2004, pp. 269–271.
  11. ↑ Brandreth 2004, pp. 269–271; Lacey 2002, pp. 193–194; Pimlott 2001, pp. 201, 236–238
  12. ↑ Bond 2006, p. 22; Brandreth 2004, p. 271; Lacey 2002, p. 194; Pimlott 2011, p. 238; Shawcross, p. 146
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  174. ↑ "Queen's Christmas message pays tribute to 'beloved' Philip", BBC News, 25 December 2021, archived from the original on 20 February 2022, retrieved 8 September 2022 Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
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  178. ↑ "Queen gives George Cross to NHS for staff's 'courage and dedication'", BBC News, 5 July 2021, archived from the original on 7 April 2022, retrieved 5 July 2021 Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
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  181. ↑ Lee, Joseph (26 October 2021), "Queen will not attend COP26 climate change summit", BBC News, archived from the original on 1 February 2022, retrieved 8 September 2022 Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  182. ↑ Becky Morton (14 November 2021), "The Queen to miss Remembrance Sunday service", BBC News, archived from the original on 9 March 2022, retrieved 8 September 2022 Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
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  200. ↑ "Ma'amalade sandwich Your Majesty?". youtube. The Royal Family. 6 June 2022. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
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  202. ↑ Foster, Max; Said-Moorhouse, Lauren (31 August 2022). "Queen won't return to London to appoint new British PM, for first time in her reign". CNN. Archived from the original on 2 September 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2022. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  203. ↑ "Premiers League: No Other British Monarch Had More Prime Ministers" by Dominic Yeatman, Metro, 9 September 2022, p. 20
  204. ↑ Brandreth 2004, pp. 370–371; Marr 2011, p. 395
  205. ↑ Mansey, Kate; Leake, Jonathan; Hellen, Nicholas (19 January 2014), "Queen and Charles start to 'job-share'", The Sunday Times, archived from the original on 3 February 2014, retrieved 20 January 2014 Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help); Marr 2011, p. 395
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