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Effects of Brexit on science and technology

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki


The effects of Brexit on science and technology include prospective changes to current arrangements related to scientific research, development and innovation that are within the scope of the negotiation between the United Kingdom and the European Union prior to Britain's withdrawal from the European Union.

In March 2017, when Parliament debated and passed the European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Bill, the precise terms of Britain's disengagement were still unknown. The outlook was uncertain for patent protection of innovation and for the future funding of scientific research. Opinions differed on whether scientific research and development would be affected by a loss of mobility and international collaboration, or whether Britain's withdrawal from the European Union (EU) should be seen as an opportunity to expand scientific collaboration. In a Nature poll of almost 700 British scientists shortly before the referendum in March 2016, 78% of respondents expressed the view that loss of the current EU arrangements would have harmful effects on UK scientific research. [1]

Background[edit]

Notice of withdrawal, March 2017[edit]

In March 2017 Parliament passed a bill enabling the UK government to invoke Article 50 to begin negotiating the future arrangements which would have effect after withdrawal from the EU. The government's policy at that time was stated in a white paper, published in February 2017, The United Kingdom’s exit from and new partnership with the European Union,[2] that set out the government's negotiating policy as twelve guiding principles. One of the guiding principles mentioned explicitly remaining at the vanguard of science and innovation and seeking continued close collaboration with the UK's European partners. Other guiding principles mentioned in more general terms: controlling the number of EU nationals coming to the UK; securing the status of EU citizens who are already living in the UK, and that of UK nationals in other member states; protecting and enhancing existing workers’ rights; forging a new partnership with the EU, including a wide reaching free trade agreement, and seeking a mutually beneficial new customs agreement with the EU; and forging free trade relationships across the world.

From the beginning, policy requirements influencing or determining the withdrawal negotiation were expressed in the Preamble[3] and Articles[4] of the Treaty on European Union (TEU). Article 3 mentions the promotion of "scientific and technological advance" in a context governed by the Union's aims for an internal market, and a highly competitive social market economy. A policy requirement mentioned in the Preamble is promoting economic and social progress for the peoples of the EU member states, taking into account the principle of sustainable development and within the context of the accomplishment of the internal market and of reinforced cohesion and environmental protection.

Every citizen of an EU member state is guaranteed four fundamental freedoms by the body of European Union (EU) Law: freedom of movement of workers, goods (since the establishment of the single market in 1993), capital and services. In return for the right to participate in EU research programmes, Iceland, Norway and Switzerland, which are not EU member states, adhere to these four freedoms.[5][6]

Human resources in science and engineering[edit]

Percentage share of international doctoral students in science and engineering hosted by the UK in 2012. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 2.12

The UK has a reputation for scientific excellence. Over the period 2008-2014, the UK produced 15% of the world's most highly cited articles for a share of just 4% of the global research pool.[6]

About 32 000 non-British EU academics occupy 17% of UK university teaching and research posts.[7] In 2012, the UK hosted the second-largest contingent of international doctoral students in science and engineering (9% of the world total) after the USA (49% of the world total). Between 2008 and 2014, 56% of scientific articles published in the UK in internationally catalogued journals had at least one co-author who was based outside the country, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). The majority of these articles were co-authored by Americans (100,537), followed by German, French, Italian and Dutch scientists. These four European countries accounted for a total of 159,619 articles.[6]

Funding of research in science and engineering[edit]

Britain's overall research intensity, measured as a percentage of gross domestic product, is comparatively low: 1.63% of GDP in 2013, compared to the EU average of 2.02%. The UK's business enterprise sector performs two-thirds of the total. In 2015, Britain's scientific establishment expressed concern that 'UK investment in research was failing to keep pace with other leading nations and risks eroding the capacity to attract and retain the very best researchers from the UK and overseas'.[6][8]

Gross domestic expenditure on research and development performed by business enterprises in the UK as a share of GDP, 2005-2013. Other countries are given for comparison. Source of graphic: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 1.2, data from OECD

As an EU member state, the UK participates in the European Research Area. All EU members contribute to the budget for each seven-year framework programme for research and innovation, the most recent of these being Horizon 2020, adopted in 2014. British researchers receive EU funding through programmes like Horizon 2020. Access to this money will now be renegotiated with the EU.

Once it is no longer a member state, the UK will no longer be entitled to EU structural funds, which are increasingly being used to finance research-related infrastructure. The withdrawal from the EU may also incite some international firms to scale down their plans to invest in research and development in the UK.[6]

Over the period of the Seventh Framework Programme for Research and Development (2007–2013), the UK received €8.8 billion from the EU, according to a report by the Royal Society citing European Commission data, and Britain contributed €5.4 billion to this programme. In terms of funding awarded on a competitive basis, the UK was the second-largest recipient of the Seventh Framework Programme after Germany, securing €6.9 billion out of a total of €55.4 billion between 2007 and 2013.[9][10][11]

Grants by the European Research Council in 2013. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 9.7. Data taken from ERC's Annual Report on the ERC Activities and Achievements, 2014.

British universities are disproportionately successful at winning EU-awarded research grants.[12] For instance, in 2013, the UK received more competitive research grants (close to 1000) from the European Research Council (ERC) than any other EU country; 44% of these grants went to non-nationals based in the UK, the largest number of any EU country. Germany obtained just over 600 ERC grants.[6] [13]This has raised questions about how such funding would be affected by a Brexit.

On average, British universities relied on the EU for around 11% of their research income in 2014-2015. Two-thirds (66%) came from government sources, 4% from British businesses, 13% from British charities and 5% from sources beyond the EU.[14] The EU share can be much higher for the top research universities. For instance, in 2013, the University of Manchester successfully applied for £23 million from the European Regional Development Fund to create a National Graphene Institute. The UK's Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Unit provided a further £38 million.[15][16] The University of Manchester is participating in the two flagship projects selected for €1 billion in funding under Horizon 2020's Future and Emerging Technologies programme, namely the graphene project and the human brain project.[17] The chancellor of the University of Oxford, Chris Patten, said in July 2016 that the university received about 40% of its research income from government and that its 'research income will of course fall significantly after we have left the EU unless a Brexit government guarantees to cover the shortfall'.[18]

On 13 August 2016, Chancellor Philip Hammond promised that British businesses and universities would have certainty over future funding and advised them to continue bidding for competitive EU funds while the UK remained a member of the EU. He said that all structural and investment fund projects, including agri-environment schemes, signed before the Autumn Statement would be fully funded and that the UK would underwrite the payments for research project funding awarded by the EU to universities participating in Horizon 2020, even when specific projects continued beyond the UK’s departure from the EU.[19]

On 21 November 2016, Prime Minister Theresa May announced an increase in government investment in research and development worth £2 billion a year by 2020 and a new Industrial Strategy Challenge Fund to back priority technologies.[20]

On 23 February 2017, the Business Secretary announced a £229 million investment in research and development within the government's new industrial strategy, which is being developed in consultation with stakeholder groups. Of this investment, £126 million is to go towards the creation of 'the world-class' National Graphene Institute at the University of Manchester, graphene having been first isolated at this university in 2004, and £103 million to create a new centre of excellence for life and physical sciences at the Rosalind Franklin Institute in Oxford, which will foster ties between academia and industry.[21]

British participation in European institutions[edit]

Unified Patent Court[edit]

EU companies currently need to file for patent protection in all 28 member states. The unitary patent package adopted by 25 EU members in 2013 (all but Croatia, Italy and Spain) is expected to slash procedural fees and translation costs by 85%. The unitary patent package will only apply, however, once the Agreement on a Unified Patent Court enters into force.[6] As of 6 March 2017, 12 of the requisite 13 countries had ratified this agreement,[22] including Italy. Britain was not one of them.

British judges were heavily involved in developing the procedures for the Unified Patent Court. When it was decided that the Unified Patent Court would be split into three locations, Prime Minister David Cameron 'succeeded in making sure that one of them – which will rule on pharmaceuticals and life sciences – was in London'. The UK has developed a reputation as a key hub in this area and already hosts the European Medicines Agency.[23]

Normally, members of the new patent court must also be EU members. Even if the European Commission could be persuaded to ignore this requirement, the UK would have to remain a member of the European Court of Justice (ECJ). This is not because the patent court would be a conduit for EU law into Britain but because the patent court would occasionally have to refer to the ECJ on matters of European law when assessing patent cases, in order to know which definition to adopt.[23]

The government has said it plans to leave the European Court of Justice. Prime Minister Theresa May stated unequivocally at the Conservative Party Conference in October 2016 that 'we are not leaving [the EU] only to return to the jurisdiction of the European Court of Justice. That’s not going to happen'.[24]

Specialized European agencies[edit]

The European Medicines Agency, which licenses new drugs, is based in London. This is one of several European agencies which support EU Member States and their citizens. These agencies may be responsible for enforcing particular regulatory regimes, or for pooling knowledge and sharing information.[25] Examples are the European Chemicals Agency based in Finland, the European Aviation Safety Agency based in Germany, the European Space Agency based in France and the European Food Safety Authority based in Italy. There are also three European Supervisory Authorities which are responsible for oversight in the field of financial services. One of the three is based in London, the European Banking Authority.

In its Brexit white paper of February 2017, the British government stated that, 'as part of exit negotiations, the government will discuss with the EU and Member States our future status and arrangements with regard to these agencies'.[25]

According to a statement by the Secretary of Health, Jeremy Hunt, the UK will leave the European Medicines Agency because the agency is subject to the European Court of Justice. By early 2017, the following countries had expressed interest in hosting the agency: Austria, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Spain and Sweden.[26]

Euratom[edit]

The government stated in the Brexit white paper of February 2017 that invoking Article 50 to leave the EU would involve leaving the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) as well. Although Euratom is an independent body, it is governed by EU bodies such as the European Commission, the European Council of Ministers and European Court of Justice.[25]

Euratom’s flagship project is the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). The ITER project involves a consortium made up of China, the EU, India, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Russian Federation and United States of America. The project is building an experimental reactor in France that will be powered by nuclear fusion, a technology which produces few pollutants.

The EU is financing its 45% share of the ITER construction costs (€2.7 billion over the 2014-2020 period ) through the EU budget's Multiannual Financial Framework. 'During the forthcoming negotiations, the European Commission is expected to claim the UK’s share of this amount as a liability towards the EU'.[27]

Between 2014 and 2018, Euratom has a total research budget of €1.6 billion under the Horizon 2020 budget, of which about €728 million has been set aside for research on nuclear fusion.[28] Of this, €424 million has been earmarked for EUROfusion, a consortium of universities and national laboratories, primarily for ITER-related research. A further €283 million will go to the Culham Centre for Fusion Energy, the UK's national laboratory for fusion research.[27][29]The Culham Centre hosts the world's largest magnetic fusion experiment, Joint European Torus (JET), on behalf of its European partners. The JET facilities are used by about 350 European fusion scientists each year.[29] JET has an annual budget of about €69 million. Of this, 87.5% is provided by the European Commission and the remainder by the UK's  Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council within the Euratom Treaty.[29][27]

Research is not the only focus of Euratom. As stated in the government's Brexit white paper, 'the Euratom Treaty provides the legal framework for civil nuclear power generation and radioactive waste management for members of the Euratom Community, all of whom are EU Member States. This includes arrangements for nuclear safeguards, safety and the movement and trade of nuclear materials both between Euratom Members such as France and the UK, as well as between Euratom Members and third countries such as the USA'.[25] In 2016, about 21% of the UK's electricity came from nuclear power. The UK ranks second in the EU after France for the number of operational nuclear reactors (15).[27]

In its white paper, the government confirmed that ' the nuclear industry remains of key strategic importance to the UK and leaving Euratom does not affect our clear aim of seeking to maintain close and effective arrangements for civil nuclear cooperation, safeguards, safety and trade with Europe and our international partners. Furthermore, the UK is a world leader in nuclear research and development and there is no intention to reduce our ambition in this important area'.[25]

In the government's letter of 29 March 2017 notifying the European Council of the UK’s intention to withdraw from the EU, Prime Minister Theresa May also announced ‘the UK’s intention to withdraw from the European Atomic Energy Community’. 

Public comment up to March 2017[edit]

Future mobility and international scientific collaboration[edit]

Scientists in favour of staying in the EU have noted that membership allows researchers to move freely between member states and to work with no restrictions. A group of leading British scientists wrote a letter to the Times on 22 May 2015 stating that ‘it is not sufficiently known to the public that the EU is a boon to UK science and innovation. Freedom of movement for talent and ambitious EU science funding programmes, which support vital, complex international collaborations, put the UK in a world-leading position'. A Nature poll in March 2016 found that 83% of UK scientists were in favour of remaining in the EU.[1] Pro-remain scientists set up a website in 2015.[6]

Commenting in 2016, Kurt Deketelaere, secretary-general of the League of European Research Universities in Leuven, Belgium, whose purpose is to influence policy in Europe and to develop best practice through mutual exchange of experience, said that the potential loss of mobility and collaboration was worrying for scientists across Europe, as scientists wished 'to work with the best in their field'. However, for Angus Dalgleish, a cancer and HIV researcher at St George’s, University of London, who once stood for election as a member of the pro-Brexit UK Independence Party, universities already maintained successful collaborations with non-EU members, so opting out would have 'no negative impact on scientific collaboration whatsoever'.[12]

On 18 November 2016, the House of Commons Science and Technology Committee published a report in which it recommended that the Department for Exiting the European Union appoint a departmental Chief Scientific Adviser to 'help ensure that the impact on science and research of various models for Brexit, and the opportunities these provide, is understood and prioritised within the Department'. The Committee also recommended raising the UK's commitment to research to 3% of GDP, the target fixed by the European Union in the Lisbon Strategy in 2000 and reiterated in Europe 2020, 'to demonstrate a determination not only to negotiating [sic] a post-Brexit relationship with the EU that is good for science but also to secure opportunities for science collaboration with markets beyond Europe'.[30]

In a press release of 18 November 2016, Scientists for the EU welcomed the report's recommendations but regretted that it portrayed research collaborations beyond the EU as an opportunity of Brexit. 'EU membership has never restricted UK science collaborations outside the EU', the press release stated. 'Rather, EU membership has enhanced UK global outreach via its world-leading programme'. Commenting on the press release, Martin Yuille, Co-Director of the Centre for Integrated Genomic Medical Research in Manchester, said that 'Brexit will not enhance opportunities for collaboration beyond the EU because, as an EU Member State, we already benefit from the global collaboration framework developed over the decades by the EU. The EU has Science and Technology Agreements with 20 countries (including the major economies) and is preparing similar agreements with further countries and regional groupings (e.g. the whole of Africa and the Pacific Rim). The EU is developing a permanent structure of scientific and technological collaboration with 180 countries. All that will need to be replaced by a UK outside the EU'.[31]

Concerns over future funding of research[edit]

A July 2016 investigation by The Guardian suggested that some UK researchers were being discriminated against in funding and research projects after the referendum result. The newspaper reported that European partners were reluctant to employ British researchers due to uncertainties over funding. It cited a confidential survey of the UK's Russell Group universities, a group of 24 institutions renowned for research and academic excellence; in one case, 'an EU project officer recommended that a lead investigator drop all UK partners from a consortium because Britain's share of funding could not be guaranteed'.[18] The uncertainty over future funding for projects stands to harm research in other ways, the same survey suggests. A number of institutions that responded said some researchers were reluctant to carry on with bids for EU funds because of the financial unknowns, while others did not want to be the weak link in a consortium. One university said it had serious concerns about its ability to recruit research fellows for current projects.[18]

In February 2017, the ComUE (Consortium of universities and establishments) of the University of Paris Seine issued an invitation to British universities to apply for space on site post-Brexit. The idea for a Paris Seine International Campus on the outskirts of Paris dates back to 2013 but, in light of the UK's impending departure from the EU, ComUE decided to reserve facilities and services for British universities to enable them to develop high-level research and teaching activities on site.  Jean-Michel Blanquer, dean and president of Essec Business School, a member of ComUE, told the Times Higher Education Supplement that 'it would be a “win-win” situation for UK universities concerned about losing European funding opportunities and international students'.[32]

Concerns over future market access[edit]

After the British referendum in June 2016, Carlos Ghosn, Chief Executive Officer of Japanese vehicle manufacturer Nissan, expressed doubts about the company's future in the UK if the country left the single market. After receiving written assurances from the government, Ghosn confirmed in October 2016 that its Qashqai and X-Trail SUV ranges would be built at its Sunderland plant but added that the firm would want to 're-evaluate the situation' once the final Brexit deal was concluded.[33]

The Business Secretary told the House of Commons on 31 October 2016 that the government had assured Nissan that it would continue its longstanding programme of support for the competitiveness of the automotive sector, work with the automotive sector to ensure that more of the supply chain could locate to the UK and maintain a strong commitment to research and development into ultra-low emission vehicles. He also said that, in its negotiations to leave the EU, the government would ensure that trade between the UK and EU member states was 'free and unencumbered'.[33]

Britain's potential withdrawal from Unified Patent Court[edit]

Some British ministers have expressed concern at the potential loss of innovation and business interest in the UK, if Britain isn't part of the Unified Patent Court. Normally, members of the new patent court must be both EU members and members of the European Court of Justice.

Concern over future of European Medicines Agency[edit]

Professor Sir Michael Rawlins, chair of the Medicines and Health Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA), the UK body that would take over from the European Medicines Agency, told the House of Lords in January 2017 that 'one of the biggest worries' he had about setting up a stand-alone regulator in post-Brexit Britain was that the UK would be 'at the back of the queue' for new drugs. Professor Paul Workman, president of the UK Institute of Cancer Research, expressed similar concerns. Since pharmaceutical companies sought regulatory approval for new drugs in the biggest markets first, he said, these companies would only approach the UK after the European Union, United States of America and Japan. He estimated that this could mean a delay of two years in new drug breakthroughs becoming available to British patients.[26]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Cressey, Daniel (2016). "Scientists say 'no' to UK exit from Europe in Nature poll". Nature. 531 (559): 31 March. doi:10.1038/531559a. PMID 27029257.
  2. ↑ The United Kingdom’s exit from and new partnership with the European Union, Cm 9417 [1]
  3. ↑ TEU Consolidated version, Preamble
  4. ↑ TEU Consolidated version
  5. ↑ "Fact Sheets on the European Union: Free Movement of Workers". European Parliament at your Service. 3 April 2017.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Hollanders, Hugo; Kanerva, Minna. European Union: In: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (PDF). Paris: UNESCO. pp. 262, 268–269. ISBN 978-92-3-100129-1. Search this book on
  7. ↑ Henley, Jon; Kirchgaessner, Stephanie ; Oltermann, Philip (25 September 2016). "Brexit fears may see 15% of UK university staff leave, group warns". The Guardian. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  8. ↑ Royal Society; Academy of Medical Sciences; British Academy; Royal Academy of Engineering (2015). Building a Stronger Future: Research, Innovation and Growth. London: Royal Society. Search this book on
  9. ↑ Seventh FP7 Monitoring Report 2013. Brussels: European Commission. 2015. Search this book on
  10. ↑ Cohesion Policy Data. European Commission. 2015. Search this book on
  11. ↑ UK research and the European Union: the role of the EU in funding UK research (PDF). London: Royal Society. 2016. pp. Figure 4, p. 12. Search this book on
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Cressey, Daniel (2016). "Academics across Europe join 'Brexit' debate". Nature. 530 (7588): 15–15. doi:10.1038/530015a. PMID 26842034.
  13. ↑ European Research Council (2014). Annual Report on the ERC Activities and Achievements, 2013. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Search this book on
  14. ↑ University Funding Explained (PDF). London: UK Universities. July 2016. Search this book on
  15. ↑ National Graphene Institute. "The Home of Graphene: Investment in Graphene".
  16. ↑ "Huge Funding Boost for Graphene Institute". University of Manchester press release. 13 March 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
  17. ↑ "Manchester Leads the Way in 1 bn euro Research Projects". University of Manchester press release. 28 January 2013. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Sample, Ian (12 July 2016). "UK scientists dropped from EU projects because of post-Brexit funding fears". The Guardian.
  19. ↑ HM Treasury (13 August 2016). "Chancellor Philip Hammond guarantees EU funding beyond date UK leaves the EU". UK Government.
  20. ↑ May, Theresa (21 November 2016). "Transcript of speech delivered by Prime Minister Theresa May at CBI annual conference setting out her vision for UK business including a modern Industrial Strategy". UK Government. Retrieved 22 February 2017.
  21. ↑ Clark, Greg (23 February 2017). "£229 million of industrial strategy investment in science, research and innovation". Press release. UK Department for Business Energy and Industrial Strategy. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
  22. ↑ [2]
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Dunt, Ian (28 February 2017). "Patent law: Theresa May's new Brexit battlefield". Blog available at Politics.Co.Uk.
  24. ↑ May, Theresa (5 October 2016). "Prime Minister: the Good that Government can do". British Conservative Party.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 White Paper (2017). The United Kingdom's Exit from and New Relationship with the European Union (PDF). London: Her Majesty's Government. Search this book on
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Johnston, Ian (February 2017). "Brexit: People will die because of plans to set up UK-only drug regulator, cancer specialist warns". The Independent.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Nano, Enrico; Tagliapietra, Simone (21 February 2017). "Brexit goes nuclear: The consequences of leaving Euratom".
  28. ↑ UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (PDF). Paris: UNESCO. 2015. pp. 247, Table 9.8. ISBN 978-92-3-100129-1. Search this book on
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 "JET". Culham Centre for Fusion Energy. Retrieved 22 March 2017.
  30. ↑ House of Commons Science and Technology Committee (18 November 2016). "Leaving the EU: implications and opportunities for science and research" (PDF). Retrieved 6 March 2017.
  31. ↑ Press release (18 November 2016). "Scientists for EU respond to House of Commons Science and Technology Committee report: Leaving the EU: implications and opportunities for science and research". Scientists for the EU. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
  32. ↑ Elmes, John (16 February 2017). "Brexit: UK universities invited to set up in France". Times Higher Education Supplement. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Grice, Andrew; Watts, Joe (20 January 2017). "Brexit: Government didn't offer Nissan money to stay in UK". The Independent. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)

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