Science Diplomacy: Women Advancement

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Science Diplomacy uses technological, scientific, and academic advancements to allow cooperation between different countries. Science diplomacy, itself, is a broad term that encloses three related branches of science diplomacy: (1) Science in Diplomacy: the use of evidence-based science to advise on science-related foreign policy, (2) Diplomacy for Science: the use of diplomatic strategies to strengthen scientific collaborations, and (3) Science for Diplomacy: collaborative scientific efforts to fortify relationships between conflicting nations. These three branches help further delineate the intricacies with which science diplomacy can occur. However, these branches are not mutually exclusive and often found to be interdependent with one another. Throughout history, science diplomacy brings together scientists and politicians for collaboration on international issues and local issues alike. It fortifies the matrimony of two worlds, politics and science, bridging a means of communication between the two, thereby allowing the opportunity for us to shape the world.

Dorothy Hodgkin, the first British woman to win a Nobel Prize.

Women in Science & Diplomacy

Dorothy Hodgkin, born in Cairo, Egypt, in 1910 is known most for her novel breakthrough in the developments of X-ray crystallography, which allowed her to determine the structure of vitamin B12. The real life implications of this discovery was the usage of the vitamin against the extensive presence of pernicious anemia.  She also began taking X- ray photos of insulin in the late 1940s which eventually led to the determination of insulin's structure, almost 34 years later. This endeavor was made possible with the use of advanced techniques such as X-ray diffraction and high speed computing. However, this feat could not have been accomplished without the incredulous persistence Hodgkin displayed, stemming from her utter fascination with crystals. To put into further perspective, Hodgkin did not allow her scientific research to succumb to her illness, rheumatoid arthritis, a medical condition which made it exceedingly agonizing to handle the use of these fine grain crystals. This discovery only took as long as it did because Hodgkin was given the urgent task of determining the structure of penicillin in the midst of World War II. The determination of penicillin's structure accelerated its manufacture during the war.  These insurmountable feats established Hodgkin permanently in the space of science, with her receiving honorable accolades such as the Nobel Prize. However, her scientific achievements resonated beyond the scope of science as she hoped to utilize herself as a means of communication in the domain of scientific diplomacy.

Historically, science diplomacy began in the era after World War II, in regards to the issues of nuclear arms. Remarkably so, Hodgkin was at the forefront of the issue as she was one of the founding members of the Pugwash Organization. This organization curtailed a team of scientists who strived to establish a medium of communication for scientists alike on opposing sides of the Iron Curtain during the Cold War. In a meeting that set precedent for science and diplomacy, scientists such as Dr. Hodgkin and Zhou Peiyuan were placed at the forefront of the Pugwash organization in efforts to mediate dialogue with China amidst the tensions of the Cold War. As demonstrated in a letter from renowned chemist and peace activist, Linus Pauling, Hodgkin was recommended for the Lenin Peace Prize for her involvement in the nuclear arms race. He alluded to Hodgkin involvement in a nuclear disarmament demonstration years ago which reinforced her commitment to the cause. She then became president of the Pugwash organization which centered on the dismantlement of weapons of mass destruction, referring to their catastrophic abilities and rendering them as a dangerous means for nations to exhibit their power from. She sought to improve relations between the East nations such as China and the Western nations, during her residence as president of the organization. Additionally, she founded the International Union of Crystallography, which also cemented its organizations values in the importance of scientific international cooperation. Her efforts demonstrate the efficacy of science diplomacy as it makes possible the use of collaborative exchanges that delineate the salience of the issues at hand and how its impact showcases global outreach.

Katalin Kariko, born in Szolnok, Hungary in 1955, is a biochemist widely known for her contributions to RNA-derived mechanisms, which ultimately led to the development of the current Pfizer vaccination for COVID-19. Her RNA-focused research was based on her goal to develop protein therapy using mRNA and in her 40 years of research, this was accomplished. In addition to her research in RNA-derived therapies, while working together with Drew Weissman, co-founded the discovery that changing a nucleotide in mRNA silences the body's inflammatory response mRNA triggers when injected. However, this discovery came with many struggles and even after the discovery, the breakthrough did not receive much recognition. Then in 2013, Kariko began working for BioNTech Pharmaceuticals, where she is now the vice-president and overlooks all RNA-related biotherapy. Additionally, she and Weissman now hold the patent for the use of nucleotide altering RNA technologies. Prior to this success, however, Kariko's ideas were faced with a significant amount of academic rejection. After leaving Temple University, Kariko moved on to work for the School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, where she had hoped to realize her dreams of using mRNA-derived vaccines to manipulate cells into producing proteins capable of fighting the disease. During her decade at the University of Pennsylvania, Kariko's ideas were seen as radical and thus, each of her grant proposals to fund her mRNA research were consistently denied. Due to her lack of research grant contributions to the university, Kariko was demoted from her position as adjunct professor to regular professor in 1955. Academic rejection from the university did not deter Kariko from quitting her mRNA gene therapy research. She frequently joined different research labs at the university and depended on senior researchers to further her research with their funding, but to no avail. Finally, in 2012 Kariko collaborated with another scientist, Drew Weissman, to receive a patent for their mRNA advancements. In the next year, Kariko left the University of Pennsylvania to work at a German-immigrant founded pharmaceutical company - BioNTech, which partnered with Pfizer to create a vaccine that is now being used globally for COVID-19. Thanks to Kariko's mRNA nucleotide modification technique, Pfizer was able to produce a vaccine with about 95% efficacy that is now accessible in many different regions of the world such as North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. The vaccine developed by Kariko, and the research behind it, demonstrated the use of diplomatic strategies to strengthen scientific collaborations and pave the way for COVID-19 vaccine diplomacy.

Dr. Samia al Shouli is a member of the Arab-British Chamber of Commerce, with a Bachelor's in Medicine, three master's degrees, and an employee candidate for the World Health Organization. Dr. al Shouli had interests in representing women in her country as the first female science minister, which prompted her to complete two years of internal medicine residency at the King Khalid University Hospital in Saudi Arabia and then specialize in Immunopathology in the United Kingdom. She is considered the first Saudi Arabian woman to integrate medicine into science diplomacy and did so by simultaneously training in medicine and diplomacy, all while working in an immunopathology lab in the United Kingdom. Currently, Dr. al Shouli is using her background in immunopathology and diplomacy to introduce the field of Diagnostic Immunopathology in Saudi Arabia, which is a field that does not yet exist in the country. Her work to bridge Saudi Arabia and the United Kingdom through diagnostic immunopathology has awarded her recognition by the Saudi Cultural Bureau in the United Kingdom. She continues to advocate for the integration of medicine in diplomacy through her work and through her published article, “Science Diplomacy and International Policy: A Medical Perspective.”

Gender Disparities

Women scientists have significantly contributed to the advancement of science. Some of those who are distinguished have achieved a lot in various fields of science including physics, chemistry, computer science, astronomy, biology, and mathematics. Some of the great women scientists who have made world-changing discoveries include Marie Curie, Ada Lovelace, Chien-Shiung Wu, Katherine Johnson, Rosalind Franklin, Vera Rubin, Gladys West, and Flossie Wong-Staal, among others. However, women have always been disadvantaged in science because of their perceived inferior position in the male-dominated society. The achievements of these women scientists provide insights into the history of struggle and discrimination since some of are not get recognized for their works; instead, credit went to their male colleagues. The few women who joined male-dominated courses and employments had to deal with discrimination and harassment since societies perceived women less intelligent than men. Essentially, women have had to fight for their position in virtually everything, including advancing science.

Women were traditionally stay-at-home individuals, which meant very few of them had the opportunity to get a formal education in the past. Domestic duties were left to women to take care of children and families. This reduced the role of women in science and education. They had to forego formal education and employment in the place of domestic duties. In the past, men would be employed and work to provide for their families and households. As a result, education appeared of less importance to women, especially in the prestigious field of science. The gender biases and myths surrounding science discouraged women from pursuing courses and careers in the field. For example, the society regarded women as less smart than men; engineering careers were believed to be inherently masculine. The patriarchal structure of early societies promoted gender disparities by discouraging women from getting a formal education, especially those from low-income families. Most of the women who got formal education came from influential and wealthy families, which changed communities’ perceptions about the role of women.

According to Rossiter, the social and gender roles are given to women in early societies created hierarchical segregation, which left women in the least powerful and prestigious science field. This aspect is still observable today; the number of women participating at certain levels of the industry and academia significantly reduces as one goes higher up the hierarchy. Some of the few women who got formal education and started their science careers experienced discrimination and harassment at work. This explains the clustering of female employment in specific fields and sectors. In most cases, women were forced to seek employment in fields that were regarded as feminine or stay at home while men went to work. More so, women were forced to low-paying jobs, which is still evident today. Most career women are either schoolteachers, daycare workers, or nurses. Rossiter played a crucial role in providing insights into women's struggle in science, which reflects the widespread sexism and discrimination in the society and discourages women from pursuing careers in science.

In the past, women frequently experienced discrimination and harassment in their workplace, especially in male-dominated jobs such as mathematics, science, and engineering. History shows that women scientists were treated unfairly and not expected to match men's brilliance in science. This is a gender bias that Marie Curie broke as she became the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize- in fact, twice. However, the toxic environment and societal attitude towards women scientists such as Marie Curie in the late 19th through early 20th century highlights how women were looked down upon in society. For instance, Marie Curie was not allowed to speak, instead, Pierre gave the talk. During the late 19th century, women were only allowed to get elementary education. Higher education institutions in Europe did not open their doors to female students. The works of distinguished female scientists such as Chien-Shiung Wu and Rosalind Franklin were overlooked, and their male colleagues got credit for their discoveries.

Challenges of harassment and discrimination against women are still prevalent in the modern society, even though they are less. STEM courses comprise significantly large numbers of men who have greater chances of getting good employment in scientific jobs compared to women. This shows that despite the increase of women participating in scientific fields, the opportunities are limited for them. The main reason is that women are still perceived as a minority. There is a lot that needs to be done to augment the role of women in science to help advance humanity.

Women Advancement Through Education and Finance

Zonta International

Zonta International is a global organization that has several causes in focus. They advocate for gender equality, ending gender-based violence, ending child marriage, and expanding access to education for women worldwide. They aim to change the world to one in which women's rights are recognized and every women is given the opportunity to reach their fullest potential.

This is important to Science Diplomacy because if more women are given the chance to become educated there would be a lot more female representation in STEM. Zonta International holds General Consultative Status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council as well as Participatory Status with the Council of Europe. This allows for the voices of unrepresented individuals to be heard. They have improved women's health, provided better economic opportunities and prevented gender based violence in 66 countries. They have contributed more than $32 million US to international projects.

Zonta International offers different scholarships worldwide. One of them is the Amelia Earhart Fellowship, it was established in 1938 in honor of famed pilot and Zontian. The fellowship is awarded annually to 35 women pursuing PHD degrees in aerospace engineering and space sciences. They have helped 1,209 women representing 73 countries in becoming astronauts, aerospace engineers, astronomers, geologists and even Secretary of the US Air Force.

AWIS

       AWIS stands for Association for Women In Science. It is an organization that advocates for women advancement in science and gender equality. They believe that women scientist face barriers in their career and have fewer opportunities for advancement in leadership roles, publications of their discoveries, and recognition of their innovations.

Some of the key gaps that they have noticed in the STEM field are:

1. Even though women make up 50% of the US college educated workforce, only 28% represent the science field.
2. In US higher education system, only 1 out of 4 deans and department heads are women, and only 1 out of 20 are deans and department heads in the science department.
3. Women publish only 35% of science publications.
4. Women inventors receive 13% of US patents.

They are able to do this through advocacy by participating in weekly public policy meetings with science society leadership and partnership with the Societies Consortium on Sexual Harassment in STEM. They highlight the research and accomplishment of women in science through their member spotlight, social media, and monthly magazine. They offer scholarships and grants, networking opportunities, trainings, and have a career center with thousands of job opportunities. They have a research center that helps policy makers and employers understand the factors needed to provide gender equality for women in the workforce. Last but not least, they partner with organizations that focus on equality and advancement of women. This is important and ties in with science diplomacy, because the more opportunities that are given to women to pursue their scientific careers, the more they will want to give back to the community in widening the awareness and by contributing to socio economic problems through science and diplomacy.

Adriana Bankston is a scientist, advocate and mentor at the intersection of research, higher education, science policy, and workforce development. She is a member of AWIS and holds webinars on key strategic practices for those pursuing their science advocacy journey. Adriana is a Principal Legislative Analyst at the University of California Office of Federal Governmental Relations in Washington, DC. She has held various leadership roles in several different science diplomacy committees and has been a guest speaker at U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine and the AAAS Catalyzing Advocacy in Science and Engineering (CASE) workshop. Her work has appeared in numerous publications.

National Science Policy Network (NSPN)

National Science Policy Network is a non-profit organization representing early career science policy, advocacy and diplomacy groups. Their focus is on creating the next generation of scientist and engineers by providing trainings and sharing resources. Their leadership team is made of strong women that work in the science field. Here are a few of the women that help this organization strive.

Amanda Acosta-Ruiz is the Director of Membership and she is currently a PhD candidate at the Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences. She specializes in Cell Biology and Neurobiology research. She has a high interest in how science impacts society through innovation and policy.

Holly Mayton is the Director of Partnerships. She is currently serving as a AAAS Science & Technology Policy Fellow in the U.S, Department of State, sponsored by the American Institute of Physics. She is Interested in environmental engineering, food systems, and public policy.

Michaela Rikard is the Director of Finance. She is a PhD candidate in Biomedical Engineering at the University of Virginia. She has raised over $800,000 in funding in order to support a wide range of training programs, events, grants and scholarships for NSPN.

Caitlin Warlick-Short is the Director of Communication. She is a PhD candidate at the Wisconsin University of Wisconsin-Madison. She is focusing on the research of molecular mechanisms that regulate growth cone cytoskeletal dynamics and axon guidance during development. She is also very passionate about science and policy and improving the quality of science education, and helping shape science regulated legislation to improve the quality of life for everyone.

One of the programs that they offer is Science Diplomacy Exchange and Learning (SciDEAL). These programs are designed to connect scientists with science diplomacy institutions, including non-profit organizations, embassies, and consulates. Through this program scientists will learn about cooperating and developing resources for the well-being of the public. They have 4 programs that are available at the moment.

OSTA Washington - The Role of Scientist Networks in Science Diplomacy- In this program scientist will work with OSTA Washington to understand the role that scientists play in science diplomacy. They will conduct interviews, do surveys, and review outputs of scientists networks in order to create a report with all of the data.

DiploFoundation - Science Diplomacy and the U.N. Sustainable Development Goals- In this program they will focus on science diplomacy and how it relates to the U.N. SDGs. “In addition, the course will highlight the importance of evidence-based policy and ways in which the “world of science” and the “world of diplomacy” can be brought to work together more effectively.”

SIN USA - Developing Policy Recommendations to Increase LGBTQ+ Representation in STEM- Scientist will focus on evidence based policy recommendations to decrease attrition of LGBTQ+ communities in STEM. They will work with the consulate and embassy officials in order to develop recommendations.

SciDipGLOBAL - Science Diplomacy Virtual Fellowship- Scientists will have the opportunity to work with Dr. Gual Soler in all aspects of the work of SciDipGLOBAL. They will be doing various different functions, such as research and publication, education and training, market research, organizing seminars, and handling public and media relations.

Culture and Women in Science and Diplomacy

While globally there has been an overall increase in the proportion of women to men in Science and Diplomacy, there is still a gender gap in these disciplines. 85% of ambassadors around the world are male, while only 4 of the past 73 Presidents of the United Nations General Assembly have been women. However, there are a number of programs focused on closing this gap across many countries and cultures. Women diplomats are elevating the role of science in diplomacy, creating opportunity for future women with an interest in policy and science. The Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Science and the Kuwait Institute of Scientific Research has held conferences for women in science fields from Arab countries, who met with high ranking diplomats from many different nations, including Kuwait, France, and the United States. These important conversations of science in diplomacy from novel, unique perspectives are necessary for global advancement.The growth of programs dedicated to gender equality, and the continuous advancement and empowerment of women in science and diplomacy around the world is becoming a priority that can help bridge the gap of gender disparities. Science is a universal language that can foster relationships across cultures.

Although Latinx account for 17% of the U.S. population, the percentage of Latinx in a science discipline is 7%, meaning they are underrepresented. Latinas in particular experience the largest disparity, even though they are the quickest growing demographic among minority women. There is a disconnect between Latinas in science and diplomacy. María Margarita Gual Soler is a science diplomat from Mallorca. She has helped to improve relations between the U.S. and Cuba through her contributions to the science cooperation agreement. Dr. Soler, along with Science diplomat Dr. Mandë Holford, created the Latin American chapter of the World Association of Young Scientists in November 2013. They have also collaborated on the editorial “Twelve Months of COVID-19: Shaping the Next Era of Science Diplomacy” along with Dr. Tolullah Oni. Ellas Lideran, is an organization founded by Latina women that focuses on promoting diversity in science leadership for climate change. Initiatives such as these help bridge the gap and encourage involvement of Latinx in science and diplomacy.

The Middle East has high rates of women participation in science and is advancing in Science and Diplomacy. On December 3, 2020, the Women in Diplomacy Network held its first online event hosting women diplomats from across the Middle East to discuss fostering peace amongst its nations. Dr. Samia T Al-Shouli advocates for science in diplomacy and the need for more scientific diplomats as a way to solve global problems that affect everyone. Dr. Al-Shouli states that science diplomacy is a new field for Arab countries, which have concentrated on science and technology. The Middle East Women's Initiative encourages dialogue between women leaders and researchers of that region. The Academy of Science of South Africa (ASSAf) has a science diplomacy agenda that includes gender equality. Through partnership with GenderInSITE, ASSAf has strengthened scientific policy as it relates to gender equality in South Africa. Although these countries are making progress in advancing women in science and diplomacy it is still a relatively novel field.

References

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