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Violence against men

From EverybodyWiki Bios & Wiki


Part of a series on
Violence against men
Issues
Killing
Sexual assault and rape
Related topics
Part of a series on
Discrimination
Specific forms
 
Manifestations
Part of a series on
Masculism
Topics and issues
Topics
Issues

Violence against men is a term for violent acts that are disproportionately or exclusively committed against men or boys. Men are overrepresented as both victims[1][2] and perpetrators of violence.[3][4] Sexual violence against men is treated differently than that committed against women in most societies and is largely unrecognized by international law.[5][6][7][8]

Perceptions and aspects

Studies of social attitudes show violence is perceived as more or less serious depending on the gender of victim and perpetrator.[9][10] Reporting on violence accruing to men shows disparities, compared to violence against women people are about a third more likely to be reported by third parties to the police regardless of the gender of the attacker,[11] although the most likely to be reported gender combination was a male perpetrator and female victim.[11] Male law enforcment officers show a greater reluctance to file charges or reports when a man is the victim on domestic violence.[12] The use of stereotypes by law enforcement is a recognised issue,[13] and international law scholar Solange Mouthaan argues that, in conflict scenarios, sexual violence against men has been ignored in favor of a focus on sexual violence against women and children.[14] One explanation for this difference in focus is the physical power that men hold over women, making people more likely to condemn violence with this gender configuration.[15] The concept of male survivors of violence goes against social perceptions of the male gender role, leading to low recognition and few legal provisions.[16] Often there is no legal framework for a woman to be prosecuted when committing violent offenses against a man.[17]

Richard Felson challenges the assumption that violence against women is different from violence against men. The same motives play a role in almost all violence, regardless of gender: to gain control or retribution and to promote or defend self-image.[18]

Writing for Time, Cathy Young criticised the feminist movement for not doing enough to challenge double standards in the treatment of male victims of physical abuse and sexual assault.[19]

While women are more fearful of violent crime, men are at much higher risk of being victims of violent crime.[20][21][22] This phenomenon is termed by researchers as the "fear of crime gender paradox".[22][23][21][24]

Domestic violence

Main article: Domestic violence against men

In 2013, editor-in-chief of the journal Partner Abuse, John Hamel,[25] set up the Domestic Violence Research Group to create the "Partner Abuse State of Knowledge Project (PASK)".[26] PASK found parity in rates of both perpetration and victimisation for men and women.[27]

Men who are victims of domestic violence are at times reluctant to report it or to seek help. According to some commentators, there is also a paradigm that only males perpetrate domestic violence and are never victims.[28] Shamita Das Dasgupta and Erin Pizzey are among those who argue that, as with other forms of violence against men, intimate partner violence is generally less recognized in society when the victims are men.[29][30] Violence of women against men in relationships is often trivialized[3][31][32] due to women, on average, being physically weaker than men; in such cases, the use of dangerous objects and weapons is omitted.[3] Research since the 1990s has identified issues of perceived and actual bias when police are involved, with the male victim being negated even while injured.[33][34]

Female violence against men

According to the journalist Martin Daubney "...there remains a theory that men under report their experiences [of violence by women against men] due to a culture of masculine expectations."[35] The official figure in the United Kingdom, for example, is about 50% of the number of acts of violence by men against women, but there are indications that only about 10% of male victims of female violence report the incidents to the authorities, mainly due to taboos, fears of misunderstanding, and fears of not being believed or even ridiculed by authorities, created by a culture of masculine expectations.[36][37] For example, 1.9 million people aged 16–59 told the Crime Survey for England and Wales (year ending March 2017), that they were victims of domestic violence and 79% did not report their partner or ex-partner. Of the 1.9 million, approximately 1.2 million were female and 713,000 were male.[38] However, in a Canadian report, 22% more men than women reported being victims of violence in their current relationship.[36][39]

Sexual violence by women against men is often understudied or unrecognized.[40] With recent studies calling for addressing the harmful stereotypes and beliefs that surround the topic.[41]

Violence against LGBT+ men

Violence towards men can also be attributed to homosexuality. Due to cultural norms, religious beliefs, and toxic masculinity, men have been targeted for their sexual orientation.

In its December 2020 report, the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA) found that homosexuality is criminalized in 67 of 193 UN member states and one non-independent jurisdiction, the Cook Islands, while two UN member states, Iraq and Egypt, criminalize it de facto but not in legislation.[42] Afghanistan, Brunei, Iran, Iraq, Mauritania, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, United Arab of Emirates and Yemen still allow for the prescription of the death penalty if one engages in homosexual sexual activity.[43] In 2021, Téa Braun of the Human Dignity Trust estimated that more than 71 million LGBT people live in countries where homosexuality is criminalized.[44]

Anti-gay purges in the Chechen Republic, a predominantly Muslim region of Russia, have included forced disappearances—secret abductions, imprisonment, and torture—by local Chechen authorities targeting persons based on their perceived sexual orientation.[45] There have been reports of concentration camps being created to house those who have disappeared.[46] In February 2016 Hamas, which controls the Palestinian National Authority and rules Gaza, executed by firing squad Mahmoud Ishtiwi—one of the group's leading commanders—for homosexual activity. Report of vigilante executions, beatings, and torture have been reported in heavily Christian and Muslim regions of Africa, in countries such as Uganda, South Africa, Kenya, Liberia, Ghana, Cameroon, and Senegal.[47][48]

Violence towards gay men have also been present in sex-culture. In 2012, Jun Lin, a Chinese college student studying in Canada, was murdered by Luka Rocco Magnotta. The two had met on an anonymous Craigslist personals forum, with Magnotta seeking an individual to film a sex-tape with. In 2018, Blaze Bernstein was murdered after he went on a hookup from the gay hookup app, Grindr. Authorities determined that Bernstein was the victim of a hate crime. According to the Human Rights Campaign, 26 percent of gay men and 37 percent of bisexual men experience rape, physical violence, or stalking by an intimate partner, compared to 29 percent of straight men.[49] Additionally, 40 percent of gay men and 47 percent of bisexual men have experienced sexual violence other than rape, compared to 21 percent of straight men.[49]

Forced circumcision

Main articles: Forced circumcision and Ethics of circumcision

Non-therapeutic male circumcision is considered, by several groups, to be a form of violence against young men and boys.[50][51] Around the world, Jewish boys are circumcised at eight days old[52] and Muslim boys at a young age, typically 7.[53] In certain countries, such as Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, the Philippines, South Korea, Turkey and the United States, newborn baby males are routinely circumcised without the child's consent.[54][55] The International Criminal Court considers forced circumcision to be an "inhumane act".[50] With recorded instances of forced circumcision happening in areas of the Muslim world.[56]

Mass killings

Main article: Androcide
Serbian victims during insurgency in the Kosovo War
A 9-year-old Muslim boy whose hand was cut off by Greek soldiers during the Yalova Massacre.

In situations of structural violence that include war and genocide, men and boys are frequently singled out and killed.[57] The murder of targets by sex during the Kosovo War, estimates of civilian male victims of mass killings suggest that they made up more than 90% of all civilian casualties.[57]

Non-combatant men and boys have been and continue to be the most frequent targets of mass killing and genocidal slaughter, as well as a host of lesser atrocities and abuses.[58] Gendercide Watch, an independent human rights group, documents multiple gendercides which were committed against males (both adults and children): the Armenian genocide, 1915–17[59]—The Holocaust, 1933–45[60]—the Anfal campaign (Iraqi Kurdistan), 1988[61]—Rwanda, 1994.[62] Forced conscription can also be considered gender-based violence against men. Furthermore, examples may include the filtration camps set up by Russia in occupied areas during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[63][64]

Sexual violence

General

It was noted in 1990 that the English language is "bereft of terms and phrases which accurately describe male rape".[65] In 2012, a UNHCR report stated that "SGBV (sexual and gender based violence) against men and boys has generally been mentioned as a footnote in reports".[66]

According to the 2002 SAVI (Sexual Abuse and Violence in Ireland) Report, 9.7% of Irish men reported experiencing contact sexual assault as adults (when they were aged 17 or older); 0.9% of those involved penetrative sex. A further 2.7% reported unwanted non-contact sexual experiences. By comparison, 20.4% Irish women reported experiencing contact sexual assault as adults, 6.1% of which involved penetrative sex; a further 5.1% reported unwanted non-contact sexual experiences.[67]

According to the 2018 Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia report, the Australian police recorded 4,100 male victims of sexual violence in 2016, as opposed to 18,900 female victims that year (thus, male victims constituted 17.8% of all victims). For male victims experiencing sexual violence since the age of 15, 55% reported a female perpetrator while 51% reported a male perpetrator (some who experienced sexual violence multiple times were victimised by men and women); by comparison, 98% of female victims since age 15 reported a male perpetrator, while 4.2% reported a female perpetrator (also some overlap here).[68]

Wartime sexual violence

Wartime sexual violence committed by men against men is used as psychological warfare in order to demoralize the enemy.[69] The practice is ancient, and was recorded as taking place during the Crusades.[70] During periods of armed conflict men may be raped, sexually mutilated, sexually humiliated, forced incest, or even enslaved.[71][72] Castration in particular is used as a means of physical torture with strong psychological effects, namely the loss of the ability to procreate and the loss of the status of a full man.[70] In recent conflicts such as the Bosnian war and Kenya the most commonly reported act of seuxal violince was genital violence.[72][73] While sexual violence in all its forms is criminalized in international law, the culture of silence around sexual violence against men often leaves male victims with no support.[74]

In one study, less than 3% of organizations that address rape as a weapon of war, mention men or provide services to male victims.[6][8][75]

Military conscription and war

Main article: Conscription and sexism

Homicide

Homicide statistics according to the US Bureau of Justice Statistics[76]
Male offender/Male victim 65.3%
Male offender/Female victim 22.7%
Female offender/Male victim 9.6%
Female offender/Female victim 2.4%

In the U.S., crime statistics from the 1976 onwards show that men make up the majority (88%) of homicide perpetrators regardless if the victim is female or male. Men are also over-represented as victims in homicide involving both male and female offenders (74.9% of victims are male).[76] According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, women who kill men are most likely to kill acquaintances, spouses or boyfriends while men are more likely to kill strangers.[77] In many cases, women kill men due to being victims of intimate partner violence,[78] however this research was conducted on women on death row, a sample size of approximately 97 during the last 100 years.[79]

In Australia, men are also over-represented as victims,[80] with the Australian Institute of Criminology finding that men are 11.5 times more likely to be killed by a stranger than women.[22]

Police killings

In the United States, police killings are one of the leading causes of death for young men.[81] A study by Esposito, Lee, Edwards predicts that 1 in 2,000 men and 1 in 33,000 women die as a result of police use of deadly force.[81] The same study predicts the risk is highest for black men, as approximately 1 in 1,000 black men can expect to be killed by police.[81] Studies using recent data have found that Black, Hispanic, and Native American/Alaskan individuals are disproportionately stopped by police and killed in encounters.[82][83][84][85][86]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Felson, Richard (2002). "Abstract". Violence & gender reexamined. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ISBN 9781557988959. Search this book on
  2. ↑ "What is gendercide?". gendercide.org. Gendercide Watch. Archived from the original on 4 March 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Young, Cathy (June 25, 2014). "The surprising truth about women and violence". TIME. Retrieved February 24, 2015.
  4. ↑ Woolf, N. Quentin (9 April 2014). "Our attitude to violence against men is out of date". The Telegraph. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  5. ↑ Lewis, Dustin (2009). "Unrecognized victims: sexual violence against men in conflict settings under international law". Wisconsin International Law Journal. University of Wisconsin Law School. 27 (1): 1–49. SSRN 1404574. Pdf.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 DelZotto, Augusta; Jones, Adam (March 2002). Male-on-male sexual violence in wartime: human rights' last taboo?. Paper presented to the Annual Convention of the International Studies Association (ISA). New Orleans, LA. pp. 23–27. Archived from the original on 1 June 2013. Retrieved 2 March 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ United Nations Population Fund (2002). Impact of armed conflict on women and girls. p. 64. Search this book on
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Stemple, Lara (February 2009). "Male rape and human rights". Hastings Law Journal. Hastings College of the Law. 60 (3): 605–647. Pdf.
  9. ↑ Golden, Tom. "Male Bashing in Mental Health Research" (PDF). Men Are Good. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 March 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  10. ↑ Feather, Norm T. (October 1996). "Domestic violence, gender, and perceptions of justice". Sex Roles. Springer. 35 (7–8): 507–519. doi:10.1007/BF01544134. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Felson, Richard B.; Feld, Scott L. (November–December 2009). "When a man hits a woman: moral evaluations and reporting violence to the police". Aggressive Behavior. Wiley. 35 (6): 477–488. doi:10.1002/ab.20323. PMID 19746441.
  12. ↑ Fagerlund, Monica (2021-01-15). "Gender and police response to domestic violence". Police Practice and Research. 22 (1): 90–108. doi:10.1080/15614263.2020.1749622. hdl:10138/334923. ISSN 1561-4263. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  13. ↑ Brown, Grant A. (June 2004). "Gender as a factor in the response of the law-enforcement system to violence against partners". Sexuality and Culture. Springer. 8 (3–4): 3–139. doi:10.1007/s12119-004-1000-7. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  14. ↑ Mouthaan, Solange (2013). "Sexual violence against men and international law – criminalising the unmentionable". International Criminal Law Review. Brill. 13 (3): 665–695. doi:10.1163/15718123-01303004.
  15. ↑ Hamby, Sherry; Jackson, Amy (September 2010). "Size does matter: the effects of gender on perceptions of dating violence". Sex Roles. Springer. 63 (5–6): 324–331. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9816-0. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  16. ↑ Onyango, Monica Adhiambo; Hampanda, Karen (2011). "Social constructions of masculinity and male survivors of wartime sexual violence: an analytical review". International Journal of Sexual Health. Taylor and Francis. 23 (4): 237–247. doi:10.1080/19317611.2011.608415. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  17. ↑ S., Sowmya (July 22, 2015). "Sexual assault on men: crime that is a reality". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on July 22, 2015. Retrieved August 14, 2015. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  18. ↑ Robinson, Gail Erlick (September 2003). "Violence and gender reexamined". American Journal of Psychiatry. American Psychiatric Association. 160 (9): 1711–1712. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.9.1711.
  19. ↑ Young, Cathy (September 26, 2014). "Sorry, Emma Watson, but HeForShe is rotten for men". TIME. Retrieved August 14, 2015.
  20. ↑ Lane, Jodi; Fisher, Bonnie S. (2009). "Unpacking the Relationship Between Gender and Fear of Crime". Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice. 25 (3): 260–263. doi:10.1177/1043986209334986. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Most predators lurk in plain sight, not at dark streets corners".
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 "Myth Busting: The true picture of gendered violence".
  23. ↑ "Fear of crime".
  24. ↑ https://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/file/76e8f54a-7ee2-4a73-85af-3e5e9d1ee6c5/1/michelle_noon_thesis.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  25. ↑ John, Hamel (ed.). "Partner abuse new directions in research, intervention, and policy". Partner Abuse. Springer. ISSN 1946-6560.
  26. ↑ "About PASK, the Partner Abuse State of Knowledge Project". domesticviolenceresearch.org. DV Research.
  27. ↑ Salem, Dara (May 21, 2013). "Unprecedented domestic violence study affirms need to recognize male victims" (Press release). Springer. PRWEB.
  28. ↑ Woods, Michael (October 19, 2007). "The rhetoric and reality of men and violence" (PDF). Men's Health Australia. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 21, 2015. Retrieved December 31, 2016. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  29. ↑ Das Dasgupta, Shamita (November 2002). "A framework for understanding women's use of nonlethal violence in intimate heterosexual relationships". Violence Against Women. Sage. 8 (11): 1364–1389. doi:10.1177/107780102237408. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  30. ↑ Pizzey, Erin (2011). This way to the revolution: a memoir. London Chicago: Peter Owen. p. 114. ISBN 9780720615210. Search this book on
  31. ↑ Schlesinger Buzawa, Eva; Buzawa, Carl G. (2003), "Factors affecting police response", in Schlesinger Buzawa, Eva; Buzawa, Carl G., eds. (2003). Domestic violence: the criminal justice response (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-7619-2448-7. Search this book on
    Citing both:
    and more recent contradictory research:
    • Buzawa, Eve S.; Hotaling, Gerald T. (2000). The police response to domestic violence calls for assistance in three Massachusetts towns: Final report. Washington, D.C.: National Institute for Justice. Search this book on
  32. ↑ Dutton, Donald G. (2011), "The domestic assault of men", in Dutton, Donald G., ed. (2011-01-01). Rethinking domestic violence. Vancouver: UBC Press. p. 148. ISBN 9780774859875. Search this book on
  33. ↑ Buzawa, Eve S.; Austin, Thomas (May 1993). "Determining police response to domestic violence victims: the role of victim preference". American Behavioral Scientist. Sage. 36 (5): 610–623. doi:10.1177/0002764293036005006. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  34. ↑ Bates, Elizabeth A.; Kaye, Linda K.; Pennington, Charlotte R.; Hamlin, Iain (2019-07-18). "What about the Male Victims? Exploring the Impact of Gender Stereotyping on Implicit Attitudes and Behavioural Intentions Associated with Intimate Partner Violence". Sex Roles. 81 (1–2): 1–15. doi:10.1007/s11199-018-0949-x. ISSN 0360-0025. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  35. ↑ Daubney, Martin (15 March 2016). "Why female violence against men is society's last great taboo". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2 December 2016.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Daubney, Martin (15 March 2016). "Why female violence against men is society's last great taboo". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2 December 2016.
    • 1) "...more women than men suffer domestic abuse in Britain (4.5m women versus 2.2m men over the age of 16, according to the ONS [Office for National Statistics])."
    • 2) "...men are more likely to suffer spousal violence, with 342,000 women and 418,000 men suffering abuse in the preceding five years to 2014."
  37. ↑ Bates, Elizabeth A. (2020). ""No one would ever believe me": An exploration of the impact of intimate partner violence victimization on men". Psychology of Men & Masculinities. 21 (4): 497–507. doi:10.1037/men0000206. ISSN 1939-151X. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  38. ↑ ONS (2017). "Domestic abuse in England and Wales: year ending March 2017". Crime Survey for England and Wales, Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 5 December 2017.
  39. ↑ "Table 1.2 Victims of self-reported spousal violence within the past 5 years, by sex, 2004, 2009 and 2014". Statistics Canada. 21 January 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
  40. ↑ Friedersdorf, Conor (November 28, 2016). "The understudied female sexual predator". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2 December 2016.
    Citing:
  41. ↑ Bates, Elizabeth A.; Weare, Siobhan (2020). "Sexual Violence as a Form of Abuse in Men's Experiences of Female-Perpetrated Intimate Partner Violence". Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice. 36 (4): 582–595. doi:10.1177/1043986220936115. ISSN 1043-9862. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  42. ↑ "ILGA World updates State-Sponsored Homophobia report: "There's progress in times of uncertainty"". ILGA. 2020-12-15. Retrieved 2022-04-21.
  43. ↑ Avenue, Human Rights Watch | 350 Fifth; York, 34th Floor | New; t 1.212.290.4700, NY 10118-3299 USA |. "Country Profiles: Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 2022-04-21.
  44. ↑ "Map of Countries that Criminalise LGBT People | Human Dignity Trust". www.humandignitytrust.org. Retrieved 2022-04-21.
  45. ↑ "Anti-gay purges in Chechnya", Wikipedia, 2022-03-19, retrieved 2022-04-21
  46. ↑ "Russia: New Anti-Gay Crackdown in Chechnya". Human Rights Watch. 2019-05-08. Retrieved 2022-04-21.
  47. ↑ "Hamas executed a prominent commander after accusations of gay sex". Newsweek. 2016-03-02. Retrieved 2022-04-21.
  48. ↑ "Capital punishment for homosexuality", Wikipedia, 2022-03-14, retrieved 2022-04-21
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "Sexual Assault and the LGBTQ Community". Human Rights Campaign. Retrieved 2022-04-21.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Staff writer (24 April 2011). "Plea to ICC over forced male circumcision". Irin Analysis. Retrieved 3 July 2016.
  51. ↑ Other groups:
  52. ↑ Glass, J.M. (January 1999). "Religious circumcision: a Jewish view". BJU International. Wiley. 83 (S1): 17–21. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.0830s1017.x. PMID 10349410. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  53. ↑ "BBC - Religions - Islam: Circumcision of boys".
  54. ↑ UNAIDS; WHO (2010). Neonatal and child male circumcision: a global review (PDF). Geneva: UNAIDS and WHO. ISBN 9789291738557. Search this book on
  55. ↑ UNAIDS; WHO (2007). Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability (PDF). Geneva: UNAIDS and WHO. ISBN 9789241596169. Search this book on
  56. ↑ Murdoch, Lindsay (January 27, 2001). "Terror attacks in the name of religion". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
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  58. ↑ HSR (2005), "Assault on the vulnerable", in HSR (ed.). Human security report 2005: war and peace in the 21st century. New York Oxford: Published for the Human Security Center, University if British Columbia, Canada by Oxford University Press. p. 111. ISBN 9780195307399. Search this book on Citing Jones (2000), "Gendercide and genocide" p. 186.
  59. ↑ "Case Study: The Armenian Genocide, 1915–17". gendercide.org. Gendercide Watch. Archived from the original on 2015-06-29. Retrieved 2020-02-03. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  60. ↑ "The Jewish Holocaust, 1933-1945". Gendercide. Retrieved 16 April 2022.
  61. ↑ "Case Study: The Anfal Campaign (Iraqi Kurdistan), 1988". gendercide.org. Gendercide Watch. Archived from the original on 2015-05-13. Retrieved 2020-02-03. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  62. ↑ "Case Study: Genocide in Rwanda, 1994". gendercide.org. Gendercide Watch. Archived from the original on 2015-06-29. Retrieved 2020-02-03. Unknown parameter |url-status= ignored (help)
  63. ↑ Carpenter, R. Charli (March 2006). "Recognizing gender-based violence against civilian men and boys in conflict situations". Security Dialogue. Sage. 37 (1): 83–103. doi:10.1177/0967010606064139. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  64. ↑ "Russian troops in Mariupol to ban all movement in the city in preparation for "filtration" and mobilisation operation". Ukrayinska Pravda. Retrieved 16 April 2022.
  65. ↑ McMullen, Richie (1990), "The consequences of male rape", in McMullen, Richie, ed. (September 1990). Male rape: breaking the silence on the last taboo. London: Gay Men's Press (GMP). p. 83. ISBN 9780854491261. Search this book on
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  67. ↑ Hannah McGee, Rebecca Garavan, Mairéad de Barra, Joanne Byrne and Ronán Conroy (2002). "The SAVI (Sexual Abuse and Violence in Ireland) Report" (PDF). The Liffey Press & Dublin Rape Crisis Centre. Retrieved 11 June 2020.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
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  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Sivakumaran, Sandesh (April 2007). "Sexual violence against men in armed conflict". European Journal of International Law. Oxford Journals. 18 (2): 253–276. doi:10.1093/ejil/chm013.
  71. ↑ Eichert, David (2019). "'Homosexualization' Revisited: An Audience-Focused Theorization of Wartime Male Sexual Violence". International Feminist Journal of Politics. 21 (3): 409–433. doi:10.1080/14616742.2018.1522264. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Touquet, Heleen; Chynoweth, Sarah; Martin, Sarah; Reis, Chen; Myrttinen, Henri; Schulz, Philipp; Turner, Lewis; Duriesmith, David (2020-09-01). "From 'It Rarely Happens' to 'It's Worse for Men': Dispelling Misconceptions about Sexual Violence against Men and Boys in Conflict and Displacement". Journal of Humanitarian Affairs. 2 (3): 25–34. doi:10.7227/JHA.049. ISSN 2515-6411. Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  73. ↑ ""We Have a Broken Heart": Sexual Violence against Refugees in Nairobi and Mombasa, Kenya". Women's Refugee Commission. Retrieved 2022-08-26.
  74. ↑ Staff writer (13 October 2011). "HEALTH: Rape as a "weapon of war" against men". Irin News. Cape Town. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
  75. ↑ Rauhala, Emily (August 3, 2011). "Rape as a weapon of war: men suffer, too". TIME. Retrieved August 3, 2011.
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 "Homicide trends in the United States" (PDF). Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  77. ↑ Greenfeld, Lawrence A.; Snell, Tracy L. (December 1999). "Bureau of Justice Statistics – Special Report – Women Offenders" (PDF). Bureau of Justice Statistics. p. 14. Retrieved 6 March 2015.
  78. ↑ Farr, Kathryn Ann (July 1997). "Aggravating and differentiating factors in the cases of white and minority women on death row". Crime & Delinquency. Sage. 43 (3): 260–278. doi:10.1177/0011128797043003002. They [women on death row] typically kill people they know, primarily men - most often husbands or lovers in domestic encounters (Mann 1996; Campbell 1993; Silverman et al. 1993; Weisheit 1993; Browne 1987; Goetting 1987; Wilbanks 1983). ... Many female murderers have killed husbands or boyfriends who battered them repeatedly (Gillespie 1989; Browne 1987). Unknown parameter |s2cid= ignored (help)
  79. ↑ "Women and the death penalty: facts and figures". deathpenaltyinfo.org. Death Penalty Information Center.
  80. ↑ "Men are killed at a greater rate than women in Australia – what can we do to reduce their risk?".
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 81.2 Esposito, Michael; Lee, Hedwig; Edwards, Frank (2019-07-31). "Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (34): 16793–16798. doi:10.1073/pnas.1821204116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6708348 Check |pmc= value (help). PMID 31383756.
  82. ↑ "The Counted: people killed by the police in the US". The Guardian. Retrieved October 21, 2016.
  83. ↑ Ross, Cody T.; Hills, Peter James (November 5, 2015). "A Multi-Level Bayesian Analysis of Racial Bias in Police Shootings at the County-Level in the United States, 2011–2014". PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0141854. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1041854R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0141854. PMC 4634878. PMID 26540108.
  84. ↑ Jason Hanna and Madison Park (13 January 2017). "Chicago police use excessive force, DOJ finds". CNN. Retrieved 2017-01-13.
  85. ↑ Ross, Cody T.; Winterhalder, Bruce; McElreath, Richard (2020-06-18). "Racial Disparities in Police Use of Deadly Force Against Unarmed Individuals Persist After Appropriately Benchmarking Shooting Data on Violent Crime Rates". Social Psychological and Personality Science. 12 (3): 323–332. doi:10.1177/1948550620916071. ISSN 1948-5506.
  86. ↑ Knox, Dean; Lowe, Will; Mummolo, Jonathan (2020). "Administrative Records Mask Racially Biased Policing". American Political Science Review. 114 (3): 619–637. doi:10.1017/S0003055420000039. ISSN 0003-0554.


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